Anxieties of Attachment: The Dynamics of Courtship in Medieval India

Modern Asian Studies

Volumn 36, Issue 1, 2002, Pages 103-139

  Ali, Daud ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0348191065     PISSN: 0026749X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0026749X02001038     Document Type: Article

References (172)

1. For the former, see Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty, Śiva: The Erotic Ascetic (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), and Lee Siegel, Fires of Love, Waters of Peace: Passion and Renunciation in Indian Culture (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1983). These scholars have argued, using the paradigm of J. C. Heesterman, that Hindu thought may be best characterized by the tension between the immanent world and the drive for the transcendent, abandon for the senses and abandonment of the senses. David Shulman has applied the following model to Indian kingship, arguing that the king's personality reveals this larger civilizational conflict; David Shulman, The King and the Clown in South Indian Mythology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985). More recently, he has used this argument within an 'historical' frame to discuss the sexuality of Nāyaka kings in late-medieval south India in Velcheru Narayana Rao, David Shulman, and Sanjay Subrahmanyam, Symbols of Substance: Court and State in Nayaka Period Tamilnadu (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992). For the latter interpretation, see Sudhir Kakar and John Munder Ross, Tales of Love, Sex and Danger (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986).
2. For the former, see Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty, Śiva: The Erotic Ascetic (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), and Lee Siegel, Fires of Love, Waters of Peace: Passion and Renunciation in Indian Culture (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1983). These scholars have argued, using the paradigm of J. C. Heesterman, that Hindu thought may be best characterized by the tension between the immanent world and the drive for the transcendent, abandon for the senses and abandonment of the senses. David Shulman has applied the following model to Indian kingship, arguing that the king's personality reveals this larger civilizational conflict; David Shulman, The King and the Clown in South Indian Mythology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985). More recently, he has used this argument within an 'historical' frame to discuss the sexuality of Nāyaka kings in late-medieval south India in Velcheru Narayana Rao, David Shulman, and Sanjay Subrahmanyam, Symbols of Substance: Court and State in Nayaka Period Tamilnadu (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992). For the latter interpretation, see Sudhir Kakar and John Munder Ross, Tales of Love, Sex and Danger (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986).
3. For the former, see Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty, Śiva: The Erotic Ascetic (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), and Lee Siegel, Fires of Love, Waters of Peace: Passion and Renunciation in Indian Culture (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1983). These scholars have argued, using the paradigm of J. C. Heesterman, that Hindu thought may be best characterized by the tension between the immanent world and the drive for the transcendent, abandon for the senses and abandonment of the senses. David Shulman has applied the following model to Indian kingship, arguing that the king's personality reveals this larger civilizational conflict; David Shulman, The King and the Clown in South Indian Mythology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985). More recently, he has used this argument within an 'historical' frame to discuss the sexuality of Nāyaka kings in late-medieval south India in Velcheru Narayana Rao, David Shulman, and Sanjay Subrahmanyam, Symbols of Substance: Court and State in Nayaka Period Tamilnadu (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992). For the latter interpretation, see Sudhir Kakar and John Munder Ross, Tales of Love, Sex and Danger (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986).
4. For the former, see Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty, Śiva: The Erotic Ascetic (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), and Lee Siegel, Fires of Love, Waters of Peace: Passion and Renunciation in Indian Culture (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1983). These scholars have argued, using the paradigm of J. C. Heesterman, that Hindu thought may be best characterized by the tension between the immanent world and the drive for the transcendent, abandon for the senses and abandonment of the senses. David Shulman has applied the following model to Indian kingship, arguing that the king's personality reveals this larger civilizational conflict; David Shulman, The King and the Clown in South Indian Mythology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985). More recently, he has used this argument within an 'historical' frame to discuss the sexuality of Nāyaka kings in late-medieval south India in Velcheru Narayana Rao, David Shulman, and Sanjay Subrahmanyam, Symbols of Substance: Court and State in Nayaka Period Tamilnadu (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992). For the latter interpretation, see Sudhir Kakar and John Munder Ross, Tales of Love, Sex and Danger (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986).
