Counter-revolution, order and international politics

Review of International Studies

Volumn 30, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 49-69

  Bisley, Nick ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF READING   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0742288865     PISSN: 02602105     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0260210504005820     Document Type: Article

References (89)

1. Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes (London: Michael Joseph, 1994), p. 54.
2. On which see Maryam Panah, 'Social Revolution: The Elusive Emergence of an Agenda in International Relations', in Review of International Studies, 28:2 (2002), pp. 271-91.
3. For example, Fred Halliday, Revolution and World Politics (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1999); David Armstrong, Revolution and World Order (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993); Stephen M. Walt, Revolution and War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996); and Peter Calvert, Revolution and International Politics, 2nd edn. (London: Pinter, 1996).
4. For example, Fred Halliday, Revolution and World Politics (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1999); David Armstrong, Revolution and World Order (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993); Stephen M. Walt, Revolution and War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996); and Peter Calvert, Revolution and International Politics, 2nd edn. (London: Pinter, 1996).
5. For example, Fred Halliday, Revolution and World Politics (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1999); David Armstrong, Revolution and World Order (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993); Stephen M. Walt, Revolution and War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996); and Peter Calvert, Revolution and International Politics, 2nd edn. (London: Pinter, 1996).
6. For example, Fred Halliday, Revolution and World Politics (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1999); David Armstrong, Revolution and World Order (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993); Stephen M. Walt, Revolution and War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996); and Peter Calvert, Revolution and International Politics, 2nd edn. (London: Pinter, 1996).
7. David Armstrong, 'On Revolutionary Chickens and International Eggs', Review of International Studies, 27:4 (2001), pp. 669-74, at 669.
8. This differs from Skocpol's classic definition: 'social revolutions are rapid, basic transformations of a society's state and class structures; and they are accompanied and in part carried out by class-based revolts from below' see Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), p. 4.
9. Walt, Revolution and War, pp. 18-45.
10. For example, Fred Halliday, Revolution and Foreign Policy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Stephen Chan and Andrew Williams (eds.), Renegade States: The Evolution of Revolutionary Foreign Policy (Manchester University Press, 1995).
11. For example, Fred Halliday, Revolution and Foreign Policy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Stephen Chan and Andrew Williams (eds.), Renegade States: The Evolution of Revolutionary Foreign Policy (Manchester University Press, 1995).
12. On the use of Iranian history see Ervand Abrahamian, Khomeinism (London: Tauris, 1993), pp. 88-110.
13. The only book-length study is Arno Mayer's somewhat tendentious Dynamics of Counter-revolution in Europe, 1870-1956 (London: Harper Torchbooks, 1971).
14. Counter-revolution can also include pre-emptive action of an international character; due to space this article limits its focus to reactions to a successful revolutionary seizure of power.
15. Halliday, Revolution and World Politics, p. 208; Charles Tilly, The Vendée: Revolution and Counter-revolution (Harvard University Press, 1964). For a useful distinction between conservatism, reaction and counter-revolution see Mayer, Dynamics of Counter-revolution, pp. 38-55.
16. Halliday, Revolution and World Politics, p. 208; Charles Tilly, The Vendée: Revolution and Counter-revolution (Harvard University Press, 1964). For a useful distinction between conservatism, reaction and counter-revolution see Mayer, Dynamics of Counter-revolution, pp. 38-55.
17. Halliday, Revolution and World Politics, p. 208; Charles Tilly, The Vendée: Revolution and Counter-revolution (Harvard University Press, 1964). For a useful distinction between conservatism, reaction and counter-revolution see Mayer, Dynamics of Counter-revolution, pp. 38-55.
18. IR scholars have tended to be interested in counter-revolution only inasmuch as it is a form of intervention, discussions include Hedley Bull (ed.), Intervention in World Politics (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984) and John Vincent, Non-intervention and International Order (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1974).
19. IR scholars have tended to be interested in counter-revolution only inasmuch as it is a form of intervention, discussions include Hedley Bull (ed.), Intervention in World Politics (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984) and John Vincent, Non-intervention and International Order (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1974).
