Here's Looking at You, Kid! A Longitudinal Study of Perceived Gender Differences in Mutual Gaze Behavior in Young Infants

Sex Roles

Volumn 50, Issue 1-2, 2004, Pages 1-14

  Leeb, Rebecca T ^b   Rejskind, F Gillian ^a  

^a MCGILL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION   (United States)

Author keywords

Eye contact; Gender development; Gender differences; Infant development

Indexed keywords

EID: 1042279776     PISSN: 03600025     EISSN: 15732762     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/B:SERS.0000011068.42663.ce     Document Type: Article

References (81)

1. American Psychological Association (APA). (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
2. Arco, C. M. B., Self, P. A., & Gutrecht, N. (1979). The effect of increased maternal visual regard on neonatal visual behavior. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 8, 117-120.
3. Argyle, M., & Ingham, R. (1972). Gaze, mutual gaze, and proximity. Semiotica, 1, 32-49.
4. Ashear, V., & Snortum, J. R. (1971). Eye contact in children as a function of age, sex, social and intellective variables. Developmental Psychology, 4, 479.
5. Benenson, J. F. (1993). Gender differences in social networks. Journal of Early Adolescence, 10, 472-495.
6. Berenbaum, S. A., & Hines, M. (1992). Early androgens are related to childhood sex-typed toy preferences. Psychological Science, 3, 203-206.
7. Berenbaum, S. A., & Snyder, E. (1995). Early hormonal influences on childhood sex-typed activity and playmate preferences: Implications for the development of sexual orientation. Developmental Psychology, 31, 31-42.
8. Blass, E. M., & Camp, C. A. (2001). The ontogeny of face recognition: Eye contact and sweet taste induce face preference in 9-and 12-week old human infants. Developmental Psychology, 37, 762-774.
9. Bowlby, J. (1958). The nature of the child's tie to his mother. Journal of Psychoanalysis, 39, 350-373.
10. Brooks, C. I., Church, M. A., & Fraser, L. (1986). Effects of duration of eye contact on judgments of personality characteristics. Journal of Social Psychology, 126, 71-78.
11. Cherry, A. L. (1992). The socialization instinct: Individual, family, and social bonds. Journal of Applied Social Sciences, 17, 125-131.
12. Corkum, V., & Moore, C. (1998). The origins of joint visual attention in infants. Developmental Psychology, 34, 28-38.
13. Davis, M., & Emory, E. (1995). Sex differences in neonatal stress reactivity. Child Development, 66, 14-27.
14. Diamond, M., & Sigmundson, H. K. (1997). Sex reassignment at birth. Long-term review and clinical implications. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 151, 298-304.
15. Dodwell, P. C., Humphrey, G. K., & Muir, D. W. (1987). Shape and pattern perception. In P. Salapatek & L. Cohen, (Eds.), Handbook of infant perception: Vol. 2. From perception to cognition (pp. 1-77). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
16. Ellsworth, C. P., Muir, D. W., & Hains, S. M. J. (1993). Social competence and person-object differentiation: An analysis of the still-face effect. Developmental Psychology, 29, 63-73.
17. Exline, R. (1963). Explorations in the process of person perception: Visual interaction in relation to competition, sex, and need for affiliation. Journal of Personality, 31, 1-20.
18. Exline, R., Gray, D., & Schuette, D. (1965). Visual behavior in a dyad as affected by interview content and sex of respondent. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1, 201-209.
19. Fagot, B. I., Leinbach, M. D., & O'Boyle, C. (1992). Gender labeling, gender stereotyping, and parenting behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 28, 225-230.
20. Fogel, A., Dedo, J. Y., & McEwen, I. (1992). Effect of postural position and reaching on gaze during mother-infant face-to-face interaction. Infant Behavior and Development, 15, 231-244.
21. Fogel, A., Messinger, D. S., Dickson, K. L., & Hsu, H.-C. (1999). Posture and gaze in early mother-infant communication: Synchronization of developmental trajectories. Developmental Science, 2, 325-332.
22. Fraiberg, S. (1974). Blind infants and their mothers: An examination of the sign system. In M. Lewis & L. A. Rosenblum (Eds.), The effect of the infant on its caregiver (pp. 251-262). New York: Wiley.
23. Frick, J. E., & Colombo, J. (1996). Individual differences in infant visual attention: Recognition of degraded visual forms by four-month-olds. Child Development, 67, 188-204
24. Greenman, G. W. (1963). Visual behavior of newborn infants. In A. J. Solnit & S. A. Provence (Eds.), Modern perspectives in child development (pp. 71-79). New York: International Universities Press.
25. Gunnar, M. R., Porter, R. L., Wolf, C. M., Rigatuso, J., & Larson, M. C. (1995). Neonatal stress reactivity: Predictions to later emotional temperament. Child Development, 66, 1-13.
26. Hains, S. M. J., & Muir, D. W. (1996). Infant sensitivity to adult eye direction. Child Development, 67, 1940-1951.