5. For the former, see Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty, Śiva: The Erotic Ascetic (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), and Lee Siegel, Fires of Love, Waters of Peace: Passion and Renunciation in Indian Culture (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1983). These scholars have argued, using the paradigm of J. C. Heesterman, that Hindu thought may be best characterized by the tension between the immanent world and the drive for the transcendent, abandon for the senses and abandonment of the senses. David Shulman has applied the following model to Indian kingship, arguing that the king's personality reveals this larger civilizational conflict; David Shulman, The King and the Clown in South Indian Mythology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985). More recently, he has used this argument within an 'historical' frame to discuss the sexuality of Nāyaka kings in late-medieval south India in Velcheru Narayana Rao, David Shulman, and Sanjay Subrahmanyam, Symbols of Substance: Court and State in Nayaka Period Tamilnadu (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992). For the latter interpretation, see Sudhir Kakar and John Munder Ross, Tales of Love, Sex and Danger (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986).
6. See Vātsyāyana, Kāmasūtra, ed. Goswami Damodar Shastri (Benares: Jaikrishnadas and Haridas Gupta, 1929), 1.4.1-2; compare with the later Kaviśekhara Jyotiśvara, Pañcasāyaka, ed. Dhundhirāja Śāstri (Benares: Jaikrishnadas and Haridas Gupta, 1939), 1.4.
7. See Vātsyāyana, Kāmasūtra, ed. Goswami Damodar Shastri (Benares: Jaikrishnadas and Haridas Gupta, 1929), 1.4.1-2; compare with the later Kaviśekhara Jyotiśvara, Pañcasāyaka, ed. Dhundhirāja Śāstri (Benares: Jaikrishnadas and Haridas Gupta, 1939), 1.4.
8. Kāmasūtra 1.2.18-24.
9. Makābhārata, ed. V. S. Sukthankar and S. K. Belvalkar (Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1961-), 3.50.17-18.
10. Naisadhīyacaritam, ed. Narayana Rama Acharya (Bombay: Nirnaya Sagara Press, 1952), 1.49-55.
11. Kāmandakī, Nītisāra, ed. and trans. Raja Rajendralal Mitra (Calcutta: Asiatic Society, 1869), 1.33-6.
12. Kāmandakī is aware of this elision. He states elsewhere that 'perfect knowledge (vijñāna), the heart (hr + (combining dot below);daya), consciousness (citta), the mind (manas) and the intellect (buddhi) are synonymous and are caused by the ātman to discriminate between what should be done and what should not be done', Nītisāra 1.30. Elsewhere Kāmandaki includes the ātman along with the manas among of the antahkaranas, Nītisāra 1.35. This would seem atypical. He implies in 1.30 that the ātman has a more determinative role. For different formulations of the antah + (combining dot below);karan + (combining dot below);as, see John Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy (Albany: SUNY Press, 1996), s.v.
13. Epigraphia Indica 18 (1925-26), no. 26, p. 255.
14. Meykanda Deva, Civajñān + (combining low line);apōtam trans. Nallaswam: Pillai (Dharmapuram: Gnanasambandam Press, 1945), 4.
15. Nītisāra 1.22.
16. Ibid.
17. Nītisāra 1.21.
18. Ibid.
19. Kantīlya Arthaśāstra, ed. and trans. R. P. Kangle, 3 vols (Delhi: Motilal Barnasidass, 1988), 1.6.1-3.
20. Indika, trans. J. W. McCrindle (London: Tnübner, 1877), Fragm. 54.
21. Nāt + (combining dot below);yaśāstra, ed. Manomohan Ghosh, 2 vols (vol. 1, Delhi: Manisha Granthalaya, 1967; vol. 2, Calcutta: Asiatic Society, 1956), 34.18-19.
22. Nāt + (combining dot below);yaśāstra, ed. Manomohan Ghosh, 2 vols (vol. 1, Delhi: Manisha Granthalaya, 1967; vol. 2, Calcutta: Asiatic Society, 1956), 34.18-19.
23. Kāmasūtra 7.2.58.
24. Kāmasūtra 1.2.11.
25. Nītisāra 1.52.ff
26. Arthaśāstra 1.6.1;1.7.1; Nītisāra 1.57; Kāmasūtra 5.5.38.
27. Arthaśāstra 1.6.1;1.7.1; Nītisāra 1.57; Kāmasūtra 5.5.38.
28. Arthaśāstra 1.6.1;1.7.1; Nītisāra 1.57; Kāmasūtra 5.5.38.
29. Arthaśāstra 1.6.1.
30. Nītisāra 1.57 comm.
31. Arthaśāstra 8.3.8-12.
32. Arthaśāstra 8.3.13-22. Kaut + (combining dot below);ilya differs with the above cited author, Bhāradvāja, over the issue of the relative seriousness of kāma and krodha and not on their status as vices as such. His remarks are, thus, somewhat curious, given that Bhāradvādja, not considering these qualities as vices, is not concerned at all with their relative seriousness. For Kaut + (combining dot below);ilya's positive remarks on kāma, see Arthaśāstra 1.7.3.
