Free-Floating Anxieties on the Pacific: Japan and the West Revisited

Diplomatic History

Volumn 20, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 411-438

  Hein, Laura E ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0348068223     PISSN: 01452096     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7709.1996.tb00273.x     Document Type: Article

References (144)

1. William Roseberry, Anthropologies and Histories: Essays in Culture, History, and Political Economy (New Brunswick, 1989), 200-201, 205-7; Jay O'Brian and William Roseberry, "Introduction," Golden Ages, Dark Ages: Imagining the Past in Anthropology and History (Berkeley, 1991). See also "Forum on Universalism and Relativism in Asian Studies," Journal of Asian Studies 50 (February 1991): 29-34, 67-83. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, MA, 1988), emphasized culture over either politics or economic relations and so can be seen as providing theoretical justification for the kind of obfuscation I deal with here. Rosalind O'Hanlon and David Washbrook have made precisely this argument in "After Orientalism: Culture, Criticism, and Politics in the Third World," Comparative Studies in Society and History 34 (January 1992): 141-67. Nonetheless, I found Clifford's observations helpful in examining assumptions about "tradition" and "culture." Or as Micaela di Leonardo argues in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era (Berkeley, 1991), all societies today are equally part of global modernity. Only their place within that configuration varies, not their age. Also see Tetsuo Najita, "Presidential Address: Personal Reflections on Modernity and Modernization," Journal of Asian Studies 52 (November 1993): 845-53. See William W. Kelly, "Finding a Place in Metropolitan Japan: Ideologies, Institutions, and Everyday Life," in Postwar Japan as History, ed. Andrew Gordon (Berkeley, 1993), 189-238, for other discussion in the context of Japan studies. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, England, 1983); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York, 1979). Also see Werner Sollors, ed., The Invention of Ethnicity (Oxford, 1989); David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolis, 1990); and Harumi Befu, ed., Cultural Nationalism in East Asia: Representation and Identity, Research Papers and Policy Studies 39 (Berkeley, 1993).
2. William Roseberry, Anthropologies and Histories: Essays in Culture, History, and Political Economy (New Brunswick, 1989), 200-201, 205-7; Jay O'Brian and William Roseberry, "Introduction," Golden Ages, Dark Ages: Imagining the Past in Anthropology and History (Berkeley, 1991). See also "Forum on Universalism and Relativism in Asian Studies," Journal of Asian Studies 50 (February 1991): 29-34, 67-83. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, MA, 1988), emphasized culture over either politics or economic relations and so can be seen as providing theoretical justification for the kind of obfuscation I deal with here. Rosalind O'Hanlon and David Washbrook have made precisely this argument in "After Orientalism: Culture, Criticism, and Politics in the Third World," Comparative Studies in Society and History 34 (January 1992): 141-67. Nonetheless, I found Clifford's observations helpful in examining assumptions about "tradition" and "culture." Or as Micaela di Leonardo argues in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era (Berkeley, 1991), all societies today are equally part of global modernity. Only their place within that configuration varies, not their age. Also see Tetsuo Najita, "Presidential Address: Personal Reflections on Modernity and Modernization," Journal of Asian Studies 52 (November 1993): 845-53. See William W. Kelly, "Finding a Place in Metropolitan Japan: Ideologies, Institutions, and Everyday Life," in Postwar Japan as History, ed. Andrew Gordon (Berkeley, 1993), 189-238, for other discussion in the context of Japan studies. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, England, 1983); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York, 1979). Also see Werner Sollors, ed., The Invention of Ethnicity (Oxford, 1989); David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolis, 1990); and Harumi Befu, ed., Cultural Nationalism in East Asia: Representation and Identity, Research Papers and Policy Studies 39 (Berkeley, 1993).
