Direct Democracy and Institutional Realignment in the American States

Political Science Quarterly

Volumn 118, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 467-489

  Tolbert, Caroline J ^a  

^a KENT STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0348164443     PISSN: 00323195     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/j.1538-165x.2003.tb00402.x     Document Type: Review

References (131)

1. See James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, "The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life," American Political Science Review 78 (Fall 1984): 734-749; B. Guy Peters, Institutional Theory in Political Science: The New Institutionalism (London, New York: Pinter, 1999); Sven Steinmo, Kathleen Thelen, and Frank Longstreth, eds., Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Analysis (Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
2. See James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, "The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life," American Political Science Review 78 (Fall 1984): 734-749; B. Guy Peters, Institutional Theory in Political Science: The New Institutionalism (London, New York: Pinter, 1999); Sven Steinmo, Kathleen Thelen, and Frank Longstreth, eds., Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Analysis (Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
3. See James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, "The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life," American Political Science Review 78 (Fall 1984): 734-749; B. Guy Peters, Institutional Theory in Political Science: The New Institutionalism (London, New York: Pinter, 1999); Sven Steinmo, Kathleen Thelen, and Frank Longstreth, eds., Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Analysis (Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
4. Kathleen Thelen and Sven Steinmo, "Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Politics" in Steinmo, Thelen, and Longstreth, eds., Structuring Politics.
5. Theodore Lowi, "Four Systems of Policy, Politics and Choice," Public Administration Review 33 (Summer 1972): 298-310.
6. Caroline J. Tolbert, "Changing Rules for State Legislatures: Direct Democracy and Governance Policies" in Shaun Bowler, Todd Donovan, and Caroline J. Tolbert, eds., Citizens as Legislators: Direct Democracy in the United States (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1998).
7. James Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1983); Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Coming of the New Deal (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1958); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); Samuel Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981).
8. James Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1983); Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Coming of the New Deal (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1958); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); Samuel Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981).
9. James Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1983); Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Coming of the New Deal (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1958); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); Samuel Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981).
10. James Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1983); Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Coming of the New Deal (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1958); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); Samuel Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981).
11. Scholars argue that both the very early and late decades of the twentieth century are transformational periods in American history. See Lawrence Dodd, "Congress, the Presidency, and the American Experience: A Transformational Perspective" in James A. Thurber, ed., Divided Democracy: Cooperation and Conflict Between the President and Congress (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1991); Lawrence Dodd, "Transformational Politics" in Lawrence Dodd and Calvin Jillson, eds., The Dynamics of American Politics: Approaches and Interpretations (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993); Lawrence Dodd, "The New American Politics: Reflections on the Early 1990s" in Bryan Jones, ed., The New American Politics (Boulder, CO: Westview Press 1995).
12. Scholars argue that both the very early and late decades of the twentieth century are transformational periods in American history. See Lawrence Dodd, "Congress, the Presidency, and the American Experience: A Transformational Perspective" in James A. Thurber, ed., Divided Democracy: Cooperation and Conflict Between the President and Congress (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1991); Lawrence Dodd, "Transformational Politics" in Lawrence Dodd and Calvin Jillson, eds., The Dynamics of American Politics: Approaches and Interpretations (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993); Lawrence Dodd, "The New American Politics: Reflections on the Early 1990s" in Bryan Jones, ed., The New American Politics (Boulder, CO: Westview Press 1995).
13. Scholars argue that both the very early and late decades of the twentieth century are transformational periods in American history. See Lawrence Dodd, "Congress, the Presidency, and the American Experience: A Transformational Perspective" in James A. Thurber, ed., Divided Democracy: Cooperation and Conflict Between the President and Congress (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1991); Lawrence Dodd, "Transformational Politics" in Lawrence Dodd and Calvin Jillson, eds., The Dynamics of American Politics: Approaches and Interpretations (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993); Lawrence Dodd, "The New American Politics: Reflections on the Early 1990s" in Bryan Jones, ed., The New American Politics (Boulder, CO: Westview Press 1995).
14. Caroline J. Tolbert, "Rethinking Lowi's Constituent Policy: Governance Policy and Direct Democracy," Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy 20 (Winter 2001): 75-93.
15. Stephen Skowronek, Building the New American State: The Expansion of National Adaptive Capacities, 1877-1920 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1982).