33. Arthaśāstra 8.3.13-22. Kaut + (combining dot below);ilya differs with the above cited author, Bhāradvāja, over the issue of the relative seriousness of kāma and krodha and not on their status as vices as such. His remarks are, thus, somewhat curious, given that Bhāradvādja, not considering these qualities as vices, is not concerned at all with their relative seriousness. For Kaut + (combining dot below);ilya's positive remarks on kāma, see Arthaśāstra 1.7.3.
34. Arthaśāstra 6.1.2.
35. Nītisāra 1.29.
36. Nītisāra 1.27.
37. Nītisāra 1.36.
38. Arthaśāstra 1.6.5; also Kāmasūtra 1.2.44.
39. Arthaśāstra 1.6.5; also Kāmasūtra 1.2.44.
40. Nītisāra 1.40.
41. See the discussion of the term rāga in relation to orthodox schools of philosophy in Surendranath Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922).
42. The double-meaning of rājayaks + (combining dot below);man is noted and discussed by F. Zimmerman, The Jungle and the Aroma of Meats: An Ecological Theme in Hindu Medicine (Berkeley: University of California, 1987), p. 177.
43. Agniveśa Carakasam + (combining dot below);hitā, ed. and trans. R. K. Sharma and V.B. Dash, 3 vols (Varanasi: Chowkhamba Publications, 1983), 6.8.4 ff.
44. Carakasam + (combining dot below);hitā 6.8.7.
45. Carakasam + (combining dot below);hitā 6.8.5.
46. Carakasam + (combining dot below);hitā 6.8.24.
47. Raghuvaṁśa 19.6-7.
48. Raghuvaṁśa 19.48.
49. Cited in Zimmerman, Jungle and the Aroma of Meats, p. 177.
50. Carakasam + (combining dot below);hitā 6.8.24.
51. The term saṁkalpa, as noted before, refers to the mind's organization of the diffuse sensations coming from the senses into desire, will or violation.
52. Kāmasūtra 5.1.4.4-5.
53. Kāmasūtra 5.1.3.
54. Kut + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);anīmata 812, cited in Ganikavr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha, ed. Ludwik Sternbach (Hoshīarpur: Vishveshvaranand Institute Publications, 1953), 3.
55. Kut + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);anīmata 812, cited in Ganikavr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha, ed. Ludwik Sternbach (Hoshīarpur: Vishveshvaranand Institute Publications, 1953), 3.
56. Epigraphia Indica 18 (1925-26), no. 13, p. 106.
57. Vidyāpati Thākkura Purus + (combining dot below);aparīks + (combining dot below);̄, ed. Ganganatha Jha (Allahabad: Belvedere Steam Press, 1911), 1.3.2.
58. Dhūrtavit + (combining dot below);asam + (combining dot below);vāda, ed. and trans. Manomohan Ghosh (Calcutta: Manisha Granthalaya Ltd, 1975), 59.
59. Śribhartr + (combining dot below);hari, Subhās + (combining dot below);itatriśati rev. and ed. Narayana Rama Acarya and D. D. Kosambi (Varanasi: Chaukhamba Sanskrit Sansthan, 1987), 1.34.
60. Purus + (combining dot below);aparīks + (combining dot below);ā 1.7.1.
61. Dhūrtavit + (combining dot below);asam + (combining dot below);vāda 29+.
62. Nītisāra 5.60.
63. See, for example, Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 82-101.
64. Kāmasūtra 1.4.45, and comm.
65. Ks + (combining dot below);emendra Deśopadeśa in Ks + (combining dot below);emendralaghukāvyasaṅgraha, ed. V. V. Rāghavacarya and D. G. Padhye (Hyderabad: Sanskrit Academy, 1961), 5.24.
66. Kāmasūtra 1.4.47.
67. Nāt + (combining dot below);yaśāstra 34.14-16.
68. Nāt + (combining dot below);yaśāstra 34.23.
69. Śūdraka, Mr + (combining dot below);cchakat + (combining dot below);ika, ed. and trans. R. D. Karmakar (Poona: Aryabhushan Press, 1937), 1.12; 1.13.