3. William Roseberry, Anthropologies and Histories: Essays in Culture, History, and Political Economy (New Brunswick, 1989), 200-201, 205-7; Jay O'Brian and William Roseberry, "Introduction," Golden Ages, Dark Ages: Imagining the Past in Anthropology and History (Berkeley, 1991). See also "Forum on Universalism and Relativism in Asian Studies," Journal of Asian Studies 50 (February 1991): 29-34, 67-83. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, MA, 1988), emphasized culture over either politics or economic relations and so can be seen as providing theoretical justification for the kind of obfuscation I deal with here. Rosalind O'Hanlon and David Washbrook have made precisely this argument in "After Orientalism: Culture, Criticism, and Politics in the Third World," Comparative Studies in Society and History 34 (January 1992): 141-67. Nonetheless, I found Clifford's observations helpful in examining assumptions about "tradition" and "culture." Or as Micaela di Leonardo argues in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era (Berkeley, 1991), all societies today are equally part of global modernity. Only their place within that configuration varies, not their age. Also see Tetsuo Najita, "Presidential Address: Personal Reflections on Modernity and Modernization," Journal of Asian Studies 52 (November 1993): 845-53. See William W. Kelly, "Finding a Place in Metropolitan Japan: Ideologies, Institutions, and Everyday Life," in Postwar Japan as History, ed. Andrew Gordon (Berkeley, 1993), 189-238, for other discussion in the context of Japan studies. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, England, 1983); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York, 1979). Also see Werner Sollors, ed., The Invention of Ethnicity (Oxford, 1989); David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolis, 1990); and Harumi Befu, ed., Cultural Nationalism in East Asia: Representation and Identity, Research Papers and Policy Studies 39 (Berkeley, 1993).
4. William Roseberry, Anthropologies and Histories: Essays in Culture, History, and Political Economy (New Brunswick, 1989), 200-201, 205-7; Jay O'Brian and William Roseberry, "Introduction," Golden Ages, Dark Ages: Imagining the Past in Anthropology and History (Berkeley, 1991). See also "Forum on Universalism and Relativism in Asian Studies," Journal of Asian Studies 50 (February 1991): 29-34, 67-83. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, MA, 1988), emphasized culture over either politics or economic relations and so can be seen as providing theoretical justification for the kind of obfuscation I deal with here. Rosalind O'Hanlon and David Washbrook have made precisely this argument in "After Orientalism: Culture, Criticism, and Politics in the Third World," Comparative Studies in Society and History 34 (January 1992): 141-67. Nonetheless, I found Clifford's observations helpful in examining assumptions about "tradition" and "culture." Or as Micaela di Leonardo argues in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era (Berkeley, 1991), all societies today are equally part of global modernity. Only their place within that configuration varies, not their age. Also see Tetsuo Najita, "Presidential Address: Personal Reflections on Modernity and Modernization," Journal of Asian Studies 52 (November 1993): 845-53. See William W. Kelly, "Finding a Place in Metropolitan Japan: Ideologies, Institutions, and Everyday Life," in Postwar Japan as History, ed. Andrew Gordon (Berkeley, 1993), 189-238, for other discussion in the context of Japan studies. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, England, 1983); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York, 1979). Also see Werner Sollors, ed., The Invention of Ethnicity (Oxford, 1989); David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolis, 1990); and Harumi Befu, ed., Cultural Nationalism in East Asia: Representation and Identity, Research Papers and Policy Studies 39 (Berkeley, 1993).
5. William Roseberry, Anthropologies and Histories: Essays in Culture, History, and Political Economy (New Brunswick, 1989), 200-201, 205-7; Jay O'Brian and William Roseberry, "Introduction," Golden Ages, Dark Ages: Imagining the Past in Anthropology and History (Berkeley, 1991). See also "Forum on Universalism and Relativism in Asian Studies," Journal of Asian Studies 50 (February 1991): 29-34, 67-83. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, MA, 1988), emphasized culture over either politics or economic relations and so can be seen as providing theoretical justification for the kind of obfuscation I deal with here. Rosalind O'Hanlon and David Washbrook have made precisely this argument in "After Orientalism: Culture, Criticism, and Politics in the Third World," Comparative Studies in Society and History 34 (January 1992): 141-67. Nonetheless, I found Clifford's observations helpful in examining assumptions about "tradition" and "culture." Or as Micaela di Leonardo argues in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era (Berkeley, 1991), all societies today are equally part of global modernity. Only their place within that configuration varies, not their age. Also see Tetsuo Najita, "Presidential Address: Personal Reflections on Modernity and Modernization," Journal of Asian Studies 52 (November 1993): 845-53. See William W. Kelly, "Finding a Place in Metropolitan Japan: Ideologies, Institutions, and Everyday Life," in Postwar Japan as History, ed. Andrew Gordon (Berkeley, 1993), 189-238, for other discussion in the context of Japan studies. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, England, 1983); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York, 1979). Also see Werner Sollors, ed., The Invention of Ethnicity (Oxford, 1989); David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolis, 1990); and Harumi Befu, ed., Cultural Nationalism in East Asia: Representation and Identity, Research Papers and Policy Studies 39 (Berkeley, 1993).