16. B. Guy Peters, The Future of Governing: Four Emerging Models (Lawrence, KS: Kansas University Press, 1996); David Osborne and Ted Gaebler, Reinventing Government: How the Entrepreneurial Spirit is Transforming the Public Sector (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1992).
17. B. Guy Peters, The Future of Governing: Four Emerging Models (Lawrence, KS: Kansas University Press, 1996); David Osborne and Ted Gaebler, Reinventing Government: How the Entrepreneurial Spirit is Transforming the Public Sector (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1992).
18. Eileen McDonagh, "Race, Class and Gender in the Progressive Era" in Sidney Milkis and Jerome Mileur, eds., Progressivem and the New Democracy (Boston, University of Massachusetts Press, 1999).
19. Stephen Craig, "The Angry Voter: Politics and Popular Discontent in the 1990s" in Stephen Craig, ed., Broken Contract? Changing Relationship Between Americans and Their Government (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996); Jack Citrin, "Who's the Boss? Direct Democracy and Popular Control of Government" in Stephen Craig, ed., Broken Contract?
20. Stephen Craig, "The Angry Voter: Politics and Popular Discontent in the 1990s" in Stephen Craig, ed., Broken Contract? Changing Relationship Between Americans and Their Government (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996); Jack Citrin, "Who's the Boss? Direct Democracy and Popular Control of Government" in Stephen Craig, ed., Broken Contract?
21. Alan Rosenthal, The Decline of Representative Democracy: Process, Participation and Power in State Legislatures (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1997).
22. David Osborne and Ted Gaebler, Reinventing Government: How the Entrepreneurial Spirit Is Transforming the Public Sector (New York: Dutton, 1992).
23. Clarence Stone, Robert Whelan, and William Murin, Urban Policy and Politics in a Bureaucratic Age, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1986); Robert Lineberry and Edmund Fowler, "Reformism and Public Policies in American Cities," American Political Science Review 61 (Fall 1967): 701-716.
24. Clarence Stone, Robert Whelan, and William Murin, Urban Policy and Politics in a Bureaucratic Age, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1986); Robert Lineberry and Edmund Fowler, "Reformism and Public Policies in American Cities," American Political Science Review 61 (Fall 1967): 701-716.
25. See Elizabeth Gerber, The Populist Paradox: Interest Group Influence and the Promise of Direct Legislation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999) for an extension of this argument.
26. Skowronek, Building the New American State.
27. Rodney E. Hero, Faces of Inequality: Social Diversity in American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998); Mark Baldassare, California in the New Millennium: The Changing Social and Political Landscape (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000).
28. Rodney E. Hero, Faces of Inequality: Social Diversity in American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998); Mark Baldassare, California in the New Millennium: The Changing Social and Political Landscape (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000).
29. David Broder, Democracy Derailed: Initiative Campaigns and the Power of Money (Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace Publishers, 2000); Tolbert, "Changing the Rules for State Legislators"; Rosenthal, The Decline of Representative Democracy.
30. David Broder, Democracy Derailed: Initiative Campaigns and the Power of Money (Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace Publishers, 2000); Tolbert, "Changing the Rules for State Legislators"; Rosenthal, The Decline of Representative Democracy.
31. David Broder, Democracy Derailed: Initiative Campaigns and the Power of Money (Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace Publishers, 2000); Tolbert, "Changing the Rules for State Legislators"; Rosenthal, The Decline of Representative Democracy.
32. Shaun Bowler and Todd Donovan, Demanding Choices: Opinion, Voting and Direct Democracy (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998); David Magleby, Direct Legislation: Voting on Ballot Propositions in the United States (Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 1984); Thomas E. Cronin, Direct Democracy: The Politics of Initiative, Referendum and Recall (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989).
33. Shaun Bowler and Todd Donovan, Demanding Choices: Opinion, Voting and Direct Democracy (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998); David Magleby, Direct Legislation: Voting on Ballot Propositions in the United States (Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 1984); Thomas E. Cronin, Direct Democracy: The Politics of Initiative, Referendum and Recall (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989).
34. Shaun Bowler and Todd Donovan, Demanding Choices: Opinion, Voting and Direct Democracy (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998); David Magleby, Direct Legislation: Voting on Ballot Propositions in the United States (Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 1984); Thomas E. Cronin, Direct Democracy: The Politics of Initiative, Referendum and Recall (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989).
