Low Breastfeeding Rates and Public Health in the United States

American Journal of Public Health

Volumn 93, Issue 12, 2003, Pages 2000-2010

  Wolf, Jacqueline H ^a  

^a OHIO UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ASTHMA; BABY FOOD; BOTTLE FEEDING; BREAST CANCER; BREAST FEEDING; CHILD DEATH; CHRONIC DISEASE; DIARRHEA; HEALTH PROGRAM; HEALTH PROMOTION; HUMAN; INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT; LACTATION; LEUKEMIA; MILK; OBESITY; PREVENTIVE MEDICINE; PUBLIC HEALTH; PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE; REVIEW; SOCIAL MEDICINE; SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME; UNITED STATES; ADULT; ARTICLE; BREAST MILK; COMMUNICABLE DISEASE; DOCTOR PATIENT RELATION; EDUCATION; FEMALE; HISTORY; IMMUNOLOGY; INFANT; INFANT MORTALITY; INFANT WELFARE; MOTHER; NEWBORN; PRIMARY PREVENTION; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; SOCIAL MARKETING; STATISTICS;

ADULT; BREAST FEEDING; COMMUNICABLE DISEASES; FEMALE; HEALTH PROMOTION; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; INFANT; INFANT MORTALITY; INFANT WELFARE; INFANT, NEWBORN; MILK, HUMAN; MOTHERS; PHYSICIAN-PATIENT RELATIONS; PRIMARY PREVENTION; SOCIAL MARKETING; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0642307314     PISSN: 00900036     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.93.12.2000     Document Type: Review

References (131)

1. Bulletin: Chicago School of Sanitary Instruction 14 (June 3, 1911): back page.
2. Bulletin: Chicago School of Sanitary Instruction 15 (August 31, 1912): 140.
3. In this era before access to ice and refrigeration, breastfeeding was especially important during hot weather. Therefore, mothers never weaned during the summer and customarily breastfed their babies through at least 2 summers. Marylynn Salmon, "The Cultural Significance of Breastfeeding and Infant Care in Early Modern England and America," Journal of Social History 28 (Winter 1994): 247-269.
4. "The Care of Infants Historical Data," Journal of the American Medical Association 59 (1912): 542-543.
5. Letter from Martha Luey Parish to Lestern, Annie and Father, November 2, 1884, Parish Family Letters, Newberry Library, Chicago.
6. "The Mother's Parliament," Babyhood 3 (April 1887): 170.
7. Josephine K. Laflin Diary, 1903-1907, March 31, 1903 entry, Laflin Family Papers, Chicago Historical Society.
8. For a more detailed explanation of the complex reasons behind women's changing infant feeding habits than what is contained in this paragraph, see Jacqueline H. Wolf, Don't Kill Your Baby: Public Health and the Decline of Breastfeeding in the 19th and 20th Centuries (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2001), 9-41.
9. Maria M. Vinton, "Baby's First Month," Mother's Nursery Guide 9 (February 1893): 69.
10. "Nursery Problems," Babyhood 2 (July 1886): 291. For more on the growing intimacy between husbands and wives, see John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997).
11. "Nursery Problems," Babyhood 2 (July 1886): 291. For more on the growing intimacy between husbands and wives, see John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997).
12. Many cities housed Little Mothers Clubs, organizations customarily affiliated with public schools or settlement houses. These clubs trained young girls to better care for the infant siblings so often left in their charge. See Rima D. Apple, Mothers & Medicine: A Social History of Infant Feeding 1890-1950 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987), 102-103; Wolf, Don't Kill Your Baby, 21-22, 120-121.
13. Many cities housed Little Mothers Clubs, organizations customarily affiliated with public schools or settlement houses. These clubs trained young girls to better care for the infant siblings so often left in their charge. See Rima D. Apple, Mothers & Medicine: A Social History of Infant Feeding 1890-1950 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987), 102-103; Wolf, Don't Kill Your Baby, 21-22, 120-121.
14. Samuel H. Preston and Michael R. Haines, Fatal Years: Child Mortality in Late Nineteenth-Century America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), 27.
15. Infant deaths from diarrhea soared in big cities each summer. One study conducted in Berlin in 1901, however, showed that these summer deaths were virtually nonexistent among breastfed children. See Preston and Haines, Fatal Years, 27-28. In another study of almost 2000 infants who died of "degenerative disturbances," physicians noted that only 3% had been breastfed. In an additional study of 718 babies who died of diarrhea, only 4% were breastfed. Frank Spooner Churchill, "Infant Feeding," Chicago Medical Recorder 10 (February 1896): 102-114.
16. Infant deaths from diarrhea soared in big cities each summer. One study conducted in Berlin in 1901, however, showed that these summer deaths were virtually nonexistent among breastfed children. See Preston and Haines, Fatal Years, 27-28. In another study of almost 2000 infants who died of "degenerative disturbances," physicians noted that only 3% had been breastfed. In an additional study of 718 babies who died of diarrhea, only 4% were breastfed. Frank Spooner Churchill, "Infant Feeding," Chicago Medical Recorder 10 (February 1896): 102-114.
17. Nathan Allen, "The Decline of Suckling Power Among American Women," Babyhood 5 (March 1889): 111-115.
18. S. T. Rorer, "The Proper Food for a Child in Summer," Ladies' Home Journal 17 (July 1900): 26.
19. For a history of wet nursing and its ramifications for both the wet nursed infants and the infants of wet nurses, see Janet Golden, A Social History of Wet Nursing in America: From Breast to Bottle (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Wolf, Don't Kill Your Baby, 132-157.
20. For a history of wet nursing and its ramifications for both the wet nursed infants and the infants of wet nurses, see Janet Golden, A Social History of Wet Nursing in America: From Breast to Bottle (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Wolf, Don't Kill Your Baby, 132-157.
21. Report of the Department of Health of the City of Chicago for the Years 1907, 1908, 1909, 1910 (Chicago, 1911), 174.
22. For a complete explanation of these statistics, see Wolf, Don't Kill Your Baby, xiv, 208-211.
23. Effa V. Davis, "Breast Feeding," Bulletin: Chicago School of Sanitary Instruction 13 (June 8, 1910): 2.
24. Ira S. Wile, "Educational Responsibilities of a Milk Depot," in Prevention of Infant Mortality, Being the Papers and Discussion of a Conference Held at New Haven, Connecticut, November 11, 12, 1909 (N.p., n.d.), 139-153.
25. W. Thornton Parker, "The Refusal to Nurse and Its Consequences," Babyhood 3 (August 1887): 313.
26. Henry L. Coit, "The Effects of Heated and Superheated Milk on the Infant's Nutrition (Recent Investigations)," Transactions of the American Pediatric Society 24 (1912): 128-138.
27. "Dorothy Reed Mendenhall's Autobiography," 1939, typed manuscript, Dorothy Reed Mendenhall Papers, Sophia Smith Collection, Neilson Library, Smith College, Northampton, Mass.
28. Family tree and letters dated July 10, 13, and 16, 1901, Mary Scofield and Family Papers, Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul, Minn.
29. "Scarcely Any Pure Milk," Chicago Daily News (September 1, 1892), 2; "Stop the Bogus Milk Traffic," Chicago Tribune (September 23, 1892), 4.
30. "Scarcely Any Pure Milk," Chicago Daily News (September 1, 1892), 2; "Stop the Bogus Milk Traffic," Chicago Tribune (September 23, 1892), 4.
31. In Chicago, the milk crusades began in 1892 and continued for more than 30 years. There was no legal requirement to seal milk vats until 1904, to bottle milk in individual bottles until 1912, to pasteurize milk until 1916, to keep milk cold during shipping until 1920, or to test cows for bovine tuberculosis until 1926. For more on the milk crusades in Chicago, see Wolf, Don't Kill Your Baby, 42-73. For the story of pure milk campaigns in other cities, see Judith Walzer Leavitt, The Healthiest City: Milwaukee and the Politics of Health Reform (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982), 156-189; Richard A. Meckel, Save the Babies: American Public Health Reform and the Prevention of Infant Mortality, 1850-1929 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 62-91.
32. In Chicago, the milk crusades began in 1892 and continued for more than 30 years. There was no legal requirement to seal milk vats until 1904, to bottle milk in individual bottles until 1912, to pasteurize milk until 1916, to keep milk cold during shipping until 1920, or to test cows for bovine tuberculosis until 1926. For more on the milk crusades in Chicago, see Wolf, Don't Kill Your Baby, 42-73. For the story of pure milk campaigns in other cities, see Judith Walzer Leavitt, The Healthiest City: Milwaukee and the Politics of Health Reform (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982), 156-189; Richard A. Meckel, Save the Babies: American Public Health Reform and the Prevention of Infant Mortality, 1850-1929 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 62-91.
33. In Chicago, the milk crusades began in 1892 and continued for more than 30 years. There was no legal requirement to seal milk vats until 1904, to bottle milk in individual bottles until 1912, to pasteurize milk until 1916, to keep milk cold during shipping until 1920, or to test cows for bovine tuberculosis until 1926. For more on the milk crusades in Chicago, see Wolf, Don't Kill Your Baby, 42-73. For the story of pure milk campaigns in other cities, see Judith Walzer Leavitt, The Healthiest City: Milwaukee and the Politics of Health Reform (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982), 156-189; Richard A. Meckel, Save the Babies: American Public Health Reform and the Prevention of Infant Mortality, 1850-1929 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 62-91.