6. William Roseberry, Anthropologies and Histories: Essays in Culture, History, and Political Economy (New Brunswick, 1989), 200-201, 205-7; Jay O'Brian and William Roseberry, "Introduction," Golden Ages, Dark Ages: Imagining the Past in Anthropology and History (Berkeley, 1991). See also "Forum on Universalism and Relativism in Asian Studies," Journal of Asian Studies 50 (February 1991): 29-34, 67-83. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, MA, 1988), emphasized culture over either politics or economic relations and so can be seen as providing theoretical justification for the kind of obfuscation I deal with here. Rosalind O'Hanlon and David Washbrook have made precisely this argument in "After Orientalism: Culture, Criticism, and Politics in the Third World," Comparative Studies in Society and History 34 (January 1992): 141-67. Nonetheless, I found Clifford's observations helpful in examining assumptions about "tradition" and "culture." Or as Micaela di Leonardo argues in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era (Berkeley, 1991), all societies today are equally part of global modernity. Only their place within that configuration varies, not their age. Also see Tetsuo Najita, "Presidential Address: Personal Reflections on Modernity and Modernization," Journal of Asian Studies 52 (November 1993): 845-53. See William W. Kelly, "Finding a Place in Metropolitan Japan: Ideologies, Institutions, and Everyday Life," in Postwar Japan as History, ed. Andrew Gordon (Berkeley, 1993), 189-238, for other discussion in the context of Japan studies. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, England, 1983); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York, 1979). Also see Werner Sollors, ed., The Invention of Ethnicity (Oxford, 1989); David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolis, 1990); and Harumi Befu, ed., Cultural Nationalism in East Asia: Representation and Identity, Research Papers and Policy Studies 39 (Berkeley, 1993).
7. William Roseberry, Anthropologies and Histories: Essays in Culture, History, and Political Economy (New Brunswick, 1989), 200-201, 205-7; Jay O'Brian and William Roseberry, "Introduction," Golden Ages, Dark Ages: Imagining the Past in Anthropology and History (Berkeley, 1991). See also "Forum on Universalism and Relativism in Asian Studies," Journal of Asian Studies 50 (February 1991): 29-34, 67-83. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, MA, 1988), emphasized culture over either politics or economic relations and so can be seen as providing theoretical justification for the kind of obfuscation I deal with here. Rosalind O'Hanlon and David Washbrook have made precisely this argument in "After Orientalism: Culture, Criticism, and Politics in the Third World," Comparative Studies in Society and History 34 (January 1992): 141-67. Nonetheless, I found Clifford's observations helpful in examining assumptions about "tradition" and "culture." Or as Micaela di Leonardo argues in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era (Berkeley, 1991), all societies today are equally part of global modernity. Only their place within that configuration varies, not their age. Also see Tetsuo Najita, "Presidential Address: Personal Reflections on Modernity and Modernization," Journal of Asian Studies 52 (November 1993): 845-53. See William W. Kelly, "Finding a Place in Metropolitan Japan: Ideologies, Institutions, and Everyday Life," in Postwar Japan as History, ed. Andrew Gordon (Berkeley, 1993), 189-238, for other discussion in the context of Japan studies. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, England, 1983); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York, 1979). Also see Werner Sollors, ed., The Invention of Ethnicity (Oxford, 1989); David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolis, 1990); and Harumi Befu, ed., Cultural Nationalism in East Asia: Representation and Identity, Research Papers and Policy Studies 39 (Berkeley, 1993).