70. Nītisāra 5.63; see also Nītisāra 5.59, 62; Arthaśāstra 5.5.12; Cān + (combining dot below);akya, Cān + (combining dot below);akyarājanīti, ed. Ludwik Sternbach (Madras: Adyar Library, 1963), 181.
71. Nītisāra 5.63; see also Nītisāra 5.59, 62; Arthaśāstra 5.5.12; Cān + (combining dot below);akya, Cān + (combining dot below);akyarājanīti, ed. Ludwik Sternbach (Madras: Adyar Library, 1963), 181.
72. Nītisāra 5.63; see also Nītisāra 5.59, 62; Arthaśāstra 5.5.12; Cān + (combining dot below);akya, Cān + (combining dot below);akyarājanīti, ed. Ludwik Sternbach (Madras: Adyar Library, 1963), 181.
73. Nītisāra 5.63; see also Nītisāra 5.59, 62; Arthaśāstra 5.5.12; Cān + (combining dot below);akya, Cān + (combining dot below);akyarājanīti, ed. Ludwik Sternbach (Madras: Adyar Library, 1963), 181.
74. For two pre-Gupta examples, see Kharavela's Hathigumpha inscription which refers to the king Kharavela as 'causing the people to be pleased and attached to him.' (rañjayati pakatiyo), Epigraphia Indica 20 (1929-30), no. 7, p. 79; and the Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradāman which claims that his subjects were attached to him (prakr + (combining dot below);ti anuraktena). Epigraphia Indica 8 (1905-6), no. 6, p. 44.
75. For two pre-Gupta examples, see Kharavela's Hathigumpha inscription which refers to the king Kharavela as 'causing the people to be pleased and attached to him.' (rañjayati pakatiyo), Epigraphia Indica 20 (1929-30), no. 7, p. 79; and the Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradāman which claims that his subjects were attached to him (prakr + (combining dot below);ti anuraktena). Epigraphia Indica 8 (1905-6), no. 6, p. 44.
76. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum 3 (1888), no. 14, p. 59.
77. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum 3 (1888), no. 21, p. 93.
78. Hars + (combining dot below);acarita, p. 60.
79. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum 3 (1888), no. 39, p. 173.
80. Ibid., p. 178.
81. Epigraphia Indica 24 (1937-38), no. 17, p. 135. The threefold-power, according to Arthaśāstra 6.3.33, refers to the power of counsel (mantraśakti), might (prabhus̄akti) and effort (utsāhaśakti). Counsel consists of the power of knowledge; might consists of the power of treasury and army, and effort the power of valour.
82. Epigraphia Indica 24 (1937-38), no. 17, p. 135. The threefold-power, according to Arthaśāstra 6.3.33, refers to the power of counsel (mantraśakti), might (prabhus̄akti) and effort (utsāhaśakti). Counsel consists of the power of knowledge; might consists of the power of treasury and army, and effort the power of valour.
83. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum 6 (1977), no. 40, p. 180.
84. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum 3 (1888), no. 18, p. 81.
85. Arthaśāstra 6.1.3; see also Nītisāra 4.6-8.
86. Arthaśāstra 6.1.3; see also Nītisāra 4.6-8.
87. Epigraphia Indica 19 (1927-28), no. 19, p. 118. See also the eighth-century inscription of the Gurjara king Ahirola which claims that even the goddess of fortune is attracted to the inviting qualities (abhigāmika gun + (combining dot below);as) of the king, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum 4 (1955), no. 24, p. 105.
88. Epigraphia Indica 19 (1927-28), no. 19, p. 118. See also the eighth-century inscription of the Gurjara king Ahirola which claims that even the goddess of fortune is attracted to the inviting qualities (abhigāmika gun + (combining dot below);as) of the king, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum 4 (1955), no. 24, p. 105.
89. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum 4 (1955), no. 24, p. 105.
90. Ibid. See also Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum 4 (1955), no. 12, p. 41.
91. Atharvaveda 7.12. For practices associated with this hymn, based on Keśava's commentary on Kauśikasūtra, see M. Bloomfield, Hymns of the Atharva-Veda: Together with the Extracts from the Ritual Books and the Commentaries (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1897), p. 543.
