Focus on Gender Comparative Education: Education, Ethnicity, Gender, and Social Transformation in Israel and South Africa

Comparative Education Review

Volumn 45, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 1-35

  Mickelson, Roslyn Arlin ^a   Nkomo, Mokubung ^a   Smith, Stephen Samuel ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0348202002     PISSN: 00104086     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/447643     Document Type: Article

References (97)

1. Yitzhak Kashti, Mordecai Arieli, and Rina Shapira, "Israel," in International Handbook of Educational Reform, ed. Peter Cookson, Alan Sadovnik, and Susan Semel (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1992), p. 318; State of Israel, Statistical Abstract of Israel (Jerusalem: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1957, 1961, 1970, 1981); Mokubung Nkomo, ed., Pedagogy of Domination: Toward a Democratic Education in South Africa (Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1990); Kate Truscott, "Gender in Education in South Africa: Notes for Developing the Research Proposal," Discussion Paper commissioned by the National Education Policy Investigation in South Africa (Johannesburg, February 1992); World Bank, World Development Indicators (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1998).
2. Yitzhak Kashti, Mordecai Arieli, and Rina Shapira, "Israel," in International Handbook of Educational Reform, ed. Peter Cookson, Alan Sadovnik, and Susan Semel (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1992), p. 318; State of Israel, Statistical Abstract of Israel (Jerusalem: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1957, 1961, 1970, 1981); Mokubung Nkomo, ed., Pedagogy of Domination: Toward a Democratic Education in South Africa (Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1990); Kate Truscott, "Gender in Education in South Africa: Notes for Developing the Research Proposal," Discussion Paper commissioned by the National Education Policy Investigation in South Africa (Johannesburg, February 1992); World Bank, World Development Indicators (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1998).
3. Yitzhak Kashti, Mordecai Arieli, and Rina Shapira, "Israel," in International Handbook of Educational Reform, ed. Peter Cookson, Alan Sadovnik, and Susan Semel (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1992), p. 318; State of Israel, Statistical Abstract of Israel (Jerusalem: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1957, 1961, 1970, 1981); Mokubung Nkomo, ed., Pedagogy of Domination: Toward a Democratic Education in South Africa (Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1990); Kate Truscott, "Gender in Education in South Africa: Notes for Developing the Research Proposal," Discussion Paper commissioned by the National Education Policy Investigation in South Africa (Johannesburg, February 1992); World Bank, World Development Indicators (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1998).
4. Yitzhak Kashti, Mordecai Arieli, and Rina Shapira, "Israel," in International Handbook of Educational Reform, ed. Peter Cookson, Alan Sadovnik, and Susan Semel (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1992), p. 318; State of Israel, Statistical Abstract of Israel (Jerusalem: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1957, 1961, 1970, 1981); Mokubung Nkomo, ed., Pedagogy of Domination: Toward a Democratic Education in South Africa (Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1990); Kate Truscott, "Gender in Education in South Africa: Notes for Developing the Research Proposal," Discussion Paper commissioned by the National Education Policy Investigation in South Africa (Johannesburg, February 1992); World Bank, World Development Indicators (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1998).
5. Yitzhak Kashti, Mordecai Arieli, and Rina Shapira, "Israel," in International Handbook of Educational Reform, ed. Peter Cookson, Alan Sadovnik, and Susan Semel (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1992), p. 318; State of Israel, Statistical Abstract of Israel (Jerusalem: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1957, 1961, 1970, 1981); Mokubung Nkomo, ed., Pedagogy of Domination: Toward a Democratic Education in South Africa (Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1990); Kate Truscott, "Gender in Education in South Africa: Notes for Developing the Research Proposal," Discussion Paper commissioned by the National Education Policy Investigation in South Africa (Johannesburg, February 1992); World Bank, World Development Indicators (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1998).
6. Our analysis is confined to citizens of Israel and South Africa and thus excludes residents of South Africa's so-called homelands as well as Palestinians in the occupied territories of the West Bank and Gaza. To include these other groups would further complicate an analysis that both theoretically and methodologically is already extremely complex.
7. Gail P. Kelly, ed., International Handbook of Women's Education (New York: Greenwood, 1989); Golnar Mehran, "A Study of Girls' Lack of Access to Primary Schooling in the Islamic Republic of Iran," Compare 27 (1997): 263-76; Nelly Stromquist, Literacy for Citizenship (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1997), and "Education for the Empowerment of Women: Two Latin American Experiences," in Education and Development: Lessons from the Third World, ed. Vincent D. Oyley, Adrian Blunt, and Ray Barnhardt (Calgary, Alberta: Deselig, 1995), pp. 263-84; Swarna Jayaweera, "Higher Education and the Economic and Social Empowerment of Women - the Asian Experience," Compare 27 (1997): 244-62; Susan Tiano, "Gender, Work, and World Capitalism: Third World Women's Role in Development," in Analyzing Gender: A Handbook of Social Science Research, ed. Myra Marx Ferree and Beth Hess (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1987), pp. 216-43.