34. "Infant Welfare Service 1909-1910," in Report of the Department of Health of the City of Chicago for the Years 1907, 1908, 1909, 1910 (Chicago, 1911), 170-180.
35. Letter to Mrs. Ba. A. Eckhart from Edna L. Foley, January 16, 1923, Visiting Nurse Association of Chicago Papers, Chicago Historical Society. For more on the attention paid by public health departments to the infants of immigrants at the expense of their Black and native-born White counterparts, see Lynne Curry, Modern Mothers in the Heartland: Gender, Health, and Progress in Illinois, 1900-1930 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1999), 10-11, 35-36.
36. Posters appeared in English, Bohemian, Croatian, German, Italian, Lithuanian, Polish, Serbian, Swedish, and Yiddish.
37. Julius Parker Sedgwick, "Maternal Feeding," The American Journal of Obstetrics and Diseases of Women and Children 66 (1912): 857-865.
38. Julius Parker Sedgwick, "A Preliminary Report of the Study of Breast Feeding in Minneapolis," Transactions of the American Pediatric Society 32 (1920): 279-291.
39. J. P. Sedgwick and E. C. Fleischner, "Breast Feeding in the Reduction of Infant Mortality," American Journal of Public Health 11 (1921): 153-157. This was especially significant because as late as 1948 the law did not require that milk sold in Minneapolis be pasteurized.
40. "Infant Welfare Field Work," Report and Handbook of the Department of Health of the City of Chicago for the Years 1911 to 1918 Inclusive (Chicago, 1919), 567.
41. E. J. Huenekens, "Breast Feeding," American Journal of Nursing 24 (1924): 751-757.
42. N. C. Rudd, "Breast Feeding in Minneapolis," Mother and Child 2 (1921): 171-173.
43. E. J. Huenekens, "Breast Feeding From a Public Health Standpoint," American Journal of Public Health 14 (1924): 391-394. For a more detailed analysis of the work in Minneapolis, see Jacqueline H. Wolf, "'Let Us Have More Mother-Fed Babies': Early Twentieth-Century Breastfeeding Campaigns in Chicago and Minneapolis," Journal of Human Lactation 15 (1999): 101-105.
44. E. J. Huenekens, "Breast Feeding From a Public Health Standpoint," American Journal of Public Health 14 (1924): 391-394. For a more detailed analysis of the work in Minneapolis, see Jacqueline H. Wolf, "'Let Us Have More Mother-Fed Babies': Early Twentieth-Century Breastfeeding Campaigns in Chicago and Minneapolis," Journal of Human Lactation 15 (1999): 101-105.
45. "Are Infant Feeding Methods Changing?" Public Health Nursing 23 (1931): 581-585.
46. "Slaughter of the Innocents," Chicago Tribune, August 23, 1892, 6.
47. Allan S. Ryan, David Rush, Fritz W. Krieger, and Gregory E. Lewandowski, "Recent Declines in Breast-Feeding in the United States, 1984 Through 1989," Pediatrics 88 (1991): 719-727.
48. North Country Co-op (Minneapolis, Minn) Records, 1972-2000, Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul, Minn.
49. Alan S. Ryan, "The Resurgence of Breastfeeding in the United States," Pediatrics 99 (1997): E12, available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/99/4/e12, accessed October 10, 2002.
50. Alan S. Ryan, Zhou Wenjun, and Andrew Acosta, "Breastfeeding Continues to Increase Into the New Millennium," Pediatrics 110 (2002): 1103-1109.
51. Ryan et al., "Resurgence of Breastfeeding"; Ryan et al., "Breastfeeding Continues to Increase"; Alain Joffe and Susan M. Radius, "Breast Versus Bottle: Correlates of Adolescent Mothers' Infant-Feeding Practices," Pediatrics 79 (1987): 689-695; Ryan et al., "Recent Declines in Breast-Feeding"; Christine E. Peterson and Julie DaVanzo, "Why Are Teenagers in the United States Less Likely to Breast-Feed Than Older Women?" Demography 29 (1992): 431-450; Ayala Gabriel, K. Ruben Gabriel, and Ruth A. Lawrence, "Cultural Values and Biomedical Knowledge: Choices in Infant Feeding," Social Science and Medicine 23 (1986): 501-509; Natalie Kurinij, Patricia H. Shiono, and George G. Rhoads, "Breast-Feeding Incidence and Duration in Black and White Women," Pediatrics 81 (1988): 365-371.
52. Ryan et al., "Resurgence of Breastfeeding"; Ryan et al., "Breastfeeding Continues to Increase"; Alain Joffe and Susan M. Radius, "Breast Versus Bottle: Correlates of Adolescent Mothers' Infant-Feeding Practices," Pediatrics 79 (1987): 689-695; Ryan et al., "Recent Declines in Breast-Feeding"; Christine E. Peterson and Julie DaVanzo, "Why Are Teenagers in the United States Less Likely to Breast-Feed Than Older Women?" Demography 29 (1992): 431-450; Ayala Gabriel, K. Ruben Gabriel, and Ruth A. Lawrence, "Cultural Values and Biomedical Knowledge: Choices in Infant Feeding," Social Science and Medicine 23 (1986): 501-509; Natalie Kurinij, Patricia H. Shiono, and George G. Rhoads, "Breast-Feeding Incidence and Duration in Black and White Women," Pediatrics 81 (1988): 365-371.
53. Ryan et al., "Resurgence of Breastfeeding"; Ryan et al., "Breastfeeding Continues to Increase"; Alain Joffe and Susan M. Radius, "Breast Versus Bottle: Correlates of Adolescent Mothers' Infant-Feeding Practices," Pediatrics 79 (1987): 689-695; Ryan et al., "Recent Declines in Breast-Feeding"; Christine E. Peterson and Julie DaVanzo, "Why Are Teenagers in the United States Less Likely to Breast-Feed Than Older Women?" Demography 29 (1992): 431-450; Ayala Gabriel, K. Ruben Gabriel, and Ruth A. Lawrence, "Cultural Values and Biomedical Knowledge: Choices in Infant Feeding," Social Science and Medicine 23 (1986): 501-509; Natalie Kurinij, Patricia H. Shiono, and George G. Rhoads, "Breast-Feeding Incidence and Duration in Black and White Women," Pediatrics 81 (1988): 365-371.
54. Ryan et al., "Resurgence of Breastfeeding"; Ryan et al., "Breastfeeding Continues to Increase"; Alain Joffe and Susan M. Radius, "Breast Versus Bottle: Correlates of Adolescent Mothers' Infant-Feeding Practices," Pediatrics 79 (1987): 689-695; Ryan et al., "Recent Declines in Breast-Feeding"; Christine E. Peterson and Julie DaVanzo, "Why Are Teenagers in the United States Less Likely to Breast-Feed Than Older Women?" Demography 29 (1992): 431-450; Ayala Gabriel, K. Ruben Gabriel, and Ruth A. Lawrence, "Cultural Values and Biomedical Knowledge: Choices in Infant Feeding," Social Science and Medicine 23 (1986): 501-509; Natalie Kurinij, Patricia H. Shiono, and George G. Rhoads, "Breast-Feeding Incidence and Duration in Black and White Women," Pediatrics 81 (1988): 365-371.
55. Ryan et al., "Resurgence of Breastfeeding"; Ryan et al., "Breastfeeding Continues to Increase"; Alain Joffe and Susan M. Radius, "Breast Versus Bottle: Correlates of Adolescent Mothers' Infant-Feeding Practices," Pediatrics 79 (1987): 689-695; Ryan et al., "Recent Declines in Breast-Feeding"; Christine E. Peterson and Julie DaVanzo, "Why Are Teenagers in the United States Less Likely to Breast-Feed Than Older Women?" Demography 29 (1992): 431-450; Ayala Gabriel, K. Ruben Gabriel, and Ruth A. Lawrence, "Cultural Values and Biomedical Knowledge: Choices in Infant Feeding," Social Science and Medicine 23 (1986): 501-509; Natalie Kurinij, Patricia H. Shiono, and George G. Rhoads, "Breast-Feeding Incidence and Duration in Black and White Women," Pediatrics 81 (1988): 365-371.
56. Ryan et al., "Resurgence of Breastfeeding"; Ryan et al., "Breastfeeding Continues to Increase"; Alain Joffe and Susan M. Radius, "Breast Versus Bottle: Correlates of Adolescent Mothers' Infant-Feeding Practices," Pediatrics 79 (1987): 689-695; Ryan et al., "Recent Declines in Breast-Feeding"; Christine E. Peterson and Julie DaVanzo, "Why Are Teenagers in the United States Less Likely to Breast-Feed Than Older Women?" Demography 29 (1992): 431-450; Ayala Gabriel, K. Ruben Gabriel, and Ruth A. Lawrence, "Cultural Values and Biomedical Knowledge: Choices in Infant Feeding," Social Science and Medicine 23 (1986): 501-509; Natalie Kurinij, Patricia H. Shiono, and George G. Rhoads, "Breast-Feeding Incidence and Duration in Black and White Women," Pediatrics 81 (1988): 365-371.
57. Ryan et al., "Resurgence of Breastfeeding"; Ryan et al., "Breastfeeding Continues to Increase"; Alain Joffe and Susan M. Radius, "Breast Versus Bottle: Correlates of Adolescent Mothers' Infant-Feeding Practices," Pediatrics 79 (1987): 689-695; Ryan et al., "Recent Declines in Breast-Feeding"; Christine E. Peterson and Julie DaVanzo, "Why Are Teenagers in the United States Less Likely to Breast-Feed Than Older Women?" Demography 29 (1992): 431-450; Ayala Gabriel, K. Ruben Gabriel, and Ruth A. Lawrence, "Cultural Values and Biomedical Knowledge: Choices in Infant Feeding," Social Science and Medicine 23 (1986): 501-509; Natalie Kurinij, Patricia H. Shiono, and George G. Rhoads, "Breast-Feeding Incidence and Duration in Black and White Women," Pediatrics 81 (1988): 365-371.