35. Daniel Smith, Tax Crusaders and the Politics of Direct Democracy (New York: Routledge, 1998).
36. Data is from the Initiative and Referenda Institute, Washington, DC, and is the most comprehensive source available.
37. David Magleby, "Direct Legislation in the American States" in David Butler and Austin Ranney, eds., Referendums Around the World: The Growing Use of Direct Democracy (Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute, 1994).
38. Initiative and Referendum Institute, Washington, DC (http://www.ballotwatch.org), November 1998.
39. Charles Price, "The Initiative: A Comparative State Analysis and Reassessment of a Western Phenomenon," Western Political Quarterly 28 (Summer 1975): 243-262.
40. McDonagh, "Race, Class and Gender in the Progressive Era."
41. Peter Schrag, Paradise Lost: California's Experience, America's Future (New York: The New Press, 1998).
42. Broder, Democracy Derailed; Rosenthal, The Decline of Representative Democracy.
43. Broder, Democracy Derailed
44. John A. Allswang, The Initiative and Referendum in California, 1898-1998 (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000).
45. Subject matter of initiatives coded by author. Raw data is from the Initiative and Referenda Institute, Washington, DC.
46. See Karen Mossberger, The Diffusion of Innovations and the Spread of Enterprise Zones (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2000) on policy diffusion and learning.
47. David Schmidt, Citizen Lawmakers: The Ballot Initiative Revolution (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989): 115.
48. McDonagh, "Race, Class and Gender in the Progressive Era."
49. Samuel Hayes, The Response to Industrialism 1885-1914 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957); Samuel Hayes, "The Politics of Reform in Municipal Government in the Progressive Era," Pacific Northwest Quarterly 55 (Summer 1964): 157-169; Samuel Hays, "The Social Analysis of American Political History: 1880-1920," Political Science Quarterly 80 (Fall 1965): 373-394; Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F.D.R. (New York: Vintage Books, 1955); Richard Hofstadter, The Progressive Movement, 1900-1915 (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1963); Martin Shefter, "Regional Receptivity to Reform: The Legacy of the Progressive Era," Political Science Quarterly 98 (Fall 1983): 459-483.
50. Samuel Hayes, The Response to Industrialism 1885-1914 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957); Samuel Hayes, "The Politics of Reform in Municipal Government in the Progressive Era," Pacific Northwest Quarterly 55 (Summer 1964): 157-169; Samuel Hays, "The Social Analysis of American Political History: 1880-1920," Political Science Quarterly 80 (Fall 1965): 373-394; Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F.D.R. (New York: Vintage Books, 1955); Richard Hofstadter, The Progressive Movement, 1900-1915 (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1963); Martin Shefter, "Regional Receptivity to Reform: The Legacy of the Progressive Era," Political Science Quarterly 98 (Fall 1983): 459-483.
51. Samuel Hayes, The Response to Industrialism 1885-1914 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957); Samuel Hayes, "The Politics of Reform in Municipal Government in the Progressive Era," Pacific Northwest Quarterly 55 (Summer 1964): 157-169; Samuel Hays, "The Social Analysis of American Political History: 1880-1920," Political Science Quarterly 80 (Fall 1965): 373-394; Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F.D.R. (New York: Vintage Books, 1955); Richard Hofstadter, The Progressive Movement, 1900-1915 (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1963); Martin Shefter, "Regional Receptivity to Reform: The Legacy of the Progressive Era," Political Science Quarterly 98 (Fall 1983): 459-483.
52. Samuel Hayes, The Response to Industrialism 1885-1914 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957); Samuel Hayes, "The Politics of Reform in Municipal Government in the Progressive Era," Pacific Northwest Quarterly 55 (Summer 1964): 157-169; Samuel Hays, "The Social Analysis of American Political History: 1880-1920," Political Science Quarterly 80 (Fall 1965): 373-394; Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F.D.R. (New York: Vintage Books, 1955); Richard Hofstadter, The Progressive Movement, 1900-1915 (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1963); Martin Shefter, "Regional Receptivity to Reform: The Legacy of the Progressive Era," Political Science Quarterly 98 (Fall 1983): 459-483.