8. Gail P. Kelly, ed., International Handbook of Women's Education (New York: Greenwood, 1989); Golnar Mehran, "A Study of Girls' Lack of Access to Primary Schooling in the Islamic Republic of Iran," Compare 27 (1997): 263-76; Nelly Stromquist, Literacy for Citizenship (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1997), and "Education for the Empowerment of Women: Two Latin American Experiences," in Education and Development: Lessons from the Third World, ed. Vincent D. Oyley, Adrian Blunt, and Ray Barnhardt (Calgary, Alberta: Deselig, 1995), pp. 263-84; Swarna Jayaweera, "Higher Education and the Economic and Social Empowerment of Women - the Asian Experience," Compare 27 (1997): 244-62; Susan Tiano, "Gender, Work, and World Capitalism: Third World Women's Role in Development," in Analyzing Gender: A Handbook of Social Science Research, ed. Myra Marx Ferree and Beth Hess (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1987), pp. 216-43.
9. Gail P. Kelly, ed., International Handbook of Women's Education (New York: Greenwood, 1989); Golnar Mehran, "A Study of Girls' Lack of Access to Primary Schooling in the Islamic Republic of Iran," Compare 27 (1997): 263-76; Nelly Stromquist, Literacy for Citizenship (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1997), and "Education for the Empowerment of Women: Two Latin American Experiences," in Education and Development: Lessons from the Third World, ed. Vincent D. Oyley, Adrian Blunt, and Ray Barnhardt (Calgary, Alberta: Deselig, 1995), pp. 263-84; Swarna Jayaweera, "Higher Education and the Economic and Social Empowerment of Women - the Asian Experience," Compare 27 (1997): 244-62; Susan Tiano, "Gender, Work, and World Capitalism: Third World Women's Role in Development," in Analyzing Gender: A Handbook of Social Science Research, ed. Myra Marx Ferree and Beth Hess (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1987), pp. 216-43.
10. Gail P. Kelly, ed., International Handbook of Women's Education (New York: Greenwood, 1989); Golnar Mehran, "A Study of Girls' Lack of Access to Primary Schooling in the Islamic Republic of Iran," Compare 27 (1997): 263-76; Nelly Stromquist, Literacy for Citizenship (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1997), and "Education for the Empowerment of Women: Two Latin American Experiences," in Education and Development: Lessons from the Third World, ed. Vincent D. Oyley, Adrian Blunt, and Ray Barnhardt (Calgary, Alberta: Deselig, 1995), pp. 263-84; Swarna Jayaweera, "Higher Education and the Economic and Social Empowerment of Women - the Asian Experience," Compare 27 (1997): 244-62; Susan Tiano, "Gender, Work, and World Capitalism: Third World Women's Role in Development," in Analyzing Gender: A Handbook of Social Science Research, ed. Myra Marx Ferree and Beth Hess (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1987), pp. 216-43.
11. Gail P. Kelly, ed., International Handbook of Women's Education (New York: Greenwood, 1989); Golnar Mehran, "A Study of Girls' Lack of Access to Primary Schooling in the Islamic Republic of Iran," Compare 27 (1997): 263-76; Nelly Stromquist, Literacy for Citizenship (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1997), and "Education for the Empowerment of Women: Two Latin American Experiences," in Education and Development: Lessons from the Third World, ed. Vincent D. Oyley, Adrian Blunt, and Ray Barnhardt (Calgary, Alberta: Deselig, 1995), pp. 263-84; Swarna Jayaweera, "Higher Education and the Economic and Social Empowerment of Women - the Asian Experience," Compare 27 (1997): 244-62; Susan Tiano, "Gender, Work, and World Capitalism: Third World Women's Role in Development," in Analyzing Gender: A Handbook of Social Science Research, ed. Myra Marx Ferree and Beth Hess (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1987), pp. 216-43.
12. Gail P. Kelly, ed., International Handbook of Women's Education (New York: Greenwood, 1989); Golnar Mehran, "A Study of Girls' Lack of Access to Primary Schooling in the Islamic Republic of Iran," Compare 27 (1997): 263-76; Nelly Stromquist, Literacy for Citizenship (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1997), and "Education for the Empowerment of Women: Two Latin American Experiences," in Education and Development: Lessons from the Third World, ed. Vincent D. Oyley, Adrian Blunt, and Ray Barnhardt (Calgary, Alberta: Deselig, 1995), pp. 263-84; Swarna Jayaweera, "Higher Education and the Economic and Social Empowerment of Women - the Asian Experience," Compare 27 (1997): 244-62; Susan Tiano, "Gender, Work, and World Capitalism: Third World Women's Role in Development," in Analyzing Gender: A Handbook of Social Science Research, ed. Myra Marx Ferree and Beth Hess (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1987), pp. 216-43.