58. Kurinij et al., "Breastfeeding Incidence"; Ryan et al., "Recent Declines in Breastfeeding"; Renata Forste, Jessica Weiss, and Emily Lippincott, "The Decision to Breastfeed in the United States: Does Race Matter?" Pediatrics 108 (2001): 291-296.
59. Kurinij et al., "Breastfeeding Incidence"; Ryan et al., "Recent Declines in Breastfeeding"; Renata Forste, Jessica Weiss, and Emily Lippincott, "The Decision to Breastfeed in the United States: Does Race Matter?" Pediatrics 108 (2001): 291-296.
60. Kurinij et al., "Breastfeeding Incidence"; Ryan et al., "Recent Declines in Breastfeeding"; Renata Forste, Jessica Weiss, and Emily Lippincott, "The Decision to Breastfeed in the United States: Does Race Matter?" Pediatrics 108 (2001): 291-296.
61. Forste et al., "Decision to Breastfeed."
62. Marilyn Elias, "US Breast-Feeding Rate Soars," USA Today, December 1, 2002, available at: http://www.usato-day.com/news/health/2002-12-01-feeding-usat_x.htm, accessed December 2, 2002.
63. American Academy of Pediatrics, "Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk," Pediatrics 100 (1997): 1035-1039; World Health Organization, "The Optimal Duration of Exclusive Breastfeeding," Note for the Press No. 7, April 2, 2001, available at: www. who.int/inf-pr-2001/en/note2001-07.html, accessed October 10, 2002; Ryan et al., "Breastfeeding Continues to Increase."
64. American Academy of Pediatrics, "Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk," Pediatrics 100 (1997): 1035-1039; World Health Organization, "The Optimal Duration of Exclusive Breastfeeding," Note for the Press No. 7, April 2, 2001, available at: www. who.int/inf-pr-2001/en/note2001-07.html, accessed October 10, 2002; Ryan et al., "Breastfeeding Continues to Increase."
65. American Academy of Pediatrics, "Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk," Pediatrics 100 (1997): 1035-1039; World Health Organization, "The Optimal Duration of Exclusive Breastfeeding," Note for the Press No. 7, April 2, 2001, available at: www. who.int/inf-pr-2001/en/note2001-07.html, accessed October 10, 2002; Ryan et al., "Breastfeeding Continues to Increase."
66. Li Ruowei, Cynthia Ogden, Carol Ballew, Cathleen Gillespie, and Laurence Grummer-Strawn, "Prevalence of Exclusive Breastfeeding Among US Infants: The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (Phase II, 1991-1994)," American Journal of Public Health 92 (2002): 1107-1110.
67. Ryan, "Resurgence of Breastfeeding."
68. For information on the relationship between formula feeding and otitis media, see Nancy F. Sheard, "Breast-Feeding Protects Against Otitis Media," Nutrition Reviews 51 (1993): 275-277; B. Duncan, J. Ey, C. J. Holberg, A. L. Wright, F. D. Martinez, and L. M. Taussig, "Exclusive Breast-Feeding for at Least 4 Months Protects Against Otitis Media," Pediatrics 91 (1993): 867-872; G. Aniansson, "A Prospective Cohort Study on Breast-Feeding and Otitis Media in Swedish Infants," Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 13 (1994): 183-187. For information on the relationship between formula feeding and gastrointestinal disease, see A. S. Goldman, "Modulation of the Gastrointestinal Tract of Infants by Human Milk, Interfaces and Interactions: An Evolutionary Perspective," Journal of Nutrition 130 (2000): 426S-431S; L. K. Pickering and A. L. Morrow, "Factors in Human Milk That Protect Against Diarrheal Disease," Infection 2 (1993): 355-357; Amal K. Mitra and Fauziah Rabbani, "The Importance of Breastfeeding in Minimizing Mortality and Morbidity From Diarrhoeal Diseases: The Bangladesh Perspective," Journal of Diarrhoeal Diseases Research 13 (1995): 1-7. For information on the relationship between lower respiratory tract infections and formula feeding, see A. L. Wright, C. J. Holberg, F. D. Martinez, W. J. Morgan, and L. M. Taussig, "Breast Feeding and Lower Respiratory Tract Illness in the First Year of Life," British Medical Journal 299 (1989): 946-949; Y. Chen, "Synergistic Effect of Passive Smoking and Artificial Feeding on Hospitalization for Respiratory Illness in Early Childhood," Chest 95 (1989): 1004-1007; A. L. Wright, C. J. Holberg, L. M. Taussig, and F. D. Martinez, "Relationship of Infant Feeding to Recurrent Wheezing at Age 6 Years," Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 149 (1995): 758-763. See also Paula D. Scariati, Laurence M. Grummer-Strawn, and Sara Beck Fein, "A Longitudinal Analysis of Infant Morbidity and the Extent of Breastfeeding in the United States," Pediatrics 99 (1997): E5, available at www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/99/6/e5, accessed October 11, 2002.
69. For information on the relationship between formula feeding and otitis media, see Nancy F. Sheard, "Breast-Feeding Protects Against Otitis Media," Nutrition Reviews 51 (1993): 275-277; B. Duncan, J. Ey, C. J. Holberg, A. L. Wright, F. D. Martinez, and L. M. Taussig, "Exclusive Breast-Feeding for at Least 4 Months Protects Against Otitis Media," Pediatrics 91 (1993): 867-872; G. Aniansson, "A Prospective Cohort Study on Breast-Feeding and Otitis Media in Swedish Infants," Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 13 (1994): 183-187. For information on the relationship between formula feeding and gastrointestinal disease, see A. S. Goldman, "Modulation of the Gastrointestinal Tract of Infants by Human Milk, Interfaces and Interactions: An Evolutionary Perspective," Journal of Nutrition 130 (2000): 426S-431S; L. K. Pickering and A. L. Morrow, "Factors in Human Milk That Protect Against Diarrheal Disease," Infection 2 (1993): 355-357; Amal K. Mitra and Fauziah Rabbani, "The Importance of Breastfeeding in Minimizing Mortality and Morbidity From Diarrhoeal Diseases: The Bangladesh Perspective," Journal of Diarrhoeal Diseases Research 13 (1995): 1-7. For information on the relationship between lower respiratory tract infections and formula feeding, see A. L. Wright, C. J. Holberg, F. D. Martinez, W. J. Morgan, and L. M. Taussig, "Breast Feeding and Lower Respiratory Tract Illness in the First Year of Life," British Medical Journal 299 (1989): 946-949; Y. Chen, "Synergistic Effect of Passive Smoking and Artificial Feeding on Hospitalization for Respiratory Illness in Early Childhood," Chest 95 (1989): 1004-1007; A. L. Wright, C. J. Holberg, L. M. Taussig, and F. D. Martinez, "Relationship of Infant Feeding to Recurrent Wheezing at Age 6 Years," Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 149 (1995): 758-763. See also Paula D. Scariati, Laurence M. Grummer-Strawn, and Sara Beck Fein, "A Longitudinal Analysis of Infant Morbidity and the Extent of Breastfeeding in the United States," Pediatrics 99 (1997): E5, available at www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/99/6/e5, accessed October 11, 2002.
70. For information on the relationship between formula feeding and otitis media, see Nancy F. Sheard, "Breast-Feeding Protects Against Otitis Media," Nutrition Reviews 51 (1993): 275-277; B. Duncan, J. Ey, C. J. Holberg, A. L. Wright, F. D. Martinez, and L. M. Taussig, "Exclusive Breast-Feeding for at Least 4 Months Protects Against Otitis Media," Pediatrics 91 (1993): 867-872; G. Aniansson, "A Prospective Cohort Study on Breast-Feeding and Otitis Media in Swedish Infants," Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 13 (1994): 183-187. For information on the relationship between formula feeding and gastrointestinal disease, see A. S. Goldman, "Modulation of the Gastrointestinal Tract of Infants by Human Milk, Interfaces and Interactions: An Evolutionary Perspective," Journal of Nutrition 130 (2000): 426S-431S; L. K. Pickering and A. L. Morrow, "Factors in Human Milk That Protect Against Diarrheal Disease," Infection 2 (1993): 355-357; Amal K. Mitra and Fauziah Rabbani, "The Importance of Breastfeeding in Minimizing Mortality and Morbidity From Diarrhoeal Diseases: The Bangladesh Perspective," Journal of Diarrhoeal Diseases Research 13 (1995): 1-7. For information on the relationship between lower respiratory tract infections and formula feeding, see A. L. Wright, C. J. Holberg, F. D. Martinez, W. J. Morgan, and L. M. Taussig, "Breast Feeding and Lower Respiratory Tract Illness in the First Year of Life," British Medical Journal 299 (1989): 946-949; Y. Chen, "Synergistic Effect of Passive Smoking and Artificial Feeding on Hospitalization for Respiratory Illness in Early Childhood," Chest 95 (1989): 1004-1007; A. L. Wright, C. J. Holberg, L. M. Taussig, and F. D. Martinez, "Relationship of Infant Feeding to Recurrent Wheezing at Age 6 Years," Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 149 (1995): 758-763. See also Paula D. Scariati, Laurence M. Grummer-Strawn, and Sara Beck Fein, "A Longitudinal Analysis of Infant Morbidity and the Extent of Breastfeeding in the United States," Pediatrics 99 (1997): E5, available at www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/99/6/e5, accessed October 11, 2002.