20. See generally, George F. Kennan, The Decision to Intervene (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1958).
21. Michael Lind, Vietnam: The Necessary War (New York: Free Press, 1999).
22. See James M. Scott, Deciding to Intervene: The Reagan Doctrine and American Foreign Policy (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996).
23. See Michael Mastanduno, Economic Containment (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992).
24. See communication in FRUS, Diplomatic Papers: The Soviet Union, 1933-1939 (Washington, DC: United States Government Publishing Office, 1952).
25. See Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions.
26. See Shaul Bakhash, The Reign of the Ayatollahs (London: IB Tauris, 1987) ; Misagh Parsa, Social Origins of the Iranian Revolution (Rutgers University Press, 1989); Fred Halliday, Islam and the Myth of Confrontation (London: IB Tauris, 1995).
27. See Shaul Bakhash, The Reign of the Ayatollahs (London: IB Tauris, 1987) ; Misagh Parsa, Social Origins of the Iranian Revolution (Rutgers University Press, 1989); Fred Halliday, Islam and the Myth of Confrontation (London: IB Tauris, 1995).
28. See Shaul Bakhash, The Reign of the Ayatollahs (London: IB Tauris, 1987) ; Misagh Parsa, Social Origins of the Iranian Revolution (Rutgers University Press, 1989); Fred Halliday, Islam and the Myth of Confrontation (London: IB Tauris, 1995).
29. For example, Walt, Revolution and War, esp., pp. 33-7 and 42-5.
30. Panah, 'Social Revolution', p. 278.
31. Progressive in that its adherents see its ideas and social programme as providing a means to achieve what they believe to be a manifestly better way of organising social life.
32. It is doubtful that these would satisfy the criteria for social revolution set out above. Habermas has usefully described them as 'revolutions of recuperation', a term which captures their revolutionary impact on world politics, as well as their less radical dimensions. See Jürgen Habermas, 'What Does Socialism Mean Today? The Revolutions of Recuperation and the Need for New Thinking' in Robin Blackburn (ed.), After the Fall (London: Verso, 1991), pp. 25-46.
33. A typical example is Walt, Revolution and War, pp. 331-42.
34. Like many of Windsor's insights this concept is one he sadly neglected to elaborate in published form.
35. Mayer, Dynamics of Counter-revolution.
36. See Robert K. Murray, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria, 1919-1920 (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1955) and, more generally, Arthur S. Link, 'What Happened to the Progressive Movement in the 1920s?', American Historical Review, 64:4 (1959), pp. 833-51.
37. See Robert K. Murray, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria, 1919-1920 (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1955) and, more generally, Arthur S. Link, 'What Happened to the Progressive Movement in the 1920s?', American Historical Review, 64:4 (1959), pp. 833-51.
38. Arno Mayer, Politics and Diplomacy of Peace-making: Containment and Counter-revolution at Versailles, 1918-1919 (New York: Knopf, 1967).
39. On the revolutionary character of Nazism see Michael Mann, 'Communism, fascism and counter-revolution in world polities', Review of International Studies, 27:4 (2002), pp. 683-6, 684-5.
40. I thank the referee who pointed out that Churchill was one of the few who took Hitler at his word and warned about the consequences of Nazi radicalism.
41. Richard Pipes, The Russian Revolution (London: Harvill Collins), p. 669.
42. Mayer, Dynamics of Counter-revolution, and Mayer, Politics and Diplomacy of Peace-making.
43. Mayer, Dynamics of Counter-revolution, and Mayer, Politics and Diplomacy of Peace-making.
44. Halliday, Revolution and World Politics, pp. 227-9.
45. Régis Debray, Revolution in the Revolution (London: Monthly Review, 1967).
46. Mayer, Dynamics of Counter-revolution, p. 10.
47. For example, James Mayall, Nationalism and International Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990) and N.J. Wheeler, Saving Strangers: Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
48. For example, James Mayall, Nationalism and International Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990) and N.J. Wheeler, Saving Strangers: Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
49. Henry A. Kissinger, 'The White Revolutionary: Reflections on Bismarck', Daedalus, 973 (1968), p. 900.
50. Henry A. Kissinger, A World Restored (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1957), see especially chs. 3, 6 and 9.