13. John Boli, Francisco O. Ramirez, and John W. Meyer, "Explaining the Origins and Expansion of Mass Education," Comparative Education Review 29 (May 1985): 145-70; Bruce Fuller and Richard Rubinson, The Political Construction of Education (New York: Praeger, 1992); John W. Meyer, David Kamens, and Aaron Benavotet, with Yun-Kyung Cha and Suk-Ying Yong, School Knowledge for the Masses: World Models and National Primary Curricular Categories in the Twentieth Century (Washington, D.C.: Falmer, 1992); Francisco O. Ramirez, "Continuous Assessment and Gender Equity: Constructing the Progressive Learner in the North," in Inside Reform: Policy and Programming in Namibia's Basic Education Reform, ed. Conrad Wesley Synder, Jr., and Friedhelm G. G. Voigts (Windhoek, Namibia: Gamsberg, Macmillan, 1998), pp. 155-87; Francisco O. Ramirez and John Boli Bennett, "Global Patterns of Educational Institutionalization," in Comparative Education, ed. Philip G. Altbach, Robert F. Arnove, and Gail Paradise Kelly (New York: Advert, 1982), pp. 15-36.
14. John Boli, Francisco O. Ramirez, and John W. Meyer, "Explaining the Origins and Expansion of Mass Education," Comparative Education Review 29 (May 1985): 145-70; Bruce Fuller and Richard Rubinson, The Political Construction of Education (New York: Praeger, 1992); John W. Meyer, David Kamens, and Aaron Benavotet, with Yun-Kyung Cha and Suk-Ying Yong, School Knowledge for the Masses: World Models and National Primary Curricular Categories in the Twentieth Century (Washington, D.C.: Falmer, 1992); Francisco O. Ramirez, "Continuous Assessment and Gender Equity: Constructing the Progressive Learner in the North," in Inside Reform: Policy and Programming in Namibia's Basic Education Reform, ed. Conrad Wesley Synder, Jr., and Friedhelm G. G. Voigts (Windhoek, Namibia: Gamsberg, Macmillan, 1998), pp. 155-87; Francisco O. Ramirez and John Boli Bennett, "Global Patterns of Educational Institutionalization," in Comparative Education, ed. Philip G. Altbach, Robert F. Arnove, and Gail Paradise Kelly (New York: Advert, 1982), pp. 15-36.
15. John Boli, Francisco O. Ramirez, and John W. Meyer, "Explaining the Origins and Expansion of Mass Education," Comparative Education Review 29 (May 1985): 145-70; Bruce Fuller and Richard Rubinson, The Political Construction of Education (New York: Praeger, 1992); John W. Meyer, David Kamens, and Aaron Benavotet, with Yun-Kyung Cha and Suk-Ying Yong, School Knowledge for the Masses: World Models and National Primary Curricular Categories in the Twentieth Century (Washington, D.C.: Falmer, 1992); Francisco O. Ramirez, "Continuous Assessment and Gender Equity: Constructing the Progressive Learner in the North," in Inside Reform: Policy and Programming in Namibia's Basic Education Reform, ed. Conrad Wesley Synder, Jr., and Friedhelm G. G. Voigts (Windhoek, Namibia: Gamsberg, Macmillan, 1998), pp. 155-87; Francisco O. Ramirez and John Boli Bennett, "Global Patterns of Educational Institutionalization," in Comparative Education, ed. Philip G. Altbach, Robert F. Arnove, and Gail Paradise Kelly (New York: Advert, 1982), pp. 15-36.
16. John Boli, Francisco O. Ramirez, and John W. Meyer, "Explaining the Origins and Expansion of Mass Education," Comparative Education Review 29 (May 1985): 145-70; Bruce Fuller and Richard Rubinson, The Political Construction of Education (New York: Praeger, 1992); John W. Meyer, David Kamens, and Aaron Benavotet, with Yun-Kyung Cha and Suk-Ying Yong, School Knowledge for the Masses: World Models and National Primary Curricular Categories in the Twentieth Century (Washington, D.C.: Falmer, 1992); Francisco O. Ramirez, "Continuous Assessment and Gender Equity: Constructing the Progressive Learner in the North," in Inside Reform: Policy and Programming in Namibia's Basic Education Reform, ed. Conrad Wesley Synder, Jr., and Friedhelm G. G. Voigts (Windhoek, Namibia: Gamsberg, Macmillan, 1998), pp. 155-87; Francisco O. Ramirez and John Boli Bennett, "Global Patterns of Educational Institutionalization," in Comparative Education, ed. Philip G. Altbach, Robert F. Arnove, and Gail Paradise Kelly (New York: Advert, 1982), pp. 15-36.