71. For information on the relationship between formula feeding and otitis media, see Nancy F. Sheard, "Breast-Feeding Protects Against Otitis Media," Nutrition Reviews 51 (1993): 275-277; B. Duncan, J. Ey, C. J. Holberg, A. L. Wright, F. D. Martinez, and L. M. Taussig, "Exclusive Breast-Feeding for at Least 4 Months Protects Against Otitis Media," Pediatrics 91 (1993): 867-872; G. Aniansson, "A Prospective Cohort Study on Breast-Feeding and Otitis Media in Swedish Infants," Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 13 (1994): 183-187. For information on the relationship between formula feeding and gastrointestinal disease, see A. S. Goldman, "Modulation of the Gastrointestinal Tract of Infants by Human Milk, Interfaces and Interactions: An Evolutionary Perspective," Journal of Nutrition 130 (2000): 426S-431S; L. K. Pickering and A. L. Morrow, "Factors in Human Milk That Protect Against Diarrheal Disease," Infection 2 (1993): 355-357; Amal K. Mitra and Fauziah Rabbani, "The Importance of Breastfeeding in Minimizing Mortality and Morbidity From Diarrhoeal Diseases: The Bangladesh Perspective," Journal of Diarrhoeal Diseases Research 13 (1995): 1-7. For information on the relationship between lower respiratory tract infections and formula feeding, see A. L. Wright, C. J. Holberg, F. D. Martinez, W. J. Morgan, and L. M. Taussig, "Breast Feeding and Lower Respiratory Tract Illness in the First Year of Life," British Medical Journal 299 (1989): 946-949; Y. Chen, "Synergistic Effect of Passive Smoking and Artificial Feeding on Hospitalization for Respiratory Illness in Early Childhood," Chest 95 (1989): 1004-1007; A. L. Wright, C. J. Holberg, L. M. Taussig, and F. D. Martinez, "Relationship of Infant Feeding to Recurrent Wheezing at Age 6 Years," Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 149 (1995): 758-763. See also Paula D. Scariati, Laurence M. Grummer-Strawn, and Sara Beck Fein, "A Longitudinal Analysis of Infant Morbidity and the Extent of Breastfeeding in the United States," Pediatrics 99 (1997): E5, available at www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/99/6/e5, accessed October 11, 2002.
72. For information on the relationship between formula feeding and otitis media, see Nancy F. Sheard, "Breast-Feeding Protects Against Otitis Media," Nutrition Reviews 51 (1993): 275-277; B. Duncan, J. Ey, C. J. Holberg, A. L. Wright, F. D. Martinez, and L. M. Taussig, "Exclusive Breast-Feeding for at Least 4 Months Protects Against Otitis Media," Pediatrics 91 (1993): 867-872; G. Aniansson, "A Prospective Cohort Study on Breast-Feeding and Otitis Media in Swedish Infants," Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 13 (1994): 183-187. For information on the relationship between formula feeding and gastrointestinal disease, see A. S. Goldman, "Modulation of the Gastrointestinal Tract of Infants by Human Milk, Interfaces and Interactions: An Evolutionary Perspective," Journal of Nutrition 130 (2000): 426S-431S; L. K. Pickering and A. L. Morrow, "Factors in Human Milk That Protect Against Diarrheal Disease," Infection 2 (1993): 355-357; Amal K. Mitra and Fauziah Rabbani, "The Importance of Breastfeeding in Minimizing Mortality and Morbidity From Diarrhoeal Diseases: The Bangladesh Perspective," Journal of Diarrhoeal Diseases Research 13 (1995): 1-7. For information on the relationship between lower respiratory tract infections and formula feeding, see A. L. Wright, C. J. Holberg, F. D. Martinez, W. J. Morgan, and L. M. Taussig, "Breast Feeding and Lower Respiratory Tract Illness in the First Year of Life," British Medical Journal 299 (1989): 946-949; Y. Chen, "Synergistic Effect of Passive Smoking and Artificial Feeding on Hospitalization for Respiratory Illness in Early Childhood," Chest 95 (1989): 1004-1007; A. L. Wright, C. J. Holberg, L. M. Taussig, and F. D. Martinez, "Relationship of Infant Feeding to Recurrent Wheezing at Age 6 Years," Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 149 (1995): 758-763. See also Paula D. Scariati, Laurence M. Grummer-Strawn, and Sara Beck Fein, "A Longitudinal Analysis of Infant Morbidity and the Extent of Breastfeeding in the United States," Pediatrics 99 (1997): E5, available at www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/99/6/e5, accessed October 11, 2002.
73. For information on the relationship between formula feeding and otitis media, see Nancy F. Sheard, "Breast-Feeding Protects Against Otitis Media," Nutrition Reviews 51 (1993): 275-277; B. Duncan, J. Ey, C. J. Holberg, A. L. Wright, F. D. Martinez, and L. M. Taussig, "Exclusive Breast-Feeding for at Least 4 Months Protects Against Otitis Media," Pediatrics 91 (1993): 867-872; G. Aniansson, "A Prospective Cohort Study on Breast-Feeding and Otitis Media in Swedish Infants," Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 13 (1994): 183-187. For information on the relationship between formula feeding and gastrointestinal disease, see A. S. Goldman, "Modulation of the Gastrointestinal Tract of Infants by Human Milk, Interfaces and Interactions: An Evolutionary Perspective," Journal of Nutrition 130 (2000): 426S-431S; L. K. Pickering and A. L. Morrow, "Factors in Human Milk That Protect Against Diarrheal Disease," Infection 2 (1993): 355-357; Amal K. Mitra and Fauziah Rabbani, "The Importance of Breastfeeding in Minimizing Mortality and Morbidity From Diarrhoeal Diseases: The Bangladesh Perspective," Journal of Diarrhoeal Diseases Research 13 (1995): 1-7. For information on the relationship between lower respiratory tract infections and formula feeding, see A. L. Wright, C. J. Holberg, F. D. Martinez, W. J. Morgan, and L. M. Taussig, "Breast Feeding and Lower Respiratory Tract Illness in the First Year of Life," British Medical Journal 299 (1989): 946-949; Y. Chen, "Synergistic Effect of Passive Smoking and Artificial Feeding on Hospitalization for Respiratory Illness in Early Childhood," Chest 95 (1989): 1004-1007; A. L. Wright, C. J. Holberg, L. M. Taussig, and F. D. Martinez, "Relationship of Infant Feeding to Recurrent Wheezing at Age 6 Years," Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 149 (1995): 758-763. See also Paula D. Scariati, Laurence M. Grummer-Strawn, and Sara Beck Fein, "A Longitudinal Analysis of Infant Morbidity and the Extent of Breastfeeding in the United States," Pediatrics 99 (1997): E5, available at www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/99/6/e5, accessed October 11, 2002.
74. For information on the relationship between formula feeding and otitis media, see Nancy F. Sheard, "Breast-Feeding Protects Against Otitis Media," Nutrition Reviews 51 (1993): 275-277; B. Duncan, J. Ey, C. J. Holberg, A. L. Wright, F. D. Martinez, and L. M. Taussig, "Exclusive Breast-Feeding for at Least 4 Months Protects Against Otitis Media," Pediatrics 91 (1993): 867-872; G. Aniansson, "A Prospective Cohort Study on Breast-Feeding and Otitis Media in Swedish Infants," Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 13 (1994): 183-187. For information on the relationship between formula feeding and gastrointestinal disease, see A. S. Goldman, "Modulation of the Gastrointestinal Tract of Infants by Human Milk, Interfaces and Interactions: An Evolutionary Perspective," Journal of Nutrition 130 (2000): 426S-431S; L. K. Pickering and A. L. Morrow, "Factors in Human Milk That Protect Against Diarrheal Disease," Infection 2 (1993): 355-357; Amal K. Mitra and Fauziah Rabbani, "The Importance of Breastfeeding in Minimizing Mortality and Morbidity From Diarrhoeal Diseases: The Bangladesh Perspective," Journal of Diarrhoeal Diseases Research 13 (1995): 1-7. For information on the relationship between lower respiratory tract infections and formula feeding, see A. L. Wright, C. J. Holberg, F. D. Martinez, W. J. Morgan, and L. M. Taussig, "Breast Feeding and Lower Respiratory Tract Illness in the First Year of Life," British Medical Journal 299 (1989): 946-949; Y. Chen, "Synergistic Effect of Passive Smoking and Artificial Feeding on Hospitalization for Respiratory Illness in Early Childhood," Chest 95 (1989): 1004-1007; A. L. Wright, C. J. Holberg, L. M. Taussig, and F. D. Martinez, "Relationship of Infant Feeding to Recurrent Wheezing at Age 6 Years," Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 149 (1995): 758-763. See also Paula D. Scariati, Laurence M. Grummer-Strawn, and Sara Beck Fein, "A Longitudinal Analysis of Infant Morbidity and the Extent of Breastfeeding in the United States," Pediatrics 99 (1997): E5, available at www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/99/6/e5, accessed October 11, 2002.