92. Atharvaveda 7.12. For practices associated with this hymn, based on Keśava's commentary on Kauśikasūtra, see M. Bloomfield, Hymns of the Atharva-Veda: Together with the Extracts from the Ritual Books and the Commentaries (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1897), p. 543.
93. Atharvaveda 6.94. This hymn appears with six others which are together designated as 'designed to bring harmony' (sāṁmanasyāni) and is associated with rituals which include eating the pickled flesh of young calves. For details, see Bloomfield, pp. 360-1.
94. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum 3 (1888), no. 39, p. 178.
95. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum 3 (1888), no. 14, p. 59.
96. Harsa Ratnāvalī ed. and trans. C. R. Devadhar and N. G. Suru (Poona: Ganesh Printing Works, 1925), 1.12+.
97. Epigraphia Indica 13 (1915-16), no. 3a, p. 20.
98. Arthaśāstra 1.4.2.
99. Arthaśāstra 1.4.6.
100. Dhūrtavit + (combining dot below);asam + (combining dot below);vāda 29+.
101. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum 3 (1888), no. 39, p. 177.
102. Viśākhadatta, Mudrārāks + (combining dot below);asa, ed. A. Hillebrandt (Breslau: H. and M. Marcus, 1912), 3.4.
103. Hāla Gathāsaptaśatī, ed. and trans. Radhagovinda Basak (Calcutta: Asiatic Society, 1971), 3.65.
104. See Nītisāra 5.68.
105. Purus + (combining dot below);aparīks + (combining dot below);ā 1.3.1ff.
106. Pañcatantra, ed. and trans. Francis Edgerton, 2 vols (New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1924), 1.18+.
107. Thomas Trautmann, Dravidian Kinship (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 26.
108. See Nais + (combining dot below);hadhīyacaritam 16.10-12.
109. Noted by Johann Meyer, Sexual Life in Ancient India (New York: Dorset Press, 1995), p. 78, n. 3 and B.N.S. Yadava, Society and Culture in Northern India in the Twelfth Century (Allahabad: Central Book Depot, 1973), p. 70. In addition to Śrīhars + (combining dot below);a's Nais + (combining dot below);hadhīyacaritarn versions of this story include the Nalodaya of Kalidāsa (uncertain date and ascription); the Nalacampū of Trivikrama-Bhat + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);a (9th century); the Nais + (combining dot below);adhānandanāt + (combining dot below);aka of Ks + (combining dot below);emīśvara (9th-10th century); the Sahr + (combining dot below);dayānanda of Kr + (combining dot below);s + (combining dot below);n + (combining dot below);ananda (13th century); and the Nalābhyudaya of Vāmanabhat + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);abāna (15th century).
110. Noted by Johann Meyer, Sexual Life in Ancient India (New York: Dorset Press, 1995), p. 78, n. 3 and B.N.S. Yadava, Society and Culture in Northern India in the Twelfth Century (Allahabad: Central Book Depot, 1973), p. 70. In addition to Śrīhars + (combining dot below);a's Nais + (combining dot below);hadhīyacaritarn versions of this story include the Nalodaya of Kalidāsa (uncertain date and ascription); the Nalacampū of Trivikrama-Bhat + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);a (9th century); the Nais + (combining dot below);adhānandanāt + (combining dot below);aka of Ks + (combining dot below);emīśvara (9th-10th century); the Sahr + (combining dot below);dayānanda of Kr + (combining dot below);s + (combining dot below);n + (combining dot below);ananda (13th century); and the Nalābhyudaya of Vāmanabhat + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);abāna (15th century).
111. Noted by Johann Meyer, Sexual Life in Ancient India (New York: Dorset Press, 1995), p. 78, n. 3 and B.N.S. Yadava, Society and Culture in Northern India in the Twelfth Century (Allahabad: Central Book Depot, 1973), p. 70. In addition to Śrīhars + (combining dot below);a's Nais + (combining dot below);hadhīyacaritarn versions of this story include the Nalodaya of Kalidāsa (uncertain date and ascription); the Nalacampū of Trivikrama-Bhat + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);a (9th century); the Nais + (combining dot below);adhānandanāt + (combining dot below);aka of Ks + (combining dot below);emīśvara (9th-10th century); the Sahr + (combining dot below);dayānanda of Kr + (combining dot below);s + (combining dot below);n + (combining dot below);ananda (13th century); and the Nalābhyudaya of Vāmanabhat + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);abāna (15th century).