17. John Boli, Francisco O. Ramirez, and John W. Meyer, "Explaining the Origins and Expansion of Mass Education," Comparative Education Review 29 (May 1985): 145-70; Bruce Fuller and Richard Rubinson, The Political Construction of Education (New York: Praeger, 1992); John W. Meyer, David Kamens, and Aaron Benavotet, with Yun-Kyung Cha and Suk-Ying Yong, School Knowledge for the Masses: World Models and National Primary Curricular Categories in the Twentieth Century (Washington, D.C.: Falmer, 1992); Francisco O. Ramirez, "Continuous Assessment and Gender Equity: Constructing the Progressive Learner in the North," in Inside Reform: Policy and Programming in Namibia's Basic Education Reform, ed. Conrad Wesley Synder, Jr., and Friedhelm G. G. Voigts (Windhoek, Namibia: Gamsberg, Macmillan, 1998), pp. 155-87; Francisco O. Ramirez and John Boli Bennett, "Global Patterns of Educational Institutionalization," in Comparative Education, ed. Philip G. Altbach, Robert F. Arnove, and Gail Paradise Kelly (New York: Advert, 1982), pp. 15-36.
18. Bruce Fuller, Growing Up Modern: The Western State Builds Third World Schools (New York: Routledge, 1991).
19. Gail Kelly and Carolyn Elliot, "Orientation toward the Study of Women's Education in the Third World," in Women's Education in the Third World: Comparative Perspectives, ed. Gail Kelly and Carolyn Elliot (Albany, N.Y: SUNY Press, 1982), pp. 1-7; Udoh Valentine James, Women and Sustainable Development in Africa (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, Nelly Stromquist, "Women and Illiteracy: The Interplay of Gender Subordination and Poverty," Comparative Education Review 34 (1990): 95-111, 1995); and "Education for the Empowerment of Women"; Tiano.
20. Gail Kelly and Carolyn Elliot, "Orientation toward the Study of Women's Education in the Third World," in Women's Education in the Third World: Comparative Perspectives, ed. Gail Kelly and Carolyn Elliot (Albany, N.Y: SUNY Press, 1982), pp. 1-7; Udoh Valentine James, Women and Sustainable Development in Africa (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, Nelly Stromquist, "Women and Illiteracy: The Interplay of Gender Subordination and Poverty," Comparative Education Review 34 (1990): 95-111, 1995); and "Education for the Empowerment of Women"; Tiano.
21. Gail Kelly and Carolyn Elliot, "Orientation toward the Study of Women's Education in the Third World," in Women's Education in the Third World: Comparative Perspectives, ed. Gail Kelly and Carolyn Elliot (Albany, N.Y: SUNY Press, 1982), pp. 1-7; Udoh Valentine James, Women and Sustainable Development in Africa (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, Nelly Stromquist, "Women and Illiteracy: The Interplay of Gender Subordination and Poverty," Comparative Education Review 34 (1990): 95-111, 1995); and "Education for the Empowerment of Women"; Tiano.
22. Gail Kelly and Carolyn Elliot, "Orientation toward the Study of Women's Education in the Third World," in Women's Education in the Third World: Comparative Perspectives, ed. Gail Kelly and Carolyn Elliot (Albany, N.Y: SUNY Press, 1982), pp. 1-7; Udoh Valentine James, Women and Sustainable Development in Africa (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, Nelly Stromquist, "Women and Illiteracy: The Interplay of Gender Subordination and Poverty," Comparative Education Review 34 (1990): 95-111, 1995); and "Education for the Empowerment of Women"; Tiano.
23. Although we believe ethnic categories reify divisions among people, ethnic categories are, nonetheless, meaningful in sociopolitical and historical context. We use the concept of ethnicity to designate the cultural, linguistic, and historical differences among groups in each country. These categories also correspond to those used by government census enumerators. In Israel, there are four major groups: Arab Israelis, Israeli-born (citizens of Jewish descent whose fathers were born in Israel [also known as Sabras]), Mizrahim (immigrant Jews of South African, Australian, South American, Middle Eastern, and North African descent), and Ashkenazim (immigrant Jews of U.S., Western, and Central and Eastern European descent). South Africa is characterized by four major ethnic groups as well, although there are significant internal distinctions within each: whites, Indians, Coloreds, and Africans (people of Ngunispeaking and Sotho-speaking origin). Where appropriate, the term "black" will be used as a generic reference to those who have been historically disadvantaged under apartheid laws, i.e., Africans, Coloreds, and Indians. Within these main groups, there are additional ethnic and religious distinctions that are salient within each society, but we do not consider these in this article.
24. Republic of South Africa, Central Statistical Service, South African Statistics 1994 (Pretoria: Central Statistical Service, 1994), p. 1.3. It should be noted that the 1980 population figures exclude the Republics of Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda, and Ciskei.
25. Ros Hirschowitz and Jann Acutt, The NTB/HSRC Investigation into Training in the Informal Sector (Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council, 1991), p. 3.
26. Drora Kfir, Hanna Ayalon, and Rina Shapira, "Israel," in Kelly, ed.
27. Barbara Swirski and Marilyn P. Safir, Calling the Equality Bluff: Women in Israel (New York: Teachers College Press, 1993), pp. 1-3.