75. For information on the relationship between formula feeding and otitis media, see Nancy F. Sheard, "Breast-Feeding Protects Against Otitis Media," Nutrition Reviews 51 (1993): 275-277; B. Duncan, J. Ey, C. J. Holberg, A. L. Wright, F. D. Martinez, and L. M. Taussig, "Exclusive Breast-Feeding for at Least 4 Months Protects Against Otitis Media," Pediatrics 91 (1993): 867-872; G. Aniansson, "A Prospective Cohort Study on Breast-Feeding and Otitis Media in Swedish Infants," Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 13 (1994): 183-187. For information on the relationship between formula feeding and gastrointestinal disease, see A. S. Goldman, "Modulation of the Gastrointestinal Tract of Infants by Human Milk, Interfaces and Interactions: An Evolutionary Perspective," Journal of Nutrition 130 (2000): 426S-431S; L. K. Pickering and A. L. Morrow, "Factors in Human Milk That Protect Against Diarrheal Disease," Infection 2 (1993): 355-357; Amal K. Mitra and Fauziah Rabbani, "The Importance of Breastfeeding in Minimizing Mortality and Morbidity From Diarrhoeal Diseases: The Bangladesh Perspective," Journal of Diarrhoeal Diseases Research 13 (1995): 1-7. For information on the relationship between lower respiratory tract infections and formula feeding, see A. L. Wright, C. J. Holberg, F. D. Martinez, W. J. Morgan, and L. M. Taussig, "Breast Feeding and Lower Respiratory Tract Illness in the First Year of Life," British Medical Journal 299 (1989): 946-949; Y. Chen, "Synergistic Effect of Passive Smoking and Artificial Feeding on Hospitalization for Respiratory Illness in Early Childhood," Chest 95 (1989): 1004-1007; A. L. Wright, C. J. Holberg, L. M. Taussig, and F. D. Martinez, "Relationship of Infant Feeding to Recurrent Wheezing at Age 6 Years," Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 149 (1995): 758-763. See also Paula D. Scariati, Laurence M. Grummer-Strawn, and Sara Beck Fein, "A Longitudinal Analysis of Infant Morbidity and the Extent of Breastfeeding in the United States," Pediatrics 99 (1997): E5, available at www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/99/6/e5, accessed October 11, 2002.
76. For information on the relationship between formula feeding and otitis media, see Nancy F. Sheard, "Breast-Feeding Protects Against Otitis Media," Nutrition Reviews 51 (1993): 275-277; B. Duncan, J. Ey, C. J. Holberg, A. L. Wright, F. D. Martinez, and L. M. Taussig, "Exclusive Breast-Feeding for at Least 4 Months Protects Against Otitis Media," Pediatrics 91 (1993): 867-872; G. Aniansson, "A Prospective Cohort Study on Breast-Feeding and Otitis Media in Swedish Infants," Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 13 (1994): 183-187. For information on the relationship between formula feeding and gastrointestinal disease, see A. S. Goldman, "Modulation of the Gastrointestinal Tract of Infants by Human Milk, Interfaces and Interactions: An Evolutionary Perspective," Journal of Nutrition 130 (2000): 426S-431S; L. K. Pickering and A. L. Morrow, "Factors in Human Milk That Protect Against Diarrheal Disease," Infection 2 (1993): 355-357; Amal K. Mitra and Fauziah Rabbani, "The Importance of Breastfeeding in Minimizing Mortality and Morbidity From Diarrhoeal Diseases: The Bangladesh Perspective," Journal of Diarrhoeal Diseases Research 13 (1995): 1-7. For information on the relationship between lower respiratory tract infections and formula feeding, see A. L. Wright, C. J. Holberg, F. D. Martinez, W. J. Morgan, and L. M. Taussig, "Breast Feeding and Lower Respiratory Tract Illness in the First Year of Life," British Medical Journal 299 (1989): 946-949; Y. Chen, "Synergistic Effect of Passive Smoking and Artificial Feeding on Hospitalization for Respiratory Illness in Early Childhood," Chest 95 (1989): 1004-1007; A. L. Wright, C. J. Holberg, L. M. Taussig, and F. D. Martinez, "Relationship of Infant Feeding to Recurrent Wheezing at Age 6 Years," Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 149 (1995): 758-763. See also Paula D. Scariati, Laurence M. Grummer-Strawn, and Sara Beck Fein, "A Longitudinal Analysis of Infant Morbidity and the Extent of Breastfeeding in the United States," Pediatrics 99 (1997): E5, available at www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/99/6/e5, accessed October 11, 2002.
77. For information on the relationship between formula feeding and otitis media, see Nancy F. Sheard, "Breast-Feeding Protects Against Otitis Media," Nutrition Reviews 51 (1993): 275-277; B. Duncan, J. Ey, C. J. Holberg, A. L. Wright, F. D. Martinez, and L. M. Taussig, "Exclusive Breast-Feeding for at Least 4 Months Protects Against Otitis Media," Pediatrics 91 (1993): 867-872; G. Aniansson, "A Prospective Cohort Study on Breast-Feeding and Otitis Media in Swedish Infants," Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 13 (1994): 183-187. For information on the relationship between formula feeding and gastrointestinal disease, see A. S. Goldman, "Modulation of the Gastrointestinal Tract of Infants by Human Milk, Interfaces and Interactions: An Evolutionary Perspective," Journal of Nutrition 130 (2000): 426S-431S; L. K. Pickering and A. L. Morrow, "Factors in Human Milk That Protect Against Diarrheal Disease," Infection 2 (1993): 355-357; Amal K. Mitra and Fauziah Rabbani, "The Importance of Breastfeeding in Minimizing Mortality and Morbidity From Diarrhoeal Diseases: The Bangladesh Perspective," Journal of Diarrhoeal Diseases Research 13 (1995): 1-7. For information on the relationship between lower respiratory tract infections and formula feeding, see A. L. Wright, C. J. Holberg, F. D. Martinez, W. J. Morgan, and L. M. Taussig, "Breast Feeding and Lower Respiratory Tract Illness in the First Year of Life," British Medical Journal 299 (1989): 946-949; Y. Chen, "Synergistic Effect of Passive Smoking and Artificial Feeding on Hospitalization for Respiratory Illness in Early Childhood," Chest 95 (1989): 1004-1007; A. L. Wright, C. J. Holberg, L. M. Taussig, and F. D. Martinez, "Relationship of Infant Feeding to Recurrent Wheezing at Age 6 Years," Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 149 (1995): 758-763. See also Paula D. Scariati, Laurence M. Grummer-Strawn, and Sara Beck Fein, "A Longitudinal Analysis of Infant Morbidity and the Extent of Breastfeeding in the United States," Pediatrics 99 (1997): E5, available at www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/99/6/e5, accessed October 11, 2002.
78. Coit, "Effects of Heated and Super-heated Milk."
79. B. Alm, G. Wennergren, S. G. Norvenius, et al., "Breast Feeding and the Sudden Infant Death Syndrome in Scandinavia, 1992-95," Archives of Disease in Childhood 86 (2002): 400-402. One recent article in Pediatrics argues that the race gap in infant mortality in the United States is directly linked to the race gap in breastfeeding rates; see Forste et al, "Decision to Breastfeed."
80. B. Alm, G. Wennergren, S. G. Norvenius, et al., "Breast Feeding and the Sudden Infant Death Syndrome in Scandinavia, 1992-95," Archives of Disease in Childhood 86 (2002): 400-402. One recent article in Pediatrics argues that the race gap in infant mortality in the United States is directly linked to the race gap in breastfeeding rates; see Forste et al, "Decision to Breastfeed."
81. Rüdiger von Kries, Berthold Koletzko, Thorsten Sauerwald, et al., "Breast Feeding and Obesity: Cross Sectional Study," British Medical Journal 319 (1999): 147-150; Matthew W. Gillman, Sheryl L. Rifas-Shiman, Carlos A. Camargo Jr., et al., "Risk of Overweight Among Adolescents Who Were Breastfed as Infants," Journal of the American Medical Association 285 (2001): 2461-2467.
82. Rüdiger von Kries, Berthold Koletzko, Thorsten Sauerwald, et al., "Breast Feeding and Obesity: Cross Sectional Study," British Medical Journal 319 (1999): 147-150; Matthew W. Gillman, Sheryl L. Rifas-Shiman, Carlos A. Camargo Jr., et al., "Risk of Overweight Among Adolescents Who Were Breastfed as Infants," Journal of the American Medical Association 285 (2001): 2461-2467.
83. A. Bener, S. Denic, and S. Galadari, "Longer Breast-Feeding and Protection Against Childhood Leukaemia and Lymphomas," European Journal of Cancer 37 (2001): 234-238.
84. W. H. Oddy, P. G. Holt, P. D. Sly, et al., "Association Between Breastfeeding and Asthma in 6 Year Old Children: Findings of a Prospective Birth Cohort Study," British Medical Journal 319 (1999): 815-819; S. Dell, "Breastfeeding and Asthma in Young Children: Findings From a Population-Based Study," Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 155 (2001): 1261-1265. See also K. A. W. Karunasekera, J. A. C. T. Jayasinghe, and L. W. G. R. Alwis, "Risk Factors of Childhood Asthma: A Sri Lankan Study," Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 47 (2001): 142-145.
85. W. H. Oddy, P. G. Holt, P. D. Sly, et al., "Association Between Breastfeeding and Asthma in 6 Year Old Children: Findings of a Prospective Birth Cohort Study," British Medical Journal 319 (1999): 815-819; S. Dell, "Breastfeeding and Asthma in Young Children: Findings From a Population-Based Study," Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 155 (2001): 1261-1265. See also K. A. W. Karunasekera, J. A. C. T. Jayasinghe, and L. W. G. R. Alwis, "Risk Factors of Childhood Asthma: A Sri Lankan Study," Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 47 (2001): 142-145.