51. Kissinger, 'The White Revolutionary', p. 899.
52. Kissinger, A World Restored, p.1.
53. This image appears almost verbatim in Burke's 'Third Letter on a Regicide Peace' though it is unacknowledged in his text. Edmund Burke, 'Letters on the Proposal for Peace with the Regicide Directory of France, I-IV', in Burke's Works and Correspondence, volume V (London: Francis and John Rivington, 1852).
54. This image appears almost verbatim in Burke's 'Third Letter on a Regicide Peace' though it is unacknowledged in his text. Edmund Burke, 'Letters on the Proposal for Peace with the Regicide Directory of France, I-IV', in Burke's Works and Correspondence, volume V (London: Francis and John Rivington, 1852).
55. Kissinger, 'The White Revolutionary', p. 900.
56. Kissinger, A World Restored, p. 196.
57. Revolutionary powers are those which feel oppressed by the existing international order and the manner of its legitimacy. For Kissinger, the point is not only that a power may threaten the security of others, but that, due to the nature of its grievances, nothing can reassure it. Kissinger, A World Restored, ch. 1.
58. Kissinger, A World Restored, p. 172.
59. Aron's contributions to the subject matter of IR can be found among the following: Raymond Aron, Memoirs: Fifty Years of Political Reflection (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1990), chs. 10, 11, 17, 23 and 24; Raymond Aron, Clausewitz: Philosopher of War (London: Routledge, Kegan and Paul, 1983); Raymond Aron, The Great Debate: Theories of Nuclear Strategy (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1981); Raymond Aron, The Century of Total War (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1981 [1954]); Raymond Aron, The Imperial Republic: The United States and the World, 1945-73 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1975 [1973]); Raymond Aron, War and Industrial Society (Comte Lecture/Oxford University Press, 1958).
60. Aron's contributions to the subject matter of IR can be found among the following: Raymond Aron, Memoirs: Fifty Years of Political Reflection (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1990), chs. 10, 11, 17, 23 and 24; Raymond Aron, Clausewitz: Philosopher of War (London: Routledge, Kegan and Paul, 1983); Raymond Aron, The Great Debate: Theories of Nuclear Strategy (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1981); Raymond Aron, The Century of Total War (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1981 [1954]); Raymond Aron, The Imperial Republic: The United States and the World, 1945-73 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1975 [1973]); Raymond Aron, War and Industrial Society (Comte Lecture/Oxford University Press, 1958).
61. Aron's contributions to the subject matter of IR can be found among the following: Raymond Aron, Memoirs: Fifty Years of Political Reflection (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1990), chs. 10, 11, 17, 23 and 24; Raymond Aron, Clausewitz: Philosopher of War (London: Routledge, Kegan and Paul, 1983); Raymond Aron, The Great Debate: Theories of Nuclear Strategy (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1981); Raymond Aron, The Century of Total War (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1981 [1954]); Raymond Aron, The Imperial Republic: The United States and the World, 1945-73 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1975 [1973]); Raymond Aron, War and Industrial Society (Comte Lecture/Oxford University Press, 1958).
62. Aron's contributions to the subject matter of IR can be found among the following: Raymond Aron, Memoirs: Fifty Years of Political Reflection (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1990), chs. 10, 11, 17, 23 and 24; Raymond Aron, Clausewitz: Philosopher of War (London: Routledge, Kegan and Paul, 1983); Raymond Aron, The Great Debate: Theories of Nuclear Strategy (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1981); Raymond Aron, The Century of Total War (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1981 [1954]); Raymond Aron, The Imperial Republic: The United States and the World, 1945-73 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1975 [1973]); Raymond Aron, War and Industrial Society (Comte Lecture/Oxford University Press, 1958).