28. S. N. Eisenstadt, Israel Society (New York: Basic, 1967).
29. Baruch Kimmerling, "Sociology, Ideology, and Nation-Building: The Palestinians and Their Meaning in Israeli Society," American Sociological Review 57 (1992): 446-60. Whether this was forced or voluntary exile is a matter of continuing and rancorous debate.
30. Arabs in the occupied territories are not the topic of this article, which concerns only Arab Israelis. They are enfranchised but, unlike Jews, are not required to serve in the military. Only a handful of Arab Israelis, usually Christians, do serve. This has tremendous implications for Arab labor market participation (see Y. Shavit, "Labor Market Discrimination and Educational Selection: Arab and Jewish Minorities in Israel Education" [paper presented at the meeting of the American Sociological Association, Cincinnati, August 1991]). We acknowledge that Palestinian Arab laborers are an integral part of the secondary sector of the Israeli economy, and were they to be included in our analyses, our findings might change very much. In fact, the wage gaps between Ashkenazim men and the most subordinate men in Israel would likely resemble the relationship between whites and Africans in South Africa.
31. The Israeli Law of Return provides any Jew with the right to Israeli citizenship irrespective of his or her nation of birth. Palestinians born in what is now Israel but who left soon after partition could not return to their homes and have lived in exile since. Ironically, Soviet Jews are permitted to immigrate with their family members, at least 30 percent of whom are not Jews.
32. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and John L. Esposito, Islam, Gender and Social Change (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998); S. Jiryis, The Arabs in Israel (New York: Monthly Review, 1976); Ian Lustick, Arabs in the Jewish State: Israel's Control of a National Minority (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1978); Moshe Semyonov, "Bi-ethnic Labor Markets, Mono-Ethnic Labor Markets, and Socioeconomic Inequality," American Sociological Review 53 (1988): 256-66; Sammy Smooha, The Orientation and Politicization of the Arab Minority in Israel (Haifa, Israel: Institute of Middle Eastern Studies, 1984).
33. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and John L. Esposito, Islam, Gender and Social Change (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998); S. Jiryis, The Arabs in Israel (New York: Monthly Review, 1976); Ian Lustick, Arabs in the Jewish State: Israel's Control of a National Minority (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1978); Moshe Semyonov, "Bi-ethnic Labor Markets, Mono-Ethnic Labor Markets, and Socioeconomic Inequality," American Sociological Review 53 (1988): 256-66; Sammy Smooha, The Orientation and Politicization of the Arab Minority in Israel (Haifa, Israel: Institute of Middle Eastern Studies, 1984).
34. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and John L. Esposito, Islam, Gender and Social Change (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998); S. Jiryis, The Arabs in Israel (New York: Monthly Review, 1976); Ian Lustick, Arabs in the Jewish State: Israel's Control of a National Minority (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1978); Moshe Semyonov, "Bi-ethnic Labor Markets, Mono-Ethnic Labor Markets, and Socioeconomic Inequality," American Sociological Review 53 (1988): 256-66; Sammy Smooha, The Orientation and Politicization of the Arab Minority in Israel (Haifa, Israel: Institute of Middle Eastern Studies, 1984).
35. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and John L. Esposito, Islam, Gender and Social Change (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998); S. Jiryis, The Arabs in Israel (New York: Monthly Review, 1976); Ian Lustick, Arabs in the Jewish State: Israel's Control of a National Minority (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1978); Moshe Semyonov, "Bi-ethnic Labor Markets, Mono-Ethnic Labor Markets, and Socioeconomic Inequality," American Sociological Review 53 (1988): 256-66; Sammy Smooha, The Orientation and Politicization of the Arab Minority in Israel (Haifa, Israel: Institute of Middle Eastern Studies, 1984).
36. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and John L. Esposito, Islam, Gender and Social Change (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998); S. Jiryis, The Arabs in Israel (New York: Monthly Review, 1976); Ian Lustick, Arabs in the Jewish State: Israel's Control of a National Minority (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1978); Moshe Semyonov, "Bi-ethnic Labor Markets, Mono-Ethnic Labor Markets, and Socioeconomic Inequality," American Sociological Review 53 (1988): 256-66; Sammy Smooha, The Orientation and Politicization of the Arab Minority in Israel (Haifa, Israel: Institute of Middle Eastern Studies, 1984).
37. Hanna Ayalon, "The Social Impact of Nonregular Education in Israel," Comparative Education Review 34 (1990): 303-13; Eisenstadt; Yitchak Haberfeld and Yinon Cohen, "Earnings of Native-Born Jewish and Arab Men in Israel, 1987-1993," Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 16 (1998): 16-88; M. Semyonov, S. Smooha, and V. Kraus, "Ethnicity as a Factor in Status Attainment in Israel," Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 4 (1985): 151-75; Yossi Shavit and Vered Kraus, "Educational Transitions in Israel: A Test of the Industrialization and Credentialism Hypothesis." Sociology of Education 63 (1990): 133-41.