112. Vātsyāyana begins the third chapter of his book on acquiring a wife by advising the man who lacks the proper qualifications for the marriage negotiation, not to enter into the selection ceremony because he would not be able to obtain a maiden (Kāmasūtra 3.3.1 ff). In this case he was to win her over himself (svayamevamanurañjayet) by courting that began in her childhood. Vātsyāyana then cites Ghȯtamukha's opinion that this type of wooing (sam + (combining dot below);vananam), in a girl's childhood, pure and according to dharma, is praiseworthy (Kāmasūtra 3.3.4). Following chapters provide various strategies for the cultivation of a mutual attraction between the prospective partners before marriage. The gāndharva marriage, according to Vātsyāyana, was the superior form because it was attained without much difficulty, without a ceremony of 'selection' (avarana), and was based on mutual affection or attachment (anurāgātmakatvāt) which was said to be the 'fruit' of all marriage in any event (Kāmasūtra 3.5.29-30).
113. Vātsyāyana begins the third chapter of his book on acquiring a wife by advising the man who lacks the proper qualifications for the marriage negotiation, not to enter into the selection ceremony because he would not be able to obtain a maiden (Kāmasūtra 3.3.1 ff). In this case he was to win her over himself (svayamevamanurañjayet) by courting that began in her childhood. Vātsyāyana then cites Ghȯtamukha's opinion that this type of wooing (sam + (combining dot below);vananam), in a girl's childhood, pure and according to dharma, is praiseworthy (Kāmasūtra 3.3.4). Following chapters provide various strategies for the cultivation of a mutual attraction between the prospective partners before marriage. The gāndharva marriage, according to Vātsyāyana, was the superior form because it was attained without much difficulty, without a ceremony of 'selection' (avarana), and was based on mutual affection or attachment (anurāgātmakatvāt) which was said to be the 'fruit' of all marriage in any event (Kāmasūtra 3.5.29-30).
114. Vātsyāyana begins the third chapter of his book on acquiring a wife by advising the man who lacks the proper qualifications for the marriage negotiation, not to enter into the selection ceremony because he would not be able to obtain a maiden (Kāmasūtra 3.3.1 ff). In this case he was to win her over himself (svayamevamanurañjayet) by courting that began in her childhood. Vātsyāyana then cites Ghȯtamukha's opinion that this type of wooing (sam + (combining dot below);vananam), in a girl's childhood, pure and according to dharma, is praiseworthy (Kāmasūtra 3.3.4). Following chapters provide various strategies for the cultivation of a mutual attraction between the prospective partners before marriage. The gāndharva marriage, according to Vātsyāyana, was the superior form because it was attained without much difficulty, without a ceremony of 'selection' (avarana), and was based on mutual affection or attachment (anurāgātmakatvāt) which was said to be the 'fruit' of all marriage in any event (Kāmasūtra 3.5.29-30).
115. Kāmasūtra 3.2.1.
116. Kāmasūtra 3.2.1; Kokkoka, Ratirahasya ed. Ramananda Sharma (Varnasi: Krishnadas Academy, 1994), 11.8.
117. Kāmasūtra 3.2.1; Kokkoka, Ratirahasya ed. Ramananda Sharma (Varnasi: Krishnadas Academy, 1994), 11.8.
118. Kāmasūtra 3.2.4-6; Ratirahasya 11.8.
119. Kāmasūtra 3.2.4-6; Ratirahasya 11.8.
120. Kāmasūtra 3.2.43-4; repeated Ratirahasya 11.21-2.
121. Kāmasūtra 3.2.43-4; repeated Ratirahasya 11.21-2.
122. Kāmasūtra 3.2.41; repeated, with slight variance, in Ratirahasya 11.20.
123. Kāmasūtra 3.2.41; repeated, with slight variance, in Ratirahasya 11.20.
124. Kāmasūtra 3.5.30.
125. Kāmasūtra 1.5.3.
126. Vātsyāyana goes on to engage various contemporary authorities (no longer extant) over the question of other categories of nāyikās, implicitly conceding two more varieties - the married woman enjoyed for some other purpose (paks + (combining dot below);ikī), and those of the 'third nature, (tritīyaprakr + (combining dot below);ti), classified as neither man nor woman. Kāmasūtra 1.5.5, 27. Varieties of tritīyaprakr + (combining dot below);ti are discussed in more detail at Kāmasūtra 2.9.1-8, in connection with the practice of auparis + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);akam.