53. Samuel Hayes, The Response to Industrialism 1885-1914 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957); Samuel Hayes, "The Politics of Reform in Municipal Government in the Progressive Era," Pacific Northwest Quarterly 55 (Summer 1964): 157-169; Samuel Hays, "The Social Analysis of American Political History: 1880-1920," Political Science Quarterly 80 (Fall 1965): 373-394; Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F.D.R. (New York: Vintage Books, 1955); Richard Hofstadter, The Progressive Movement, 1900-1915 (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1963); Martin Shefter, "Regional Receptivity to Reform: The Legacy of the Progressive Era," Political Science Quarterly 98 (Fall 1983): 459-483.
54. Samuel Hayes, The Response to Industrialism 1885-1914 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957); Samuel Hayes, "The Politics of Reform in Municipal Government in the Progressive Era," Pacific Northwest Quarterly 55 (Summer 1964): 157-169; Samuel Hays, "The Social Analysis of American Political History: 1880-1920," Political Science Quarterly 80 (Fall 1965): 373-394; Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F.D.R. (New York: Vintage Books, 1955); Richard Hofstadter, The Progressive Movement, 1900-1915 (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1963); Martin Shefter, "Regional Receptivity to Reform: The Legacy of the Progressive Era," Political Science Quarterly 98 (Fall 1983): 459-483.
55. McDonagh, "Race, Class and Gender in the Progressive Era," 147.
56. Skowronek, Building the Administrative State.
57. Morton Keller, Regulating the New Society: Public Policy and Social Change in America, 1900-1933 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994).
58. Skowronek, Building the Administrative State.
59. In 1890, for example, first generation newcomers made up an incredible four-fifths of New York City's population. See Schmidt, Citizen Lawmakers.
60. Hofstadter, The Age of Reform.
61. McDonagh, "Race, Class and Gender in the Progressive Era."
62. Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Why Americans Don't Vote (New York: Pantheon, 1988).
63. E. J. Dionne, They Only Look Dead: Why Progressives Will Dominate the New Political Era (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996); Kevin Phillips, Boiling Point: Democrats, Republicans and the Decline of Middle-Class Prosperity (New York: Random House, 1993).
64. E. J. Dionne, They Only Look Dead: Why Progressives Will Dominate the New Political Era (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996); Kevin Phillips, Boiling Point: Democrats, Republicans and the Decline of Middle-Class Prosperity (New York: Random House, 1993).
65. Osborne and Gaebler, Reinventing Government; Peters, The Future of Governing.
66. Osborne and Gaebler, Reinventing Government; Peters, The Future of Governing.
67. Rosenthal, The Decline of Representative Democracy
68. Susan Clarke and Gary Gaile, The Work of Cities (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998).
69. Pew Research Center 1997, cited in Broder, Democracy Derailed, 229.
70. Center on Policy Attitudes 1999, cited in Broder, Democracy Derailed, 227-228.
71. Lawrence Mishel, Jared Bernstein, and John Schmitt, The State of Working America 1998-99 (Ithaca, NY: ILS Press, 1999).
72. I b i d.
73. I b i d.
74. Karen Mossberger, Caroline J. Tolbert, and Mary Stansbury, Beyond the Digital Divide (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2003); Pippa Norris, Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001). See also Richard Neu, Robert Andersen, and Tora Bikson, E-mail Communication between Government and Citizens: Security, Policy Issues, and Next Steps (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corp, 1998).
75. Karen Mossberger, Caroline J. Tolbert, and Mary Stansbury, Beyond the Digital Divide (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2003); Pippa Norris, Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001). See also Richard Neu, Robert Andersen, and Tora Bikson, E-mail Communication between Government and Citizens: Security, Policy Issues, and Next Steps (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corp, 1998).
76. Karen Mossberger, Caroline J. Tolbert, and Mary Stansbury, Beyond the Digital Divide (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2003); Pippa Norris, Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001). See also Richard Neu, Robert Andersen, and Tora Bikson, E-mail Communication between Government and Citizens: Security, Policy Issues, and Next Steps (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corp, 1998).
77. Mossberger, Tolbert, and Stansbury, Beyond the Digital Divide; Michael Alvarez and Jonathan Nagler, "The Likely Consequences of Internet Voting for Political Participation" (paper presented at Internet Voting and Democracy symposium, Loyola Law School, 26 October 2000).
78. Mossberger, Tolbert, and Stansbury, Beyond the Digital Divide; Michael Alvarez and Jonathan Nagler, "The Likely Consequences of Internet Voting for Political Participation" (paper presented at Internet Voting and Democracy symposium, Loyola Law School, 26 October 2000).