8. William Roseberry, Anthropologies and Histories: Essays in Culture, History, and Political Economy (New Brunswick, 1989), 200-201, 205-7; Jay O'Brian and William Roseberry, "Introduction," Golden Ages, Dark Ages: Imagining the Past in Anthropology and History (Berkeley, 1991). See also "Forum on Universalism and Relativism in Asian Studies," Journal of Asian Studies 50 (February 1991): 29-34, 67-83. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, MA, 1988), emphasized culture over either politics or economic relations and so can be seen as providing theoretical justification for the kind of obfuscation I deal with here. Rosalind O'Hanlon and David Washbrook have made precisely this argument in "After Orientalism: Culture, Criticism, and Politics in the Third World," Comparative Studies in Society and History 34 (January 1992): 141-67. Nonetheless, I found Clifford's observations helpful in examining assumptions about "tradition" and "culture." Or as Micaela di Leonardo argues in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era (Berkeley, 1991), all societies today are equally part of global modernity. Only their place within that configuration varies, not their age. Also see Tetsuo Najita, "Presidential Address: Personal Reflections on Modernity and Modernization," Journal of Asian Studies 52 (November 1993): 845-53. See William W. Kelly, "Finding a Place in Metropolitan Japan: Ideologies, Institutions, and Everyday Life," in Postwar Japan as History, ed. Andrew Gordon (Berkeley, 1993), 189-238, for other discussion in the context of Japan studies. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, England, 1983); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York, 1979). Also see Werner Sollors, ed., The Invention of Ethnicity (Oxford, 1989); David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolis, 1990); and Harumi Befu, ed., Cultural Nationalism in East Asia: Representation and Identity, Research Papers and Policy Studies 39 (Berkeley, 1993).
9. William Roseberry, Anthropologies and Histories: Essays in Culture, History, and Political Economy (New Brunswick, 1989), 200-201, 205-7; Jay O'Brian and William Roseberry, "Introduction," Golden Ages, Dark Ages: Imagining the Past in Anthropology and History (Berkeley, 1991). See also "Forum on Universalism and Relativism in Asian Studies," Journal of Asian Studies 50 (February 1991): 29-34, 67-83. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, MA, 1988), emphasized culture over either politics or economic relations and so can be seen as providing theoretical justification for the kind of obfuscation I deal with here. Rosalind O'Hanlon and David Washbrook have made precisely this argument in "After Orientalism: Culture, Criticism, and Politics in the Third World," Comparative Studies in Society and History 34 (January 1992): 141-67. Nonetheless, I found Clifford's observations helpful in examining assumptions about "tradition" and "culture." Or as Micaela di Leonardo argues in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era (Berkeley, 1991), all societies today are equally part of global modernity. Only their place within that configuration varies, not their age. Also see Tetsuo Najita, "Presidential Address: Personal Reflections on Modernity and Modernization," Journal of Asian Studies 52 (November 1993): 845-53. See William W. Kelly, "Finding a Place in Metropolitan Japan: Ideologies, Institutions, and Everyday Life," in Postwar Japan as History, ed. Andrew Gordon (Berkeley, 1993), 189-238, for other discussion in the context of Japan studies. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, England, 1983); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York, 1979). Also see Werner Sollors, ed., The Invention of Ethnicity (Oxford, 1989); David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolis, 1990); and Harumi Befu, ed., Cultural Nationalism in East Asia: Representation and Identity, Research Papers and Policy Studies 39 (Berkeley, 1993).