127. Vātsyāyana goes on to engage various contemporary authorities (no longer extant) over the question of other categories of nāyikās, implicitly conceding two more varieties - the married woman enjoyed for some other purpose (paks + (combining dot below);ikī), and those of the 'third nature, (tritīyaprakr + (combining dot below);ti), classified as neither man nor woman. Kāmasūtra 1.5.5, 27. Varieties of tritīyaprakr + (combining dot below);ti are discussed in more detail at Kāmasūtra 2.9.1-8, in connection with the practice of auparis + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);akam.
128. Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 28. Judging from the sources, the institution of marriage formed no bar in their relations with them. One need only think of Śūdraka's famous play, the Mr + (combining dot below);cchakat + (combining dot below);ika, where the hero, the brahmin Cārudatta, falls in love with the courtesan Vasantasenā.
129. Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 18-21.
130. Subhās + (combining dot below);itatriśatī 2.3.
131. Vidyākara, Subhās + (combining dot below);itaratnakośa ed. D. D. Kosambi and V. V. Gokhale (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1957), 496.
132. Atharvaveda 3.25.2.
133. Kāmasūtra 2.7.1 and comm. The description of lovers bears resemblance to the well-known definition of an enemy in the texts on polity. The enemy, according to Kāmandakī, was one who pursued the same goal as the self (ekārthābhiniveśa), Nītisāra 8.14.
134. Kāmasūtra 2.7.1 and comm. The description of lovers bears resemblance to the well-known definition of an enemy in the texts on polity. The enemy, according to Kāmandakī, was one who pursued the same goal as the self (ekārthābhiniveśa), Nītisāra 8.14.
135. Kāmasūtra 3.3.2.
136. Mr + (combining dot below); cchakat + (combining dot below);ika 4.14.
137. Kāmasūtra 6.1.11.
138. Mr + (combining dot below); cchakat + (combining dot below);ika 1.6 passim.
139. Sinhala visī = Sanskrit vaśa. Sigiriya Graffiti, nos 273, 166. See also nos 211, 494, 547.
140. Kāmasūtra 1.3.22. See also Nātyaśāstra 24.224 for the woman whose husband is under her control (svādhīnabhartr + (combining dot below);kā).
141. Kāmasūtra 1.3.22. See also Nātyaśāstra 24.224 for the woman whose husband is under her control (svādhīnabhartr + (combining dot below);kā).
142. Kāmasūtra 4.2.90.
143. Dhūrtavit + (combining dot below);asam + (combining dot below);vāda 46+. Devilaka recommends forcible seizure in the case of a proud woman.
144. Kāmasūtra 7.12-3 ff.; 25-28; 31-35. The whole of the fourteenth book of the Ratirahasya is devoted to vaśīkaran + (combining dot below);am, as well as specific mantras for various types of women in the sections on nāyikabheda. See Ratirahasya 1.23+; 14.1 ff. Also s.v. in Ram Kumar Rai in his Encyclopedia of Indian Erotics (Varanasi Prachya Prakashan, 1983) which draws heavily on Kalyānamalla's late-fifteenth century Anaṅgaraṅga.
145. Kāmasūtra 7.12-3 ff.; 25-28; 31-35. The whole of the fourteenth book of the Ratirahasya is devoted to vaśīkaran + (combining dot below);am, as well as specific mantras for various types of women in the sections on nāyikabheda. See Ratirahasya 1.23+; 14.1 ff. Also s.v. in Ram Kumar Rai in his Encyclopedia of Indian Erotics (Varanasi Prachya Prakashan, 1983) which draws heavily on Kalyānamalla's late-fifteenth century Anaṅgaraṅga.
146. Kāmasūtra 7.12-3 ff.; 25-28; 31-35. The whole of the fourteenth book of the Ratirahasya is devoted to vaśīkaran + (combining dot below);am, as well as specific mantras for various types of women in the sections on nāyikabheda. See Ratirahasya 1.23+; 14.1 ff. Also s.v. in Ram Kumar Rai in his Encyclopedia of Indian Erotics (Varanasi Prachya Prakashan, 1983) which draws heavily on Kalyānamalla's late-fifteenth century Anaṅgaraṅga.