63. Aron's contributions to the subject matter of IR can be found among the following: Raymond Aron, Memoirs: Fifty Years of Political Reflection (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1990), chs. 10, 11, 17, 23 and 24; Raymond Aron, Clausewitz: Philosopher of War (London: Routledge, Kegan and Paul, 1983); Raymond Aron, The Great Debate: Theories of Nuclear Strategy (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1981); Raymond Aron, The Century of Total War (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1981 [1954]); Raymond Aron, The Imperial Republic: The United States and the World, 1945-73 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1975 [1973]); Raymond Aron, War and Industrial Society (Comte Lecture/Oxford University Press, 1958).
64. Aron's contributions to the subject matter of IR can be found among the following: Raymond Aron, Memoirs: Fifty Years of Political Reflection (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1990), chs. 10, 11, 17, 23 and 24; Raymond Aron, Clausewitz: Philosopher of War (London: Routledge, Kegan and Paul, 1983); Raymond Aron, The Great Debate: Theories of Nuclear Strategy (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1981); Raymond Aron, The Century of Total War (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1981 [1954]); Raymond Aron, The Imperial Republic: The United States and the World, 1945-73 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1975 [1973]); Raymond Aron, War and Industrial Society (Comte Lecture/Oxford University Press, 1958).
65. Raymond Aron, Peace and War: A Theory of International Relations (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1964 [1962]).
66. Aron, Peace and War, p. 8.
67. J. David Singer, 'The Levels of Analysis Problem in International Relations', in Klaus Knorr and Sidney Verba (eds.), The International System (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1961).
68. Aron, Peace and War, pp. 9-12.
69. Aron's definition: 'an international system [is] the ensemble constituted by political units that maintain regular relations with each other and that are all capable of being implicated in a generalised war.' Aron, Peace and War, p. 94. This is different from Bull's notion due to its breadth and the spectre of war providing violence with a more central place in international relations. Bull, Anarchical Society, p. 9. This difference is due to Bull seeking to distinguish between system and society whereas Aron appears satisfied with a notion of system which has some 'societal' dimensions.
70. Aron's definition: 'an international system [is] the ensemble constituted by political units that maintain regular relations with each other and that are all capable of being implicated in a generalised war.' Aron, Peace and War, p. 94. This is different from Bull's notion due to its breadth and the spectre of war providing violence with a more central place in international relations. Bull, Anarchical Society, p. 9. This difference is due to Bull seeking to distinguish between system and society whereas Aron appears satisfied with a notion of system which has some 'societal' dimensions.
71. Aron, Peace and War, p. 95.
72. Ibid., 99.
73. Ibid., p. 100.
74. For discussion of this see Stanley Hoffman, 'The Problems of Intervention', in Bull (ed.), Intervention in World Politics, pp. 7-28.
75. Aron, Peace and War, p. 104.
76. On the 'constitutive tradition' see Fred Halliday, Rethinking International Relations (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1994), pp. 94-123.
77. For Kissinger's notion of revolutionary power, see above n. 45.
78. Kissinger, A World Restored, p. 145.
79. Ibid., p. 146.
80. Cited in Kissinger 'The White Revolutionary', p. 915.
81. Kissinger, A World Restored, p. 172.
82. Aron, Peace and War, p. 102-4.
83. Ibid., p. 101.
84. Ibid., pp. 101-4.
85. Mayer, Politics and Diplomacy of Peace-making.
86. See John Lewis Gaddis, Russia, the Soviet Union and the United States (Boston: McGraw Hill, 1990), pp. 87-116 and Peter G. Boyle, American-Soviet Relations (London: Routledge, 1993), pp. 17-29.
87. See John Lewis Gaddis, Russia, the Soviet Union and the United States (Boston: McGraw Hill, 1990), pp. 87-116 and Peter G. Boyle, American-Soviet Relations (London: Routledge, 1993), pp. 17-29.
88. One must recognise that the emergence of an embryonic humanitarian interventionist norm shows the way norms can evolve if they have the support of the major powers.
89. Armstrong makes a stronger argument along these lines in his Revolution and World Order.