27. Haith, M. M., Bergman, T., & Moore, M. J. (1977). Eye contact and face scanning in early infancy. Science, 198, 853-855.
28. Hines, M., & Kaufman, F. R. (1994). Androgen and the development of human sex-typical behavior: Rough-and-tumble play and sex of preferred playmates in children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). Child Development, 65, 1042-1053.
29. Hittelman, J. H., & Dickes, R. (1979). Sex differences in neonatal eye contact time. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 25, 171-184.
30. Karraker, K. H., Vogel, D. A., & Lake, M. A. (1995). Parents' gender-stereotyped perceptions of newborns: The eye of the beholder revisited. Sex Roles, 33, 687-701.
31. Klaus, M. H., & Kennell, J. H. (1976). Maternal-infant bonding. In M. H. Klaus & J. H. Kennell (Eds.), Maternal-infant bonding (pp. 1-15). St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
32. Klaus, M. H., Kennell, J. H., Plumb, N., & Zuehlke, S. (1970). Human maternal behavior at the first contact with her young. Pediatrics, 46, 187-192.
33. Kleinke, C. L. (1986). Gaze and eye contact: A research review. Psychological Bulletin, 100, 78-100.
34. Kleinke, C. L., Desautels, M. S., & Knapp, B. E. (1977). Adult gaze and affective and visual responses of preschool children. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 131, 321-322.
35. Knackstedt, G., & Kleinke, C. L. (1991). Eye contact, gender, and personality judgments. Journal of Social Psycology, 131, 303-304.
36. Lasky, R. E., & Klein, R. E. (1979). The reactions of five-month-old infants to eye contact of the mother and of a stranger. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 25, 163-170.
37. Lavelli, M., & Fogel, A. (2002). Developmental changes in mother-infant face-to-face communication: Birth to 3 months. Developmental Psychology, 38, 288-305.
38. Lavelli, M., & Poli, M. D. (1998). Early mother-infant interaction during breast- and bottle-feeding. Infant Behavior and Development, 21, 667-684.
39. Leeb, R. T., & Rejskind, G. (1997, August). Maternal sex-typing of newborns: Development of a rating scale. Poster presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association. Chicago, IL.
40. Leeb, R. T., & Rejskind, F. G. (1998, April), Paternal sex-typing of newborns: Standardization of a rating scale. Poster presented at the International Conference on Infant Studies. Atlanta, GA.
41. Levine, M. H., & Sutton-Smith, B. (1973). Effects of age, sex, and task on visual behavior during dyadic interaction. Developmental Psychology, 9, 400-405.
42. Lohaus, A., Keller, H., & Voelker, S. (2001). Relationships between eye contact, maternal sensitivity, and infant crying. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 25, 542-548.
43. Maccoby, E. E. (1990). Gender and relationships. A developmental account. American Psychologist, 45, 513-520.
44. Martin, C. L. (1999). A developmental perspective on gender effects and gender concepts. In W. B. Swann, Jr., J. H. Langlois, & L. A. Gilbert (Eds.), Sexism and stereotypes in modern society, The gender science of Janet Taylor Spence (pp. 45-73). Washington, DC: APA.
45. Martin, C. L., & Fabes, R. A. (2001). The stability and consequences of young children's same-sex peer interactions. Developmental Psychology, 37, 431-446.
46. Moss, H. A., & Robson, K. S. (1968). Maternal influences in early social visual behavior. Child Development, 39, 401-408.
47. Muir, D. W., Hains, S. M. J., & Symons, L. A. (1994). Baby and me: Infants need minds to read! Cahiers de Psychologie Cognitive, 13, 669-682.
48. Mulac, A., Studley, L. B., Weimann, J. M., & Bradac, J. J. (1987). Male/female gaze in same-sex and mixed sex dyads. Gender-linked differences in mutual influence. Human Communication Research, 13, 323-343.
49. Pascalis, O., & de Schonen, S. (1993). Recognition in 3-to 4-day old human neonates. NeuroReport, 5, 1721-1724.
50. Pascalis, O., de Schonen, S., Morton, J., Deruelle, C., & Fabre-Grenet, M. (1995). Mother's face recognition by neonates: A replication and extension. Infant Behavior and Development, 18, 79-85.
51. Pelàez-Nogueras, M., Gewirtz, J. L., Field, T., Cigales, M., Malphurs, J., Clasky, S., et al. (1996). Infants' preference for touch stimulation in face-to-face interactions. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 17, 199-213.
52. Pilkonis, P. A. (1977). The behavioral consequences of shyness. Journal of Personality, 45, 596-611.
53. Podoruzek, W., & Furrow, D. (1988). Preschooler's use of eye contact while speaking: The influence of sex, age, and conversational partner. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 17, 89-98.
54. Pomerleau, A., Bolduc, D., Malcuit, G., & Cossette, L. (1990). Pink or blue: Environmental gender stereotypes in the first two years of life. Sex Roles, 22, 359-367.
55. Post, B., & Heatherington, E. M. (1974). Sex differences in the use of proximity and eye contact in judgments of affiliation in preschool children. Developmental Psychology, 10, 881-889.