38. Hanna Ayalon, "The Social Impact of Nonregular Education in Israel," Comparative Education Review 34 (1990): 303-13; Eisenstadt; Yitchak Haberfeld and Yinon Cohen, "Earnings of Native-Born Jewish and Arab Men in Israel, 1987-1993," Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 16 (1998): 16-88; M. Semyonov, S. Smooha, and V. Kraus, "Ethnicity as a Factor in Status Attainment in Israel," Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 4 (1985): 151-75; Yossi Shavit and Vered Kraus, "Educational Transitions in Israel: A Test of the Industrialization and Credentialism Hypothesis." Sociology of Education 63 (1990): 133-41.
39. Hanna Ayalon, "The Social Impact of Nonregular Education in Israel," Comparative Education Review 34 (1990): 303-13; Eisenstadt; Yitchak Haberfeld and Yinon Cohen, "Earnings of Native-Born Jewish and Arab Men in Israel, 1987-1993," Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 16 (1998): 16-88; M. Semyonov, S. Smooha, and V. Kraus, "Ethnicity as a Factor in Status Attainment in Israel," Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 4 (1985): 151-75; Yossi Shavit and Vered Kraus, "Educational Transitions in Israel: A Test of the Industrialization and Credentialism Hypothesis." Sociology of Education 63 (1990): 133-41.
40. Hanna Ayalon, "The Social Impact of Nonregular Education in Israel," Comparative Education Review 34 (1990): 303-13; Eisenstadt; Yitchak Haberfeld and Yinon Cohen, "Earnings of Native-Born Jewish and Arab Men in Israel, 1987-1993," Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 16 (1998): 16-88; M. Semyonov, S. Smooha, and V. Kraus, "Ethnicity as a Factor in Status Attainment in Israel," Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 4 (1985): 151-75; Yossi Shavit and Vered Kraus, "Educational Transitions in Israel: A Test of the Industrialization and Credentialism Hypothesis." Sociology of Education 63 (1990): 133-41.
41. Semyonov, p. 264.
42. Sanya Abu Rakba, "Arab Women in the Israeli Labor Market" in Swirski and Safir, eds., pp. 187-91; Shavit, "Labor Market Discrimination and Educational Selection," and "From Peasantry to Proletariat: Changes in the Educational Stratification of Arabs in Israel," in Persistent Inequalities: Changing Educational Attainment in Thirteen Countries, ed. Yossi Shavit and Peter-Hans Blossfeld (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1994), pp. 337-50.
43. Sanya Abu Rakba, "Arab Women in the Israeli Labor Market" in Swirski and Safir, eds., pp. 187-91; Shavit, "Labor Market Discrimination and Educational Selection," and "From Peasantry to Proletariat: Changes in the Educational Stratification of Arabs in Israel," in Persistent Inequalities: Changing Educational Attainment in Thirteen Countries, ed. Yossi Shavit and Peter-Hans Blossfeld (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1994), pp. 337-50.
44. Sanya Abu Rakba, "Arab Women in the Israeli Labor Market" in Swirski and Safir, eds., pp. 187-91; Shavit, "Labor Market Discrimination and Educational Selection," and "From Peasantry to Proletariat: Changes in the Educational Stratification of Arabs in Israel," in Persistent Inequalities: Changing Educational Attainment in Thirteen Countries, ed. Yossi Shavit and Peter-Hans Blossfeld (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1994), pp. 337-50.
45. Kashti, Arieli, and Shapira (n. 1 above). Also see Nura Resh ("Track Placement: How the "Sorting- Machine" Works in Israel," American Journal of Education 106 [1998]: 416-38) for a more detailed account of contemporary Israeli education.
46. Kashti, Arieli, and Shapira (n. 1 above). Also see Nura Resh ("Track Placement: How the "Sorting-Machine" Works in Israel," American Journal of Education 106 [1998]: 416-38) for a more detailed account of contemporary Israeli education.
47. Aaron Benavot and Nura Resh, "Diversity within Uniformity: Conflicting Pressures in the Construction of Implemented School Curricula" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, San Francisco, August 21, 1998).
48. Orit Ichilov, "Political Socialization and Schooling Effects among Israeli Adolescents," Comparafive Education Review 35 (1991): 430-46.
49. Shoshana Neuman and Adrian Ziderman, "Vocational Schooling, Occupational Matching, and Labor Market Earnings in Israel, "Journal of Human Resources 26 (1991): 256-81; see also Resh.
50. Shavit (n. 14 above), "Labor Market Discrimination," and "From Peasantry to Proletariat."
51. Sammy Smooha, "Jewish and Arab Ethnocentrism in Israel," Ethnic and Racial Studies 10 (1987): 391-413; Sami Kh. Mar'i, Arab Education in the Jewish State (Syracuse, N.Y: Syracuse University Press, 1978); Shavit, "From Peasantry to Proletariat."
52. Sammy Smooha, "Jewish and Arab Ethnocentrism in Israel," Ethnic and Racial Studies 10 (1987): 391-413; Sami Kh. Mar'i, Arab Education in the Jewish State (Syracuse, N.Y: Syracuse University Press, 1978); Shavit, "From Peasantry to Proletariat."