10. William Roseberry, Anthropologies and Histories: Essays in Culture, History, and Political Economy (New Brunswick, 1989), 200-201, 205-7; Jay O'Brian and William Roseberry, "Introduction," Golden Ages, Dark Ages: Imagining the Past in Anthropology and History (Berkeley, 1991). See also "Forum on Universalism and Relativism in Asian Studies," Journal of Asian Studies 50 (February 1991): 29-34, 67-83. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, MA, 1988), emphasized culture over either politics or economic relations and so can be seen as providing theoretical justification for the kind of obfuscation I deal with here. Rosalind O'Hanlon and David Washbrook have made precisely this argument in "After Orientalism: Culture, Criticism, and Politics in the Third World," Comparative Studies in Society and History 34 (January 1992): 141-67. Nonetheless, I found Clifford's observations helpful in examining assumptions about "tradition" and "culture." Or as Micaela di Leonardo argues in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era (Berkeley, 1991), all societies today are equally part of global modernity. Only their place within that configuration varies, not their age. Also see Tetsuo Najita, "Presidential Address: Personal Reflections on Modernity and Modernization," Journal of Asian Studies 52 (November 1993): 845-53. See William W. Kelly, "Finding a Place in Metropolitan Japan: Ideologies, Institutions, and Everyday Life," in Postwar Japan as History, ed. Andrew Gordon (Berkeley, 1993), 189-238, for other discussion in the context of Japan studies. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, England, 1983); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York, 1979). Also see Werner Sollors, ed., The Invention of Ethnicity (Oxford, 1989); David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolis, 1990); and Harumi Befu, ed., Cultural Nationalism in East Asia: Representation and Identity, Research Papers and Policy Studies 39 (Berkeley, 1993).
11. William Roseberry, Anthropologies and Histories: Essays in Culture, History, and Political Economy (New Brunswick, 1989), 200-201, 205-7; Jay O'Brian and William Roseberry, "Introduction," Golden Ages, Dark Ages: Imagining the Past in Anthropology and History (Berkeley, 1991). See also "Forum on Universalism and Relativism in Asian Studies," Journal of Asian Studies 50 (February 1991): 29-34, 67-83. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, MA, 1988), emphasized culture over either politics or economic relations and so can be seen as providing theoretical justification for the kind of obfuscation I deal with here. Rosalind O'Hanlon and David Washbrook have made precisely this argument in "After Orientalism: Culture, Criticism, and Politics in the Third World," Comparative Studies in Society and History 34 (January 1992): 141-67. Nonetheless, I found Clifford's observations helpful in examining assumptions about "tradition" and "culture." Or as Micaela di Leonardo argues in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era (Berkeley, 1991), all societies today are equally part of global modernity. Only their place within that configuration varies, not their age. Also see Tetsuo Najita, "Presidential Address: Personal Reflections on Modernity and Modernization," Journal of Asian Studies 52 (November 1993): 845-53. See William W. Kelly, "Finding a Place in Metropolitan Japan: Ideologies, Institutions, and Everyday Life," in Postwar Japan as History, ed. Andrew Gordon (Berkeley, 1993), 189-238, for other discussion in the context of Japan studies. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, England, 1983); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York, 1979). Also see Werner Sollors, ed., The Invention of Ethnicity (Oxford, 1989); David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolis, 1990); and Harumi Befu, ed., Cultural Nationalism in East Asia: Representation and Identity, Research Papers and Policy Studies 39 (Berkeley, 1993).
12. William Roseberry, Anthropologies and Histories: Essays in Culture, History, and Political Economy (New Brunswick, 1989), 200-201, 205-7; Jay O'Brian and William Roseberry, "Introduction," Golden Ages, Dark Ages: Imagining the Past in Anthropology and History (Berkeley, 1991). See also "Forum on Universalism and Relativism in Asian Studies," Journal of Asian Studies 50 (February 1991): 29-34, 67-83. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, MA, 1988), emphasized culture over either politics or economic relations and so can be seen as providing theoretical justification for the kind of obfuscation I deal with here. Rosalind O'Hanlon and David Washbrook have made precisely this argument in "After Orientalism: Culture, Criticism, and Politics in the Third World," Comparative Studies in Society and History 34 (January 1992): 141-67. Nonetheless, I found Clifford's observations helpful in examining assumptions about "tradition" and "culture." Or as Micaela di Leonardo argues in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era (Berkeley, 1991), all societies today are equally part of global modernity. Only their place within that configuration varies, not their age. Also see Tetsuo Najita, "Presidential Address: Personal Reflections on Modernity and Modernization," Journal of Asian Studies 52 (November 1993): 845-53. See William W. Kelly, "Finding a Place in Metropolitan Japan: Ideologies, Institutions, and Everyday Life," in Postwar Japan as History, ed. Andrew Gordon (Berkeley, 1993), 189-238, for other discussion in the context of Japan studies. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, England, 1983); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York, 1979). Also see Werner Sollors, ed., The Invention of Ethnicity (Oxford, 1989); David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolis, 1990); and Harumi Befu, ed., Cultural Nationalism in East Asia: Representation and Identity, Research Papers and Policy Studies 39 (Berkeley, 1993).
