Increased group dispersion after exposure to one deviant group member: Testing Hamburger's model of member-to-group generalization

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Volumn 40, Issue 5, 2004, Pages 569-585

  Paolini, Stefania ^a   Hewstone, Miles ^b   Rubin, Mark ^a   Pay, Helen ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEWCASTLE   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

^c CARDIFF UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Generalization; Group perception; Group variability; Stereotype change; Stereotype deviance

Indexed keywords

EID: 10644227503     PISSN: 00221031     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2003.10.004     Document Type: Article

References (80)

1. Ashmore, R. D., & Del Boca, F. K. (1981). Conceptual approaches to stereotypes and stereotyping. In D. L. Hamilton (Ed.), Cognitive processes in stereotyping and intergroup behavior (pp. 1-35). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
2. Batson, C. D., Polycarpou, P., Harmon-Jones, E., Imhoff, H. J., Mitchener, E. C., Bednar, L. L., Klein, T. R., & Highberger, L. (1997). Empathy and attitudes: Can feelings for a member of a stigmatised group improve feelings toward the group? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 105-118.
3. Bigler, R. S., & Liben, L. S. (1993). A cognitive-developmental approach to racial stereotyping and reconstructive memory in Euro-American children. Child Development, 64, 1507-1518.
4. Bodenhausen, G. V., Schwarz, N., Bless, H., & Wanke, M. (1995). Effects of atypical exemplars on racial beliefs: Enlightened racism or generalized appraisal. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 31, 48-63.
5. Brewer, M. B., & Miller, N. (1984). Beyond the contact hypothesis: Theoretical perspectives on desegregation. In N. Miller & M. Brewer (Eds.), Groups in contact: The psychology of desegregation (pp. 281-302). New York, NY: Academic Press.
6. Brewer, M. B., & Miller, N. (1988). Contact and cooperation: When do they work. In P. Katz & D. Taylor (Eds.), Eliminating racism: Profiles in controversy (pp. 315-326). New York, NY: Plenum Press.
7. Brittain, V. (1998, April 21). Scourge of apartheid dies. The Guardian, p. A14.
8. Campbell, D. T. (1958). Common fate, similarity, and other indices of the status of aggregates of persons as social entities. Behavioral Science, 3, 14-25.
9. Corrections and clarifications. (1998, April 22). The Guardian, p. A8.
10. Desforges, D. M., Lord, C. G., Pugh, M. A., Sia, T. L., Scarberry, N.C., & Ratcliff, C. D. (1997). Role of group representativeness in the generalization part of the contact hypothesis. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 19, 183-204.
11. Desforges, D. M., Lord, C. G., Ramsey, S. L., Mason, J. A., Van Leeuwen, M. D., West, S. C., & Lepper, M. R. (1991). Effects of structured cooperative contact on changing negative attitudes towards stigmatized social groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 105-118.
12. Dijksterhuis, A., & van Knippenberg, A. (1996). Trait implications as a moderator of recall of stereotype-consistent and stereotype-inconsistent behaviors. Personality and Social Psychological Bulletin, 22, 425-432.
13. Doosje, B., Haslam, S. A., Spears, R., Oakes, P. J., & Koomen, W. (1998). The effect of comparative context on stereotypicality and dispersion judgments and the evaluation of group characteristics. European Journal of Social Psychology, 28, 173-184.
14. Doosje, B., Spears, R., Ellemers, N., & Koomen, W. (1999). Perceived dispersion in intergroup relations: The distinctive role of social identity. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology (Vol. 10, pp. 40-74). Chichester, England: Wiley.
15. Edwards, K. (1990). The interplay of affect and cognition in attitude formation and change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 202-216.
16. Edwards, K., & von Hippel, W. (1995). Hearts and minds: The priority of affective versus cognitive factors in person judgment. Personality and Social Psychological Bulletin, 21, 996-1011.
17. Fabrigar, L. R., & Petty, R. E. (1999). The role of affective and cognitive bases of attitudes in susceptibility to affectively and cognitively based persuasion. Personality and Social Psychological Bulletin, 25, 363-381.
18. Fiske, S. T., & Neuberg, S. L. (1990). A continuum model of impression formation from category-based to individuating responses: Influence of information and motivation on attention and interpretation. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 23, pp. 1-74). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
19. Ford, T. E., & Stangor, C. (1992). The role of diagnosticity in stereotype formation: Perceiving group means and variances. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 356-367.
20. Garcia-Marques, L., & Mackie, D. M. (1999). The impact of stereotype incongruent information on perceived group dispersion and stereotype change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 979-990.
21. Gurwitz, S. B., & Dodge, K. A. (1977). Effects of confirmations and disconfirmations on stereotype-based attributions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 495-500.
22. Haddock, G., Zanna, M. P., & Esses, V. M. (1993). Assessing the structure of prejudicial attitudes: The case of attitudes toward homosexuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1105-1118.
23. Hamburger, Y. (1994). The contact hypothesis reconsidered: Effects of the atypical outgroup member on the outgroup stereotype. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 15, 339-358.
24. Hamilton, D. L., & Sherman, S. J. (1996). Perceiving persons and groups. Psychological Review, 2, 336-355.