53. Sammy Smooha, "Jewish and Arab Ethnocentrism in Israel," Ethnic and Racial Studies 10 (1987): 391-413; Sami Kh. Mar'i, Arab Education in the Jewish State (Syracuse, N.Y: Syracuse University Press, 1978); Shavit, "From Peasantry to Proletariat."
54. Henry Rosenfeld and Majid al-Haj, Arab Local Government in Israel (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1990).
55. Homelands, or Bantustans, were created for Africans by the Bantu Authorities Act of 1951 and the Bantu Self-Government Act of 1959. These acts and others created the black national states of Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, Gazankulu, KwaZulu, Lebowa, QwaQwa, KaNgwane, KwaNdebele, and Venda. The boundaries of these entities were drawn ostensibly using ethnic and linguistic lines. In effect, the homelands formally enfranchised blacks in their own national state rather than in the Republic of South Africa. But the dire implications of these infamous homelands for the citizenship, welfare, quality of life, political power, and educational opportunities of blacks were transparent. Thirteen percent of the land mass of South Africa was carved into the various homelands (the areas of many were not even contiguous), leaving 87 percent of the South African land mass - the part with enormous natural resources, arable land, major ports, urban centers, industries, and transportation infrastructures - for the whites. The end of apartheid meant the end of homelands.
56. Edna Bonacich, "A Theory of Ethnic Antagonism: The Split Labor Market," American Sociological Review 37 (1972): 547-59.
57. South African Institute of Race Relations, Race Relations Survey (Johannesburg: South African Institute of Race Relations, 1992), pp. 1720-60.
58. André Kraak, "New Insights into the Skills Shortages Debate in South Africa," Perspectives in Education 11 (1989): 31-42.
59. Commonwealth Expert Group, Beyond Apartheid: Human Resources in the New South Africa (London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 1991).
60. Nkomo, ed. (n. 1 above); Mokubung Nkomo, Student Culture and Activism in Black South African Universities: The Roots of Resistance (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1984); Freda Troup, Forbidden Pastures: Education under Apartheid (London: International Defense and Aid Fund, 1976).
61. Nkomo, ed. (n. 1 above); Mokubung Nkomo, Student Culture and Activism in Black South African Universities: The Roots of Resistance (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1984); Freda Troup, Forbidden Pastures: Education under Apartheid (London: International Defense and Aid Fund, 1976).
62. Nkomo, ed. (n. 1 above); Mokubung Nkomo, Student Culture and Activism in Black South African Universities: The Roots of Resistance (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1984); Freda Troup, Forbidden Pastures: Education under Apartheid (London: International Defense and Aid Fund, 1976).
63. Bonacich; see also Research on Education in South Africa, Paper No. 3: The Struggle against Apartheid Education: Towards a People's Education in South Africa (Colchester: Research on Education in South Africa, 1988).
64. Michael Cross and Linda Chisholm, "The Roots of Segregated Schooling in Twentieth Century South Africa," in Nkomo, ed., p. 47.
65. Ibid.
66. Michael Cross, "A Historiographical Review of Education in South Africa: Toward an Assessment," Comparative Education Review 22 (1986): 185-99.
67. South Africa Institute of Race Relations, pp. 206, 210; United Nations Education, Science and Cultural Organization, Statistical Yearbook (New York: United Nations, 1990).
68. South Africa Institute of Race Relations, pp. 206, 210; United Nations Education, Science and Cultural Organization, Statistical Yearbook (New York: United Nations, 1990).
69. State of Israel, Labour Force Surveys, Special Series no. 940 (Jerusalem: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1980), 1983 Census of Population and Housing, vol. 24 (Jerusalem: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1989), Labour Force Surveys, Special Series no. 600 (Jerusalem: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1991); Else Oyen, Comparative Methodology: Theory and Practice in International Social Research (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1990); Republic of South Africa, Population Census and South African Statistics (Pretoria: Centre for Social Statistics, 1970, 1980, 1991).
70. State of Israel, Labour Force Surveys, Special Series no. 940 (Jerusalem: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1980), 1983 Census of Population and Housing, vol. 24 (Jerusalem: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1989), Labour Force Surveys, Special Series no. 600 (Jerusalem: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1991); Else Oyen, Comparative Methodology: Theory and Practice in International Social Research (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1990); Republic of South Africa, Population Census and South African Statistics (Pretoria: Centre for Social Statistics, 1970, 1980, 1991).
71. State of Israel, Labour Force Surveys, Special Series no. 940 (Jerusalem: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1980), 1983 Census of Population and Housing, vol. 24 (Jerusalem: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1989), Labour Force Surveys, Special Series no. 600 (Jerusalem: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1991); Else Oyen, Comparative Methodology: Theory and Practice in International Social Research (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1990); Republic of South Africa, Population Census and South African Statistics (Pretoria: Centre for Social Statistics, 1970, 1980, 1991).