13. William Roseberry, Anthropologies and Histories: Essays in Culture, History, and Political Economy (New Brunswick, 1989), 200-201, 205-7; Jay O'Brian and William Roseberry, "Introduction," Golden Ages, Dark Ages: Imagining the Past in Anthropology and History (Berkeley, 1991). See also "Forum on Universalism and Relativism in Asian Studies," Journal of Asian Studies 50 (February 1991): 29-34, 67-83. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, MA, 1988), emphasized culture over either politics or economic relations and so can be seen as providing theoretical justification for the kind of obfuscation I deal with here. Rosalind O'Hanlon and David Washbrook have made precisely this argument in "After Orientalism: Culture, Criticism, and Politics in the Third World," Comparative Studies in Society and History 34 (January 1992): 141-67. Nonetheless, I found Clifford's observations helpful in examining assumptions about "tradition" and "culture." Or as Micaela di Leonardo argues in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era (Berkeley, 1991), all societies today are equally part of global modernity. Only their place within that configuration varies, not their age. Also see Tetsuo Najita, "Presidential Address: Personal Reflections on Modernity and Modernization," Journal of Asian Studies 52 (November 1993): 845-53. See William W. Kelly, "Finding a Place in Metropolitan Japan: Ideologies, Institutions, and Everyday Life," in Postwar Japan as History, ed. Andrew Gordon (Berkeley, 1993), 189-238, for other discussion in the context of Japan studies. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, England, 1983); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York, 1979). Also see Werner Sollors, ed., The Invention of Ethnicity (Oxford, 1989); David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolis, 1990); and Harumi Befu, ed., Cultural Nationalism in East Asia: Representation and Identity, Research Papers and Policy Studies 39 (Berkeley, 1993).
14. William Roseberry, Anthropologies and Histories: Essays in Culture, History, and Political Economy (New Brunswick, 1989), 200-201, 205-7; Jay O'Brian and William Roseberry, "Introduction," Golden Ages, Dark Ages: Imagining the Past in Anthropology and History (Berkeley, 1991). See also "Forum on Universalism and Relativism in Asian Studies," Journal of Asian Studies 50 (February 1991): 29-34, 67-83. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, MA, 1988), emphasized culture over either politics or economic relations and so can be seen as providing theoretical justification for the kind of obfuscation I deal with here. Rosalind O'Hanlon and David Washbrook have made precisely this argument in "After Orientalism: Culture, Criticism, and Politics in the Third World," Comparative Studies in Society and History 34 (January 1992): 141-67. Nonetheless, I found Clifford's observations helpful in examining assumptions about "tradition" and "culture." Or as Micaela di Leonardo argues in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era (Berkeley, 1991), all societies today are equally part of global modernity. Only their place within that configuration varies, not their age. Also see Tetsuo Najita, "Presidential Address: Personal Reflections on Modernity and Modernization," Journal of Asian Studies 52 (November 1993): 845-53. See William W. Kelly, "Finding a Place in Metropolitan Japan: Ideologies, Institutions, and Everyday Life," in Postwar Japan as History, ed. Andrew Gordon (Berkeley, 1993), 189-238, for other discussion in the context of Japan studies. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, England, 1983); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983); Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York, 1979). Also see Werner Sollors, ed., The Invention of Ethnicity (Oxford, 1989); David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolis, 1990); and Harumi Befu, ed., Cultural Nationalism in East Asia: Representation and Identity, Research Papers and Policy Studies 39 (Berkeley, 1993).
15. Amy Kaplan, "Domesticating Foreign Policy," Diplomatic History 18 (Winter 1994): 97-106.
16. See Ellen Hammond and Laura E. Hein, "Multiculturalism in Japanese Perspective," Journal of American-East Asian Relations 1 (Summer 1992): 145-69, for a longer discussion.