79. Hero, Faces of Inequality.
80. Baldassare, California in the New Millennium, 3.
81. Hans P. Johnson, How Many Californians? A Review of Population Projections for the State, California Counts: Population Trends and Profiles, vol. 1 (October 1999) San Francisco: Public Policy Institute of California.
82. Angus Campbell, Philip Converse, Warren Miller, and Donald Stokes, The American Voter (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960); Raymond Wolfinger and Stephen Rosenstone, Who Votes? (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1980); Piven and Cloward, Why Americans Don't Vote.
83. Angus Campbell, Philip Converse, Warren Miller, and Donald Stokes, The American Voter (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960); Raymond Wolfinger and Stephen Rosenstone, Who Votes? (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1980); Piven and Cloward, Why Americans Don't Vote.
84. Angus Campbell, Philip Converse, Warren Miller, and Donald Stokes, The American Voter (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960); Raymond Wolfinger and Stephen Rosenstone, Who Votes? (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1980); Piven and Cloward, Why Americans Don't Vote.
85. Voter News Service Exit Polls, 1998.
86. Bruce Cain, "Voting Rights and Democratic Theory: Toward a Color-Blind Society?" in Bernard Grofman and Chandler Davidson, eds., Controversies in Minority Voting (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1992); Caroline J. Tolbert and Rodney E. Hero, "Dealing with Diversity: Racial/Ethnic Context and Social Policy Change," Political Research Quarterly 54 (Fall 2001): 571-604; Schrag, California in the New Millenium.
87. Bruce Cain, "Voting Rights and Democratic Theory: Toward a Color-Blind Society?" in Bernard Grofman and Chandler Davidson, eds., Controversies in Minority Voting (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1992); Caroline J. Tolbert and Rodney E. Hero, "Dealing with Diversity: Racial/Ethnic Context and Social Policy Change," Political Research Quarterly 54 (Fall 2001): 571-604; Schrag, California in the New Millenium.
88. Bruce Cain, "Voting Rights and Democratic Theory: Toward a Color-Blind Society?" in Bernard Grofman and Chandler Davidson, eds., Controversies in Minority Voting (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1992); Caroline J. Tolbert and Rodney E. Hero, "Dealing with Diversity: Racial/Ethnic Context and Social Policy Change," Political Research Quarterly 54 (Fall 2001): 571-604; Schrag, California in the New Millenium.
89. Hero, Faces of Inequality, 114; Cain, "Voting Rights and Democratic Theory."
90. Hero, Faces of Inequality, 114; Cain, "Voting Rights and Democratic Theory."
91. Schrag, California in the New Millenium. The campaign to adopt legislative term limits in California gained momentum by advertising that it would oust long-term black Assembly Speaker Willie Brown, who had proposed a number of controversial policies including legislation calling for "educational equity", meaning that students and faculty at public schools and universities must reflect the diversity of the state. See Linda Chavez, The Color Bind: California's Battle to End Affirmative Action (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).
92. Schrag, California in the New Millenium. The campaign to adopt legislative term limits in California gained momentum by advertising that it would oust long-term black Assembly Speaker Willie Brown, who had proposed a number of controversial policies including legislation calling for "educational equity", meaning that students and faculty at public schools and universities must reflect the diversity of the state. See Linda Chavez, The Color Bind: California's Battle to End Affirmative Action (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).
93. Tolbert and Hero, "Dealing with Diversity."
94. Jeffrey Karp and Susan Banducci, "Going Postal: How All-Mail Elections Influence Turnout," Political Behavior 22 (Fall 2000): 223-239.
95. Mossberger, Tolbert, and Stansbury, Beyond the Digital Divide; Alvarez and Nagler, "The Likely Consequences of Internet Voting."
96. Mossberger, Tolbert, and Stansbury, Beyond the Digital Divide; Alvarez and Nagler, "The Likely Consequences of Internet Voting."
97. Tolbert, "Changing the Rules for State Legislatures."
98. Citrin, "Who's the Boss?" 275.
99. Jean Drage, "Campaign Finance Reform," National Conference of State Legislatures LegiBrief (June/July 1999).
100. In an effort to understand what factors drive the use of governance policy, state laws that have been invalidated by the courts are included in the analysis, including term limit provisions in three states, blanket primaries, and some of the campaign finance reform legislation.