86. W. H. Oddy, P. G. Holt, P. D. Sly, et al., "Association Between Breastfeeding and Asthma in 6 Year Old Children: Findings of a Prospective Birth Cohort Study," British Medical Journal 319 (1999): 815-819; S. Dell, "Breastfeeding and Asthma in Young Children: Findings From a Population-Based Study," Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 155 (2001): 1261-1265. See also K. A. W. Karunasekera, J. A. C. T. Jayasinghe, and L. W. G. R. Alwis, "Risk Factors of Childhood Asthma: A Sri Lankan Study," Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 47 (2001): 142-145.
87. Erik Lykke Mortensen, Kim Fleischer Michaelsen, Stephanie A. Sanders, and June Machover Reinisch, "The Association Between Duration of Breastfeeding and Adult Intelligence," Journal of the American Medical Association 287 (2002): 2365-2371. See also S. W. Jacobson and J. L. Jacobson, "Breastfeeding and IQ: Evaluation of the Socio-Environmental Confounders," Acta Paediatrica 91 (2002): 258-260; Ann Reynolds, "Breastfeeding and Brain Development," Pediatric Clinics of North America 48 (2001): 159-171; N. Gordon, "Nutrition and Cognitive Function," Brain & Development 19 (1997): 165-170; C. I. Lanting, S. Patandin, N. Weisglas-Kuperus, B. C. Touwen, and E. R. Boersma, "Breastfeeding and Neurological Outcome at 42 Months," Acta Paediatrica 87 (1998): 1224-1229. Researchers have also demonstrated that the higher IQs of breastfed babies are linked to undetermined properties in human milk rather than the act of breastfeeding. See A. Lucas, R. Morley, T. J. Cole, G. Lister, and C. Leeson-Payne, "Breast Milk and Subsequent Intelligence Quotient in Children Born Preterm," Lancet 339 (1992): 261-264. In this study, premature infants fed human milk only by gavage scored significantly higher on IQ tests in later years than premature infants fed formula by gavage.
88. Erik Lykke Mortensen, Kim Fleischer Michaelsen, Stephanie A. Sanders, and June Machover Reinisch, "The Association Between Duration of Breastfeeding and Adult Intelligence," Journal of the American Medical Association 287 (2002): 2365-2371. See also S. W. Jacobson and J. L. Jacobson, "Breastfeeding and IQ: Evaluation of the Socio-Environmental Confounders," Acta Paediatrica 91 (2002): 258-260; Ann Reynolds, "Breastfeeding and Brain Development," Pediatric Clinics of North America 48 (2001): 159-171; N. Gordon, "Nutrition and Cognitive Function," Brain & Development 19 (1997): 165-170; C. I. Lanting, S. Patandin, N. Weisglas-Kuperus, B. C. Touwen, and E. R. Boersma, "Breastfeeding and Neurological Outcome at 42 Months," Acta Paediatrica 87 (1998): 1224-1229. Researchers have also demonstrated that the higher IQs of breastfed babies are linked to undetermined properties in human milk rather than the act of breastfeeding. See A. Lucas, R. Morley, T. J. Cole, G. Lister, and C. Leeson-Payne, "Breast Milk and Subsequent Intelligence Quotient in Children Born Preterm," Lancet 339 (1992): 261-264. In this study, premature infants fed human milk only by gavage scored significantly higher on IQ tests in later years than premature infants fed formula by gavage.
89. Erik Lykke Mortensen, Kim Fleischer Michaelsen, Stephanie A. Sanders, and June Machover Reinisch, "The Association Between Duration of Breastfeeding and Adult Intelligence," Journal of the American Medical Association 287 (2002): 2365-2371. See also S. W. Jacobson and J. L. Jacobson, "Breastfeeding and IQ: Evaluation of the Socio-Environmental Confounders," Acta Paediatrica 91 (2002): 258-260; Ann Reynolds, "Breastfeeding and Brain Development," Pediatric Clinics of North America 48 (2001): 159-171; N. Gordon, "Nutrition and Cognitive Function," Brain & Development 19 (1997): 165-170; C. I. Lanting, S. Patandin, N. Weisglas-Kuperus, B. C. Touwen, and E. R. Boersma, "Breastfeeding and Neurological Outcome at 42 Months," Acta Paediatrica 87 (1998): 1224-1229. Researchers have also demonstrated that the higher IQs of breastfed babies are linked to undetermined properties in human milk rather than the act of breastfeeding. See A. Lucas, R. Morley, T. J. Cole, G. Lister, and C. Leeson-Payne, "Breast Milk and Subsequent Intelligence Quotient in Children Born Preterm," Lancet 339 (1992): 261-264. In this study, premature infants fed human milk only by gavage scored significantly higher on IQ tests in later years than premature infants fed formula by gavage.
90. Erik Lykke Mortensen, Kim Fleischer Michaelsen, Stephanie A. Sanders, and June Machover Reinisch, "The Association Between Duration of Breastfeeding and Adult Intelligence," Journal of the American Medical Association 287 (2002): 2365-2371. See also S. W. Jacobson and J. L. Jacobson, "Breastfeeding and IQ: Evaluation of the Socio-Environmental Confounders," Acta Paediatrica 91 (2002): 258-260; Ann Reynolds, "Breastfeeding and Brain Development," Pediatric Clinics of North America 48 (2001): 159-171; N. Gordon, "Nutrition and Cognitive Function," Brain & Development 19 (1997): 165-170; C. I. Lanting, S. Patandin, N. Weisglas-Kuperus, B. C. Touwen, and E. R. Boersma, "Breastfeeding and Neurological Outcome at 42 Months," Acta Paediatrica 87 (1998): 1224-1229. Researchers have also demonstrated that the higher IQs of breastfed babies are linked to undetermined properties in human milk rather than the act of breastfeeding. See A. Lucas, R. Morley, T. J. Cole, G. Lister, and C. Leeson-Payne, "Breast Milk and Subsequent Intelligence Quotient in Children Born Preterm," Lancet 339 (1992): 261-264. In this study, premature infants fed human milk only by gavage scored significantly higher on IQ tests in later years than premature infants fed formula by gavage.
91. Erik Lykke Mortensen, Kim Fleischer Michaelsen, Stephanie A. Sanders, and June Machover Reinisch, "The Association Between Duration of Breastfeeding and Adult Intelligence," Journal of the American Medical Association 287 (2002): 2365-2371. See also S. W. Jacobson and J. L. Jacobson, "Breastfeeding and IQ: Evaluation of the Socio-Environmental Confounders," Acta Paediatrica 91 (2002): 258-260; Ann Reynolds, "Breastfeeding and Brain Development," Pediatric Clinics of North America 48 (2001): 159-171; N. Gordon, "Nutrition and Cognitive Function," Brain & Development 19 (1997): 165-170; C. I. Lanting, S. Patandin, N. Weisglas-Kuperus, B. C. Touwen, and E. R. Boersma, "Breastfeeding and Neurological Outcome at 42 Months," Acta Paediatrica 87 (1998): 1224-1229. Researchers have also demonstrated that the higher IQs of breastfed babies are linked to undetermined properties in human milk rather than the act of breastfeeding. See A. Lucas, R. Morley, T. J. Cole, G. Lister, and C. Leeson-Payne, "Breast Milk and Subsequent Intelligence Quotient in Children Born Preterm," Lancet 339 (1992): 261-264. In this study, premature infants fed human milk only by gavage scored significantly higher on IQ tests in later years than premature infants fed formula by gavage.
92. Erik Lykke Mortensen, Kim Fleischer Michaelsen, Stephanie A. Sanders, and June Machover Reinisch, "The Association Between Duration of Breastfeeding and Adult Intelligence," Journal of the American Medical Association 287 (2002): 2365-2371. See also S. W. Jacobson and J. L. Jacobson, "Breastfeeding and IQ: Evaluation of the Socio-Environmental Confounders," Acta Paediatrica 91 (2002): 258-260; Ann Reynolds, "Breastfeeding and Brain Development," Pediatric Clinics of North America 48 (2001): 159-171; N. Gordon, "Nutrition and Cognitive Function," Brain & Development 19 (1997): 165-170; C. I. Lanting, S.
93. T. Zheng, L. Duan, Y. Liu, et al., "Lactation Reduces Breast Cancer Risk in Shandong Province, China," American Journal of Epidemiology 152 (2000): 1129-1135; Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer, "Breast Cancer and Breastfeeding: Collaborative Reanalysis of Individual Data From 47 Epidemiological Studies in 30 Countries, Including 50,302 Women With Breast Cancer and 96,973 Women Without the Disease," Lancet 360 (2002): 187-195. See also T Zheng, T. R. Holford, S. T. Mayne, et al., "Lactation and Breast Cancer Risk: A Case-Control Study in Connecticut," British Journal of Cancer 84 (2001): 1472-1476.
94. T. Zheng, L. Duan, Y. Liu, et al., "Lactation Reduces Breast Cancer Risk in Shandong Province, China," American Journal of Epidemiology 152 (2000): 1129-1135; Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer, "Breast Cancer and Breastfeeding: Collaborative Reanalysis of Individual Data From 47 Epidemiological Studies in 30 Countries, Including 50,302 Women With Breast Cancer and 96,973 Women Without the Disease," Lancet 360 (2002): 187-195. See also T Zheng, T. R. Holford, S. T. Mayne, et al., "Lactation and Breast Cancer Risk: A Case-Control Study in Connecticut," British Journal of Cancer 84 (2001): 1472-1476.