147. Kāmasūtra 7.12-3 ff.; 25-28; 31-35. The whole of the fourteenth book of the Ratirahasya is devoted to vaśīkaran + (combining dot below);am, as well as specific mantras for various types of women in the sections on nāyikabheda. See Ratirahasya 1.23+; 14.1 ff. Also s.v. in Ram Kumar Rai in his Encyclopedia of Indian Erotics (Varanasi Prachya Prakashan, 1983) which draws heavily on Kalyānamalla's late-fifteenth century Anaṅgaraṅga.
148. It is only in his book on courtesans that Vātsyāyana lays out the general characteristics of the nāyikā and nāyaka.
149. Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 603-4.
150. The bad qualities of the courtesan are often considered indistinct from those of women in general, who are seen as the larger species to which they belong. See Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 243-4, 359-416, 514-17, 525, et al..
151. Kāmasūtra 6.1.12.
152. See for example Kāmasūtra 6.4.43.
153. Kāmasūtra 6.1.1-3. Much of Vātsyāyana's subsequent advice to courtesans is aimed towards creating confidence in her lover.
154. Kāmasūtra 6.2.2.
155. See Dhūrtavit + (combining dot below);asaṅvāda 31, 32, 43.
156. Kut + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);anīmata 312, cited in Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 219. See also Kut + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);anīmata 98 and Dhūrtavit + (combining dot below);asam + (combining dot below);vāda 31-2. For other references to courtesans as actresses, see Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 222-9.
157. Kut + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);anīmata 312, cited in Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 219. See also Kut + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);anīmata 98 and Dhūrtavit + (combining dot below);asam + (combining dot below);vāda 31-2. For other references to courtesans as actresses, see Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 222-9.
158. Kut + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);anīmata 312, cited in Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 219. See also Kut + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);anīmata 98 and Dhūrtavit + (combining dot below);asam + (combining dot below);vāda 31-2. For other references to courtesans as actresses, see Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 222-9.
159. Kut + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);anīmata 312, cited in Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 219. See also Kut + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);anīmata 98 and Dhūrtavit + (combining dot below);asam + (combining dot below);vāda 31-2. For other references to courtesans as actresses, see Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 222-9.
160. Kut + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);anīmata 312, cited in Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 219. See also Kut + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);anīmata 98 and Dhūrtavit + (combining dot below);asam + (combining dot below);vāda 31-2. For other references to courtesans as actresses, see Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 222-9.
161. Kut + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);anīmata 657, cited in Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 210. These attributes correspond to the four modes of theatrical conveyance - vācika, āṅgika, āhārya and sāttvika - as set out in Nāt + (combining dot below);yaśāstra 6.23. See the commentary on Kut + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);anīmata 657 which cites the Sāhityadarpana.
162. Kut + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);anīmata 657, cited in Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 210. These attributes correspond to the four modes of theatrical conveyance - vācika, āṅgika, āhārya and sāttvika - as set out in Nāt + (combining dot below);yaśāstra 6.23. See the commentary on Kut + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);anīmata 657 which cites the Sāhityadarpana.
163. Kut + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);anīmata 657, cited in Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 210. These attributes correspond to the four modes of theatrical conveyance - vācika, āṅgika, āhārya and sāttvika - as set out in Nāt + (combining dot below);yaśāstra 6.23. See the commentary on Kut + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);anīmata 657 which cites the Sāhityadarpana.
164. Kut + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);anīmata 657, cited in Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 210. These attributes correspond to the four modes of theatrical conveyance - vācika, āṅgika, āhārya and sāttvika - as set out in Nāt + (combining dot below);yaśāstra 6.23. See the commentary on Kut + (combining dot below);t + (combining dot below);anīmata 657 which cites the Sāhityadarpana.
165. Dhūrtavit + (combining dot below);asaṅvāda 53+.
166. Rājataraṅginī 7.619, as cited in Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 183. For other verses which compare the courtesan to men of the court, see Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 462, 482, 484.
167. Rājataraṅginī 7.619, as cited in Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 183. For other verses which compare the courtesan to men of the court, see Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 462, 482, 484.
168. Rājataraṅginī 7.619, as cited in Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 183. For other verses which compare the courtesan to men of the court, see Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 462, 482, 484.
169. Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 619.
170. Mudrarāks + (combining dot below);asa 5.4.
171. Gan + (combining dot below);ikāvr + (combining dot below);ttasaṅgraha 436-8; also 529-36, 541.
172. sakalābhigāmikādigun + (combining dot below);ānurāganirbbharamanasā svayam vr + (combining dot below);to rājalaks + (combining dot below);myā: an eighth-century Gurjara inscription. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum 4 (1955), no. 24, p. 105.