101. Raw data is available from the author.
102. Caroline J. Tolbert, Daniel Lowestein, and Todd Donovan, "Election Law and Rules for Using Initiatives" in Bowler, Donovan, and Tolbert, eds., Citizens as Legislators.
103. I b i d.
104. Hero, Faces of Inequality; Vladimir O. Key, Southern Politics - In State and Nation (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1949).
105. Hero, Faces of Inequality; Vladimir O. Key, Southern Politics - In State and Nation (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1949).
106. 2]. See Rodney E. Hero and Caroline J. Tolbert, "A Racial/Ethnic Diversity Interpretation of Politics and Policy in the States of the U.S.," American Journal of Political Science 40 (Fall 1996): 851-871.
107. Laura Langer, "Measuring Income Distribution across Space and Time in the American States," Social Science Quarterly 80 (Winter 1999): 55-67.
108. Per capita income and the percentage of population living in metropolitan areas in 1990 is from the Statistical Abstracts of the United States.
109. Thomas Holbrook and Emily Van Dunk, "Electoral Competition in the American States," American Political Science Review 4 (Winter 1993): 955-962.
110. The measure is based on the result of 122 CBS/New York Times telephone polls for the years 1976-1988, which included identical questions about respondents' self-reported ideology. Data for forty-seven states are available for the ideology measure. See Robert Erikson, Gerald Wright, and John McIver, Statehouse Democracy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
111. The measure is based on the result of 122 CBS/New York Times telephone polls for the years 1976-1988, which included identical questions about respondents' self-reported ideology. Data for forty-seven states are available for the ideology measure. See Robert Erikson, Gerald Wright, and John McIver, Statehouse Democracy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
112. Jeffrey Mondak, "Elections as Filters: Term Limits and the Composition of the U.S. House," Political Research Quarterly 48 (Summer 1995): 701-727.
113. Peverill Squire, "The Theory of Legislative Institutionalization and the California Assembly," Journal of Politics 54 (Summer 1992): 1026-1054.
114. Schmidt, Citizen Lawmakers; Price, "The Initiative."
115. Schmidt, Citizen Lawmakers; Price, "The Initiative."
116. Daniel Elazar, American Federalism: A View from the States, 3d ed. (New York: Harper and Row, 1966).
117. Rosenthal, The Decline of Representative Democracy.
118. To facilitate interpretation of the statistical findings, the regression coefficients from a Poisson regression model were converted to expected values (probabilities) of state policy adoptions by using a simulation procedure, Clarify software. The simulations provide an estimate of the number of governance policies that are likely to be adopted in states with varying reliance on ballot initiatives, analysis that would not be possible from an examination of the regression coefficients alone. All independent variables are held constant by setting their values to the mean except frequency of state initiative use (for the simulations, states are assumed to have a moralistic political culture). See Gary King, Michael Tomz, and Jason Wittenberg, "Making the Most of Statistical Analyses: Improving Interpretation and Presentation," American Journal of Political Science 44 (Spring 2000): 347-361.
119. Gerber, The Populist Paradox.
120. Rosenthal, The Decline of Representative Democracy.
121. McDonagh, "Race, Class and Gender in the Progressive Era."
122. Cain, "Voting Rights and Democratic Theory"; Hero, Faces of Inequality; Schrag, Paradise Lost.
123. Cain, "Voting Rights and Democratic Theory"; Hero, Faces of Inequality; Schrag, Paradise Lost.
124. Cain, "Voting Rights and Democratic Theory"; Hero, Faces of Inequality; Schrag, Paradise Lost.
125. Peters, The Future of Governing, 46-47.
126. Todd Donovan, Tracey Sulkin, Shaun Bowler, and David Brockington, "Contested Local Elections and Active Campaigns: The Effects of Cumulative Voting and Districting," Legislative Studies Quarterly 23 (Winter 1998): 152-153.
127. Matthew Mendelsohn and Andrew Parkin, eds., Referendum Democracy: Citizens, Elites, and Deliberation in Referendum Campaigns (New York: Palgrave, 2001).
128. Peters, The Future of Governing.
129. Broder, Democracy Derailed.
130. Schrag, Paradise Lost.
131. Rosenthal, The Decline of Representative Democracy.