95. T. Zheng, L. Duan, Y. Liu, et al., "Lactation Reduces Breast Cancer Risk in Shandong Province, China," American Journal of Epidemiology 152 (2000): 1129-1135; Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer, "Breast Cancer and Breastfeeding: Collaborative Reanalysis of Individual Data From 47 Epidemiological Studies in 30 Countries, Including 50,302 Women With Breast Cancer and 96,973 Women Without the Disease," Lancet 360 (2002): 187-195. See also T Zheng, T. R. Holford, S. T. Mayne, et al., "Lactation and Breast Cancer Risk: A Case-Control Study in Connecticut," British Journal of Cancer 84 (2001): 1472-1476.
96. Studies demonstrate this. See, for example, R. Cohen, M. B. Mrtek, and R. G. Mrtek, "Comparison of Maternal Absenteeism and Infant Illness Rates Among Breast-Feeding and Formula-Feeding Women in Two Corporations," American Journal of Health Promotion 10 (1995): 148-153; C. Hoey and J. L. Ware, "Economic Advantages of Breast-Feeding in an HMO Setting: A Pilot Study," American Journal of Managed Care 3 (1997): 861-865; Thomas M. Ball and A. L. Wright, "Health Care Costs of Formula-Feeding in the First Year of Life," Pediatrics 103 (1999): 870-876; Thomas M. Ball and David M. Bennett, "The Economic Impact of Breastfeeding," Pediatric Clinics of North America 48 (2001): 253-262.
97. Studies demonstrate this. See, for example, R. Cohen, M. B. Mrtek, and R. G. Mrtek, "Comparison of Maternal Absenteeism and Infant Illness Rates Among Breast-Feeding and Formula-Feeding Women in Two Corporations," American Journal of Health Promotion 10 (1995): 148-153; C. Hoey and J. L. Ware, "Economic Advantages of Breast-Feeding in an HMO Setting: A Pilot Study," American Journal of Managed Care 3 (1997): 861-865; Thomas M. Ball and A. L. Wright, "Health Care Costs of Formula-Feeding in the First Year of Life," Pediatrics 103 (1999): 870-876; Thomas M. Ball and David M. Bennett, "The Economic Impact of Breastfeeding," Pediatric Clinics of North America 48 (2001): 253-262.
98. Studies demonstrate this. See, for example, R. Cohen, M. B. Mrtek, and R. G. Mrtek, "Comparison of Maternal Absenteeism and Infant Illness Rates Among Breast-Feeding and Formula-Feeding Women in Two Corporations," American Journal of Health Promotion 10 (1995): 148-153; C. Hoey and J. L. Ware, "Economic Advantages of Breast-Feeding in an HMO Setting: A Pilot Study," American Journal of Managed Care 3 (1997): 861-865; Thomas M. Ball and A. L. Wright, "Health Care Costs of Formula-Feeding in the First Year of Life," Pediatrics 103 (1999): 870-876; Thomas M. Ball and David M. Bennett, "The Economic Impact of Breastfeeding," Pediatric Clinics of North America 48 (2001): 253-262.
99. Studies demonstrate this. See, for example, R. Cohen, M. B. Mrtek, and R. G. Mrtek, "Comparison of Maternal Absenteeism and Infant Illness Rates Among Breast-Feeding and Formula-Feeding Women in Two Corporations," American Journal of Health Promotion 10 (1995): 148-153; C. Hoey and J. L. Ware, "Economic Advantages of Breast-Feeding in an HMO Setting: A Pilot Study," American Journal of Managed Care 3 (1997): 861-865; Thomas M. Ball and A. L. Wright, "Health Care Costs of Formula-Feeding in the First Year of Life," Pediatrics 103 (1999): 870-876; Thomas M. Ball and David M. Bennett, "The Economic Impact of Breastfeeding," Pediatric Clinics of North America 48 (2001): 253-262.
100. American Academy of Pediatrics, "Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk."
101. Electronic and print media around the country and the world covered the announcement of the AAP's new breastfeeding guidelines, including ABC World News Tonight, The Today Show, CNN, MSNBC, National Public Radio, United Press International, Associated Press, the London Daily Mail, Time magazine, and the New York Times. Articles included the following: Laura Githens, "Breast-Feeding for a Year? Easier Said Than Done," Buffalo News, December 3, 1997, 1D; "Longer Time Urged for Breastfeeding," Los Angeles Times, December 3, 1997, 14; Sharon Voas, "Babies Need Mom's Milk; 1 Year Minimum, Pediatricians Urge," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, December 3, 1997, A1; Jim Ritter, "Moms Urged to Breast-Feed Babies Longer; Doctors Push 1-Year Minimum," Chicago Sun-Times, December 2, 1997, 1; Marilyn Elias, "Nurse for Full Year, Moms Urged," USA Today, December 2, 1997, 1A; "Pediatrics Group Endorses 1 Year of Breast-Feeding," Washington Post, December 2, 1997, A14.
102. Electronic and print media around the country and the world covered the announcement of the AAP's new breastfeeding guidelines, including ABC World News Tonight, The Today Show, CNN, MSNBC, National Public Radio, United Press International, Associated Press, the London Daily Mail, Time magazine, and the New York Times. Articles included the following: Laura Githens, "Breast-Feeding for a Year? Easier Said Than Done," Buffalo News, December 3, 1997, 1D; "Longer Time Urged for Breastfeeding," Los Angeles Times, December 3, 1997, 14; Sharon Voas, "Babies Need Mom's Milk; 1 Year Minimum, Pediatricians Urge," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, December 3, 1997, A1; Jim Ritter, "Moms Urged to Breast-Feed Babies Longer; Doctors Push 1-Year Minimum," Chicago Sun-Times, December 2, 1997, 1; Marilyn Elias, "Nurse for Full Year, Moms Urged," USA Today, December 2, 1997, 1A; "Pediatrics Group Endorses 1 Year of Breast-Feeding," Washington Post, December 2, 1997, A14.
103. Electronic and print media around the country and the world covered the announcement of the AAP's new breastfeeding guidelines, including ABC World News Tonight, The Today Show, CNN, MSNBC, National Public Radio, United Press International, Associated Press, the London Daily Mail, Time magazine, and the New York Times. Articles included the following: Laura Githens, "Breast-Feeding for a Year? Easier Said Than Done," Buffalo News, December 3, 1997, 1D; "Longer Time Urged for Breastfeeding," Los Angeles Times, December 3, 1997, 14; Sharon Voas, "Babies Need Mom's Milk; 1 Year Minimum, Pediatricians Urge," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, December 3, 1997, A1; Jim Ritter, "Moms Urged to Breast-Feed Babies Longer; Doctors Push 1-Year Minimum," Chicago Sun-Times, December 2, 1997, 1; Marilyn Elias, "Nurse for Full Year, Moms Urged," USA Today, December 2, 1997, 1A; "Pediatrics Group Endorses 1 Year of Breast-Feeding," Washington Post, December 2, 1997, A14.
104. Electronic and print media around the country and the world covered the announcement of the AAP's new breastfeeding guidelines, including ABC World News Tonight, The Today Show, CNN, MSNBC, National Public Radio, United Press International, Associated Press, the London Daily Mail, Time magazine, and the New York Times. Articles included the following: Laura Githens, "Breast-Feeding for a Year? Easier Said Than Done," Buffalo News, December 3, 1997, 1D; "Longer Time Urged for Breastfeeding," Los Angeles Times, December 3, 1997, 14; Sharon Voas, "Babies Need Mom's Milk; 1 Year Minimum, Pediatricians Urge," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, December 3, 1997, A1; Jim Ritter, "Moms Urged to Breast-Feed Babies Longer; Doctors Push 1-Year Minimum," Chicago Sun-Times, December 2, 1997, 1; Marilyn Elias, "Nurse for Full Year, Moms Urged," USA Today, December 2, 1997, 1A; "Pediatrics Group Endorses 1 Year of Breast-Feeding," Washington Post, December 2, 1997, A14.
105. Electronic and print media around the country and the world covered the announcement of the AAP's new breastfeeding guidelines, including ABC World News Tonight, The Today Show, CNN, MSNBC, National Public Radio, United Press International, Associated Press, the London Daily Mail, Time magazine, and the New York Times. Articles included the following: Laura Githens, "Breast-Feeding for a Year? Easier Said Than Done," Buffalo News, December 3, 1997, 1D; "Longer Time Urged for Breastfeeding," Los Angeles Times, December 3, 1997, 14; Sharon Voas, "Babies Need Mom's Milk; 1 Year Minimum, Pediatricians Urge," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, December 3, 1997, A1; Jim Ritter, "Moms Urged to Breast-Feed Babies Longer; Doctors Push 1-Year Minimum," Chicago Sun-Times, December 2, 1997, 1; Marilyn Elias, "Nurse for Full Year, Moms Urged," USA Today, December 2, 1997, 1A; "Pediatrics Group Endorses 1 Year of Breast-Feeding," Washington Post, December 2, 1997, A14.
106. Electronic and print media around the country and the world covered the announcement of the AAP's new breastfeeding guidelines, including ABC World News Tonight, The Today Show, CNN, MSNBC, National Public Radio, United Press International, Associated Press, the London Daily Mail, Time magazine, and the New York Times. Articles included the following: Laura Githens, "Breast-Feeding for a Year? Easier Said Than Done," Buffalo News, December 3, 1997, 1D; "Longer Time Urged for Breastfeeding," Los Angeles Times, December 3, 1997, 14; Sharon Voas, "Babies Need Mom's Milk; 1 Year Minimum, Pediatricians Urge," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, December 3, 1997, A1; Jim Ritter, "Moms Urged to Breast-Feed Babies Longer; Doctors Push 1-Year Minimum," Chicago Sun-Times, December 2, 1997, 1; Marilyn Elias, "Nurse for Full Year, Moms Urged," USA Today, December 2, 1997, 1A; "Pediatrics Group Endorses 1 Year of Breast-Feeding," Washington Post, December 2, 1997, A14.