56. Reid, G. M. (1994). Maternal sex-stereotyping of newborns. Psychological Reports, 75, 1443-1450.
57. Rhinegold, H. L. (1963). Controlling the infant's exploratory behaviour. In B. M. Foss (Ed.), Determinants of infant behavior II (pp. 171-178). London: Methuen.
58. Robson, K. S. (1967). The role of eye-to-eye contact in maternal-infant attachment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 8, 13-25.
59. Robson, K. S., Pedersen, F. A., & Moss, H. A. (1969). Developmental observations of diadic gazing in relation to the fear of strangers and social approach behavior. Child Development, 40, 619-627.
60. Rubin, J. Z., Provenzano, F. J., & Luria, Z. (1974). The eye of the beholder: Parents views on sex of newborns. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 44, 512-519.
61. Ruble, D. N., & Martin, C. L. (1998). Gender development. In W. Damon (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 933-1016). New York: Wiley.
62. Russo, N. F. (1975). Eye contact, interpersonal distance, and the equilibrium theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 497-502.
63. Seavey, C. A., Katz, P. A., & Zalk, S. R. (1975). Baby X: The effect of gender labels on adult responses to infants. Sex Roles, 1, 103-109.
64. Sidorowicz, L. S., & Sparks-Lunney, G. (1980). Baby X revisited. Sex Roles, 6, 67-73.
65. Slater, A., Bremner, G., Johnson, S. P, Sherwood, P., Hayes, R., & Brown, E. (2000). Newborn infants' preferences for attractive faces: The role of internal and external facial features. Infancy, 1, 265-274.
66. Slater, A., Von der Schulenberg, C., Brown, E., Badenoch, M., Butterworth, G., Parsons, S., et al. (1998). Newborn infants prefer attractive faces. Infant Behavior and Development, 21, 345-354.
67. Slijper, F. M. E., Drop, S. L. S., Molenaar, J. C., & de Muinck Keizer-Schrama, S. M. P. F. (1998). Long-term psychological evaluation of intersex children. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 27, 125-144.
68. Smith, C., & Lloyd, B. (1978). Maternal behavior and perceived sex of infant: Revisited, Child Development, 49, 1263-1255.
69. Statistics Canada. (1995). Average annual income for selected family types and unattached individuals: Data for 1980, 1989, 1994, 1995 [On-line]. Federal Government of Canada: Statistics Canada [Catalogue no. 13-207], Retreived from http://www.statcan.ca/endlish/Pgdb/People/Families/famil05.htm.
70. Stern, D. N. (1974). Mother and infant at play: The dyadic interaction involving facial, vocal, and gaze behaviors. In M. Lewis & L. A. Rosenblum (Eds.), The effect of the infant on its caregiver (pp. 187-214). New York: Wiley.
71. Tannen, D. (1990). Gender differences in conversational coherence: Physical alignment and topical cohesion. In B. Dorval (Ed.), Conversational organization and its development (pp. 165-206). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
72. Thoman, E. B., Leiderman, H., & Olson, J. P. (1972). Neonate-mother interaction during breast-feeding. Developmental Psychology, 6, 110-118.
73. Trowell, J. (1982). Possible effects of emergency cesarean section on the mother-child relationship. Early Human Development, 7, 41-51.
74. Valenza, E., Simion, F., Cassia, V. M., & Umiltà, C. (1996). Face preference at birth. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 22, 892-903.
75. van Wulften Plathe, T., & Hopkins, B. (1984). Development of the infant's social competence during early face-to-face interaction: A longitudinal study. In H. F. R. Prechtl (Ed.), Continuity of neural functions from prenatal to post natal life (pp. 198-219). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott.
76. Vlietstra, A. G., & Manske, S. H. (1981). Looks to adults, preferences for adult males and females, an interpretations of an adult's gaze by preschool children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 27, 31-41.
77. Weinberg, K. M., & Tronick, E. Z. (1996). Infant affective reactions to the resumption of maternal interaction after the still-face. Child Development, 67, 905-914.
78. Weinberg, M. K., Tronick, E. Z., Cohn, J. F., & Olson, K. L. (1999). Gender differences in emotional expressivity and self-regulation during early infancy. Developmental Psychology, 35, 175-188.
79. Zeifman, D., Delaney, S., & Blass, E. M. (1996). Sweet taste, looking, and calm in 2- and 4-week-old infants: The eyes have it. Developmental Psychology, 32, 1090-1099.
80. Zeskind, P. S., & Marshall, T. R. (1991). Temporal organization is neonatal arousal: Systems, oscillations, and development. In M. J. Weiss & P. R. Zelazo, Newborn attention: biological constraints and the influence of experience (pp. 22-62). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
81. Zucker, K. J. (1996). Commentary on Diamond's "Prenatal predisposition and the clinical management of some pediatric conditions." Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 22, 148-160.