72. State of Israel, Labour Force Surveys, Special Series no. 940 (Jerusalem: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1980), 1983 Census of Population and Housing, vol. 24 (Jerusalem: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1989), Labour Force Surveys, Special Series no. 600 (Jerusalem: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1991); Else Oyen, Comparative Methodology: Theory and Practice in International Social Research (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1990); Republic of South Africa, Population Census and South African Statistics (Pretoria: Centre for Social Statistics, 1970, 1980, 1991).
73. State of Israel, Labour Force Surveys, Special Series no. 940 (Jerusalem: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1980), 1983 Census of Population and Housing, vol. 24 (Jerusalem: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1989), Labour Force Surveys, Special Series no. 600 (Jerusalem: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1991); Else Oyen, Comparative Methodology: Theory and Practice in International Social Research (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1990); Republic of South Africa, Population Census and South African Statistics (Pretoria: Centre for Social Statistics, 1970, 1980, 1991).
74. Kfir, Ayalon, and Shapira (n. 10 above); Joel Beinin, The Dispersion of Egyptian Jewry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
75. Kfir, Ayalon, and Shapira (n. 10 above); Joel Beinin, The Dispersion of Egyptian Jewry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
76. Philippa Strum, "Women and the Politics of Religion in Israel," Human Rights Quarterly 11 (1989): 483-503.
77. Moise Semyonov and Vered Kraus, "Gender, Ethnicity and Income Inequality: The Israeli Experience," International Journal of Comparative Sociology 24 (1983): 258-72.
78. Mehran (n. 3 above).
79. Kfir, Ayalon, and Shapira.
80. Rakba (n. 19 above), p. 189.
81. Moshe Hartman, "The Role of Ethnicity in Married Women's Economic Activity in Israel," Ethnicity 7 (1980): 225-55; Swirski and Safir (n. 11 above).
82. Strum, p. 499.
83. Sebiletso Mokone Matabane, "Developing a Campaign to Eliminate Illiteracy" in Nkomo, ed. (n. 1 above), p. 318.
84. Ibid., p. 349.
85. Research Institute for Educational Planning, Education and Manpower Development, vol. 8 (Bloemfontein: University of the Orange Free State, 1987), p. 16.
86. Ibid. Maria Charles, who examined occupational distributions by gender in 25 industrialized countries, argues that the same economic structures that are associated with women's greater integration into the formal labor force also contribute to a deepening institutionalization of gender within the occupational structure (Maria Charles, "Cross-National Variation in Occupational Sex Segregation," American Sociological Review 57 [1992]: 483-502).
87. Ibid. Maria Charles, who examined occupational distributions by gender in 25 industrialized countries, argues that the same economic structures that are associated with women's greater integration into the formal labor force also contribute to a deepening institutionalization of gender within the occupational structure (Maria Charles, "Cross-National Variation in Occupational Sex Segregation," American Sociological Review 57 [1992]: 483-502).
88. These data report income for employed Israelis and South Africans in all occupational categories except those in unskilled or unspecified jobs. The South Africa data we report are based on a 5 percent random sample of the 1980 census. Data from approximately 55 percent of the African respondents in the 5 percent sample are not usable because their gender coding was ambiguous. Therefore, the data on African South Africans in table 5 are problematic. However, the income ratios for both African men and women compared to the ratios for others appear to be consistent with expectations for given occupational categories by gender and ethnicity.
89. Haberfeld and Cohen (n. 17 above); Rakba (n. 19 above); Shavit (n. 19 above), "From Peasantry to Proletariat"; Swirski and Safir.
90. Sally Baden, Shireen Hasim, and Sheila Meintjes, Country Gender Profile: South Africa, BRIDGE-Briefings on Development and Gender no. 45 (prepared for the Swedish International Development Office [SIDA], Pretoria, Republic of South Africa) (Brighton: Institute of Development Studies, 1998).
91. Martin Carnoy and Joel Samoff, Education and Social Transition in the Third World (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990).
92. Ramirez (n. 4 above).
93. Fuller (n. 5 above).
94. Noel McGinn, "Education, Democratization, and Globalization: A Challenge for Comparative Education," Comparative Education Review 40 (1996): 341-57; Aaron Benavot, "Education and Political Democratization: Cross-National and Longitudinal Findings," Comparative Educational Review 40 (1996): 377-403.
95. Noel McGinn, "Education, Democratization, and Globalization: A Challenge for Comparative Education," Comparative Education Review 40 (1996): 341-57; Aaron Benavot, "Education and Political Democratization: Cross-National and Longitudinal Findings," Comparative Educational Review 40 (1996): 377-403.
96. Gail Kelly, "Women and Higher Education Reforms: Expansion without Equality," in Cookson, Sadovnik, and Semel, eds., pp. 545-60.
97. Yossi Shavit and Hans-Peter Blossfeld, Persistent Inequality: Changing Educational Attainment in Thirteen Countries (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1994), p. 22.