107. HHS Blueprint for Action on Breastfeeding (Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services, Office on Women's Health, 2000).
108. On June 19, 2002, the Ad Council issued a press release announcing plans for the formulation of 3 new public service announcements: to promote interracial cooperation, to improve literacy rates, and to educate Americans about breastfeeding. See http://www. adcouncil.org/about/news061902, accessed June 27, 2002. For information on the Ad Council and its work, see www.adcouncil.org.
109. On June 19, 2002, the Ad Council issued a press release announcing plans for the formulation of 3 new public service announcements: to promote interracial cooperation, to improve literacy rates, and to educate Americans about breastfeeding. See http://www. adcouncil.org/about/news061902, accessed June 27, 2002. For information on the Ad Council and its work, see www.adcouncil.org.
110. Diane Wiessinger, "Watch Your Language!" Journal of Human Lactation 12 (1996): 1-4.
111. American Academy of Pediatrics, "Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk."
112. A few representative headlines in the immediate aftermath of the AAP announcement include the following: "Mothers Urged to Breast-Feed a Year," Portland Press Herald, December 3, 1997, 7A; Marilyn Elias, "Breastfeeding Urged for First 12 Months," Denver Post, December 2, 1997, A4; "Guidelines Urge Moms to Breast-Feed to Year," Dayton Daily News, December 3, 1997.
113. A few representative headlines in the immediate aftermath of the AAP announcement include the following: "Mothers Urged to Breast-Feed a Year," Portland Press Herald, December 3, 1997, 7A; Marilyn Elias, "Breastfeeding Urged for First 12 Months," Denver Post, December 2, 1997, A4; "Guidelines Urge Moms to Breast-Feed to Year," Dayton Daily News, December 3, 1997.
114. A few representative headlines in the immediate aftermath of the AAP announcement include the following: "Mothers Urged to Breast-Feed a Year," Portland Press Herald, December 3, 1997, 7A; Marilyn Elias, "Breastfeeding Urged for First 12 Months," Denver Post, December 2, 1997, A4; "Guidelines Urge Moms to Breast-Feed to Year," Dayton Daily News, December 3, 1997.
115. Ryan et al., "Breastfeeding Continues to Increase."
116. A. L. Wright, "The Rise of Breastfeeding in the United States, " Pediatric Clinics of North America 48 (2001): 1-12; I. B. Ahluwalia, I. Tessaro, L. M. Grummer-Strawn, C. MacGowan, and S. Benton-Davis, "Georgia's Breastfeeding Promotion Program for Low-Income Women," Pediatrics 105 (2000): E85, available at: http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/105/6/e85, accessed February 24, 2003.
117. A. L. Wright, "The Rise of Breastfeeding in the United States, " Pediatric Clinics of North America 48 (2001): 1-12; I. B. Ahluwalia, I. Tessaro, L. M. Grummer-Strawn, C. MacGowan, and S. Benton-Davis, "Georgia's Breastfeeding Promotion Program for Low-Income Women," Pediatrics 105 (2000): E85, available at: http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/105/6/e85, accessed February 24, 2003.
118. Carol L. Wagner, Thomas C. Hulsey, W. Michael Southgate, and David J, Annibale, "Breastfeeding Rates at an Urban Medical University After Initiation of an Educational Program," Southern Medical Journal 95 (2002): 909-913.
119. G. L. Freed, S. J. Clark, J. Sorenson, J. A. Lohr, R. Cefalo, and P. Curtis, "National Assessment of Physicians' Breastfeeding Knowledge, Attitudes, Training and Experience," Journal of the American Medical Association 273 (1995): 472-476.
120. Laura Duberstein Lindberg, "Trends in the Relationship Between Breastfeeding and Postpartum Employment in the United States," Social Biology 43 (1996): 191-202.
121. It is not affected by part-time employment, however. Part-time work can be an effective strategy if a mother wants to combine breastfeeding and work. See Sara B. Fein and Brian Roe, "The Effect of Work Status on Initiation and Duration of Breast-Feeding," American Journal of Public Health 88 (1998): 1042-1046.
122. Joan Y. Meek, "Breastfeeding in the Workplace," Pediatric Clinics of North America 48 (2001): 461-474.
123. For discussions of the history of mothers and infant nurture, as well our knowledge of infant needs, see Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, Mother Nature: A History of Mothers, Infants, and Natural Selection (New York: Pantheon Books, 1999); Deborah Blum, Love at Goon Park: Harry Harlow and the Science of Affection (Cambridge, Mass: Perseus Publishing, 2002). Hrdy in particular takes contemporary feminists to task for their denial of infants' needs. Most developed countries have taken the needs of working mothers and their infants into account via legislation. In Europe, for example, where paid maternity leave is the norm, there is not only the legal requirement that women must be treated equally, women are also given special protections in areas where their unique ability to bear and breastfeed children might put them at a disadvantage. This is antithetical to US policy guaranteeing women equal treatment-that is, the same treatment as men-in the workplace. This puts women with very young children at an inherent disadvantage to men. See Nora V. Demleitner, "Maternity Leave Policies of the United States and Germany: A Comparative Study," New York Law School Journal of International and Comparative Law 13 (1992): 229-255.
124. For discussions of the history of mothers and infant nurture, as well our knowledge of infant needs, see Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, Mother Nature: A History of Mothers, Infants, and Natural Selection (New York: Pantheon Books, 1999); Deborah Blum, Love at Goon Park: Harry Harlow and the Science of Affection (Cambridge, Mass: Perseus Publishing, 2002). Hrdy in particular takes contemporary feminists to task for their denial of infants' needs. Most developed countries have taken the needs of working mothers and their infants into account via legislation. In Europe, for example, where paid maternity leave is the norm, there is not only the legal requirement that women must be treated equally, women are also given special protections in areas where their unique ability to bear and breastfeed children might put them at a disadvantage. This is antithetical to US policy guaranteeing women equal treatment-that is, the same treatment as men-in the workplace. This puts women with very young children at an inherent disadvantage to men. See Nora V. Demleitner, "Maternity Leave Policies of the United States and Germany: A Comparative Study," New York Law School Journal of International and Comparative Law 13 (1992): 229-255.
125. For discussions of the history of mothers and infant nurture, as well our knowledge of infant needs, see Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, Mother Nature: A History of Mothers, Infants, and Natural Selection (New York: Pantheon Books, 1999); Deborah Blum, Love at Goon Park: Harry Harlow and the Science of Affection (Cambridge, Mass: Perseus Publishing, 2002). Hrdy in particular takes contemporary feminists to task for their denial of infants' needs. Most developed countries have taken the needs of working mothers and their infants into account via legislation. In Europe, for example, where paid maternity leave is the norm, there is not only the legal requirement that women must be treated equally, women are also given special protections in areas where their unique ability to bear and breastfeed children might put them at a disadvantage. This is antithetical to US policy guaranteeing women equal treatment-that is, the same treatment as men-in the workplace. This puts women with very young children at an inherent disadvantage to men. See Nora V. Demleitner, "Maternity Leave Policies of the United States and Germany: A Comparative Study," New York Law School Journal of International and Comparative Law 13 (1992): 229-255.
126. Meek, "Breastfeeding in the Workplace," 465.
127. Wagner et al., "Breastfeeding Rates at an Urban Medical University"; Ryan et al., "Breastfeeding Continues to Increase." For more on the historical role of visiting nurses in lowering infant mortality and increasing breastfeeding rates, see Meckel, Save the Babies, 135-139; Wolf, Don't Kill Your Baby, 105-111; Wolf, "Let Us Have More Mother-Fed Babies."
128. Wagner et al., "Breastfeeding Rates at an Urban Medical University"; Ryan et al., "Breastfeeding Continues to Increase." For more on the historical role of visiting nurses in lowering infant mortality and increasing breastfeeding rates, see Meckel, Save the Babies, 135-139; Wolf, Don't Kill Your Baby, 105-111; Wolf, "Let Us Have More Mother-Fed Babies."
129. Wagner et al., "Breastfeeding Rates at an Urban Medical University"; Ryan et al., "Breastfeeding Continues to Increase." For more on the historical role of visiting nurses in lowering infant mortality and increasing breastfeeding rates, see Meckel, Save the Babies, 135-139; Wolf, Don't Kill Your Baby, 105-111; Wolf, "Let Us Have More Mother-Fed Babies."
130. Wagner et al., "Breastfeeding Rates at an Urban Medical University"; Ryan et al., "Breastfeeding Continues to Increase." For more on the historical role of visiting nurses in lowering infant mortality and increasing breastfeeding rates, see Meckel, Save the Babies, 135-139; Wolf, Don't Kill Your Baby, 105-111; Wolf, "Let Us Have More Mother-Fed Babies."
131. Wagner et al., "Breastfeeding Rates at an Urban Medical University"; Ryan et al., "Breastfeeding Continues to Increase." For more on the historical role of visiting nurses in lowering infant mortality and increasing breastfeeding rates, see Meckel, Save the Babies, 135-139; Wolf, Don't Kill Your Baby, 105-111; Wolf, "Let Us Have More Mother-Fed Babies."