25. Hamilton, D. L., Sherman, S. J., & Lickel, B. (1998). Perceiving social groups: The importance of the entitativity continuum. In C. Sedikides, J. Schopler, & C. A. Insko (Eds.), Intergroup cognition and intergroup behavior (pp. 47-74). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
26. Haslam, S. A., Oakes, P. J., Turner, J. C., & McGarty, C. (1995). Social categorization and group homogeneity: Changes in the perceived applicability of stereotype content as a function of comparative context and trait favourableness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 34, 139-160.
27. Haslam, S. A., Oakes, P. J., Turner, J. C., & McGarty, C. (1996). Social identity, self categorization, and the perceived homogeneity of ingroups and outgroups: The interaction between social motivation and cognition. In R. M. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition (Vol. 3, pp. 182-222). New York: Guilford Press.
28. Hewstone, M. (1994). Revision and change of stereotypic beliefs. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology (Vol. 5, pp. 69-109). Chichester, England: Wiley.
29. Hewstone, M. (1996). Contact and categorization: Social psychological interventions to change intergroup relations. In C. N. Macrae, C. Stangor, & M. Hewstone (Eds.), Stereotypes and stereotyping (pp. 323-368). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
30. Hewstone, M., & Brown, R. (1986). Contact is not enough: An intergroup perspective on the 'contact hypothesis'. In M. Hewstone & R. Brown (Eds.), Contact and conflict in intergroup encounters (pp. 1-44). Oxford, England: Blackwell.
31. Hewstone, M., & Hamberger, J. (2000). Perceived dispersion and stereotype change. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 103-124.
32. Hewstone, M., Johnston, L., & Aird, P. (1992). Cognitive models of stereotype change (2): Judgments of homogeneous and heterogeneous groups. European Journal of Social Psychology, 22, 235-249.
33. Islam, M. R., & Hewstone, M. (1993). Dimensions of contact as predictors of intergroup anxiety, perceived outgroup dispersion, and outgroup attitude: An integrative model. Personality and Social Psychological Bulletin, 19, 700-710.
34. Jackson, L. A., & Sullivan, L. A. (1988). Age stereotype- disconfirming information and evaluations of old people. Journal of Social Psychology, 128, 721-729.
35. Johnston, L., Bristow, M., & Love, N. (2000). An investigation of the link between attributional judgments and stereotype-based judgments. European Journal of Social Psychology, 30, 551-568.
36. Johnston, L., & Hewstone, M. (1992). Cognitive models of stereotype change (3): Subtyping and the perceived typicality of disconfirming group members. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 28, 360-386.
37. Jones, E. E., Wood, G. C., & Quattrone, G. A. (1981). Perceived dispersion of personal characteristics in ingroups and outgroups: The role of knowledge and evaluation. Personality and Social Psychological Bulletin, 7, 523-528.
38. Kraus, S., Ryan, C. S., Judd, C. M., Hastie, R., & Park, B. (1993). Use of mental frequency distributions to represent dispersion among members of social categories. Social Cognition, 11, 22-43.
39. Kunda, Z., & Oleson, K. (1995). Maintaining stereotypes in the face of disconfirmation: Constructing grounds for subtyping deviants. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 565-579.
40. Kunda, Z., & Oleson, K. (1997). When exceptions prove the rule: How extremity of deviance determines the impact of deviant examples on stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 965-979.
41. Levy, S. R. (1999). Reducing prejudice: Lessons from social-cognitive factors underlying perceiver differences in prejudice. Journal of Social Issues, 55, 745-765.
42. Leyens, J. P., Yzerbyt, V. Y., & Schadron, G. (1992). The social judgeability approach to stereotypes. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 91-120). Chichester, England: Wiley.
43. Linville, P. W. (1982). The complexity-extremity effect and age-based stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 193-211.
44. Linville, P. W., Brewer, M. B., & Mackie, D. M. (1998). The heterogeneity of homogeneity. In J. M. Darley & J. Cooper (Eds.), Attribution and social interaction: The legacy of Edward E Jones (pp. 423-487). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
45. Linville, P. W., Fischer, G. W., & Salovey, P. (1989). Perceived distributions of characteristics of ingroup and outgroup members: Empirical evidence and a computer simulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 165-188.
46. Linville, P. W., & Jones, E. E. (1980). Polarised appraisals of outgroup members. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 689-703.
47. Locksley, A., Hepburn, C., & Ortiz, V. (1982). Social stereotypes and judgments of individuals: An instance of the base-rate fallacy. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 18, 23-42.
48. Mackie, D. M., & Smith, E. R. (1998). Intergroup relations: Insights from a theoretically integrative approach. Psychological Review, 105, 499-529.
49. Maurer, K. L., Park, B., & Rothbart, M. (1995). Subtyping versus subgrouping processes in stereotype representation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 812-824.
50. Nisbett, R. E., Kranz, D. H., Jepson, C., & Kunda, Z. (1983). The use of statistical heuristics in everyday inductive reasoning. Psychological Review, 90, 339-363.
51. Oakes, P. J., Haslam, S. A., & Reynolds, K. J. (1999). Social categorization and social context: Is stereotype change a matter of information or of meaning?. In D. Abrams & M. Hogg (Eds.), Social identity and social cognition (pp. 55-79). Oxford: Blackwell.
52. Osgood, C. E., Suci, G. J., & Tannenbaum, P. H. (1957). The measurement of meaning. Urbana, Ill: Illinois Press.
53. Park, B., & Hastie, R. (1987). Judgment of dispersion in category development: Instance versus abstraction based stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 621-635.
54. Park, B., & Judd, C. M. (1990). Measures and models of perceived group dispersion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 173-191.
55. Park, B., Judd, C. M., & Ryan, C. S. (1991). Social categorization and the representation of dispersion information. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 211-246). Chichester, England: Wiley.
56. Park, B., Ryan, C. S., & Judd, C. M. (1992). Role of meaningful subgroups in explaining differences in perceived dispersion for ingroups and outgroups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 553-567.
57. Pettigrew, T. F. (1986). The intergroup contact hypothesis reconsidered. In M. Hewstone & R. Brown (Eds.), Contact and conflict in intergroup encounters (pp. 169-195). Oxford, England: Blackwell.
58. Pettigrew, T. F. (1998). Intergroup contact theory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 65-85.
59. Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2000). Does intergroup contact reduce prejudice? Recent meta-analytic findings. In S. Oskamp (Ed.), Reducing prejudice and discrimination (pp. 93-114). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
60. Petty, R. E., & Wegener, D. T. (1998). Attitude change: Multiple roles for persuasion variables. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (4th ed., pp. 323-389). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
61. Quattrone, G. A. (1986). On the judgment of group's dispersion. In S. Worchel & W. Austin (Eds.), The psychology of intergroup relations (Vol. 2, pp. 25-48). Chicago: Nelson-Hall.
62. Quattrone, G. A., & Jones, E. E. (1980). The judgment of dispersion within ingroup and outgroup: Implications for the law of small numbers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 141-152.
63. Richards, Z., & Hewstone, M. (2001). Subtyping and subgrouping: Processes for the prevention and promotion of stereotype change. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5, 52-73.
64. Rothbart, M. (2001). Category dynamics and the modification of outgroup stereotypes. In R. Brown & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of social psychology: Intergroup processes (pp. 45-64). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
65. Rothbart, M., & John, O. P. (1985). Social categorization and behavioral episodes: A cognitive analysis of the effect of intergroup contact. Journal of Social Issues, 41, 81-104.
66. Rothbart, M., & Lewis, S. (1988). Inferring category attributes from exemplar attributes: Geometric shapes and social categories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 861-872.
67. Rothbart, M., & Park, B. (1986). On the confirmability and disconfirmability of trait concepts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 131-142.
68. Ryan, C. S., Judd, C. M., & Park, B. (1996). Effects of racial stereotypes on judgments of individuals: The moderating role of perceived group dispersion. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 32, 71-103.
69. Scarberry, N. C., Ratcliff, C. D., Lord, C. G., Lanicek, D. L., & Desforges, D. M. (1997). Effects of individuating information on the generalization part of Allport's contact hypothesis. Personality and Social Psychological Bulletin, 23, 1291-1299.
70. Simon, B. (1993). On the asymmetry in the cognitive construal of ingroup and outgroup: A model of egocentric social categorization. European Journal of Social Psychology, 3, 131-147.
71. Snodgrass, S. R. (1977). Confounding of causal attribution and trait consistency in research on determinants of trait inference patterns. Personality and Social Psychological Bulletin, 3, 628-631.
72. Stapel, D. A., & Koomen, W. (1998). When stereotype activation results in (counter) stereotypical judgments: Priming stereotype-relevant traits and exemplars. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 34, 136-163.
73. Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. New York: Blackwell.
74. Van Oudenhoven, J. P., Groenewoud, J. T., & Hewstone, M. (1996). Cooperation, ethnic salience and generalization of interethnic attitudes. European Journal of Social Psychology, 26, 649-661.
75. Wells, G. L., & Windschitl, P. D. (1999). Stimulus sampling and social psychological experimentation. Personality and Social Psychological Bulletin, 25, 1115-1125.
76. Werth, J. L., & Lord, C. G. (1992). Previous conceptions of the typical group member and the contact hypothesis. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 13, 351-369.
77. Wilder, D. A. (1984). Intergroup contact: The typical member and the exception to the rule. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 20, 177-194.
78. Wilder, D. A., Simon, A. F., & Faith, M. (1996). Enhancing the impact of counterstereotypic information: Dispositional attributions for deviance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 276-287.
79. Yzerbyt, V. Y., Coull, A., & Rocher, S. J. (1999). Fencing off the deviant the role of cognitive resources in the maintenance of stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 449-462.
80. Yzerbyt, V. Y., Dardenne, B., & Leyens, J. P. (1998). Social judgeability concerns in impression formation. In V. Y. Yzerbyt, G. Lories, & B. Dardenne (Eds.), Metacognition: Cognition and social dimensions (pp. 126-156). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.