17. Clifford, The Predicament of Culture, 80-91.
18. Most senior scholars of Japan began their careers critiquing modernization theory's (and vulgar Marxism's) insensitivity to the nuances of specific cultures and histories. That battle still is being joined today in several forms. Most notable is the political-economy-based critique of neoclassical economic models. See Chalmers Johnson, "Studies of Japanese Political Economy: A Crisis in Theory," in Japanese Studies in the United States, part 1: History and Present Condition (Tokyo, 1988), 95-113.
19. Nakamura Masanori, The Japanese Monarchy, Ambassador Joseph Grew, and the Making of the "Symbol Emperor System," 1931-1991 (New York, 1992); John W. Dower, War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York, 1986).
20. Nakamura Masanori, The Japanese Monarchy, Ambassador Joseph Grew, and the Making of the "Symbol Emperor System," 1931-1991 (New York, 1992); John W. Dower, War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York, 1986).
21. Gabriel A. Almond and James J. Coleman, eds., The Politics of Developing Areas (Princeton, 1960); W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (Cambridge, England, 1960). Michael Adas has written specifically on the use of technological achievement to define modernity in Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, 1989).
22. Gabriel A. Almond and James J. Coleman, eds., The Politics of Developing Areas (Princeton, 1960); W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (Cambridge, England, 1960). Michael Adas has written specifically on the use of technological achievement to define modernity in Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, 1989).
23. Gabriel A. Almond and James J. Coleman, eds., The Politics of Developing Areas (Princeton, 1960); W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (Cambridge, England, 1960). Michael Adas has written specifically on the use of technological achievement to define modernity in Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, 1989).
24. See Almond and Coleman, The Politics of Developing Areas, 11-25. Sasaki Ryūji, Sekaishi no naka no Asia to Nihon [Asia and Japan in the context of world history] (Tokyo, 1988), argued that Rostow did create a blueprint for American postwar policy, although Yui Daizaburō assessed his thesis critically in "Sengo nihon shi to sengo sekaishi o dō tsunagu ka?" [How to connect postwar Japanese history to postwar world history?] Rekishigaku Kenkyū 604 (March 1990): 21-27.
25. See Almond and Coleman, The Politics of Developing Areas, 11-25. Sasaki Ryūji, Sekaishi no naka no Asia to Nihon [Asia and Japan in the context of world history] (Tokyo, 1988), argued that Rostow did create a blueprint for American postwar policy, although Yui Daizaburō assessed his thesis critically in "Sengo nihon shi to sengo sekaishi o dō tsunagu ka?" [How to connect postwar Japanese history to postwar world history?] Rekishigaku Kenkyū 604 (March 1990): 21-27.
26. See Almond and Coleman, The Politics of Developing Areas, 11-25. Sasaki Ryūji, Sekaishi no naka no Asia to Nihon [Asia and Japan in the context of world history] (Tokyo, 1988), argued that Rostow did create a blueprint for American postwar policy, although Yui Daizaburō assessed his thesis critically in "Sengo nihon shi to sengo sekaishi o dō tsunagu ka?" [How to connect postwar Japanese history to postwar world history?] Rekishigaku Kenkyū 604 (March 1990): 21-27.
27. Nakayama Ichirō debate with Edwin Reischauer, "Nihon kindaika no rekishiteki hyōka," Chūō Kōron (September 1961): 89. Recently, Japan has been much touted as a model for Eastern European nations, but now it is a model for the transition from a planned to a free-market economy, unlike the older (and continuing) idea of a model of change from "traditional" to "modern" society for the Third World. Paul Cohen, Discovering History in China (New York, 1984), 39, 112-25.
28. Nakayama Ichirō debate with Edwin Reischauer, "Nihon kindaika no rekishiteki hyōka," Chūō Kōron (September 1961): 89. Recently, Japan has been much touted as a model for Eastern European nations, but now it is a model for the transition from a planned to a free-market economy, unlike the older (and continuing) idea of a model of change from "traditional" to "modern" society for the Third World. Paul Cohen, Discovering History in China (New York, 1984), 39, 112-25.
29. Robert E. Ward and Dankwart A. Rustow, Political Modernization in Japan and Turkey (Princeton, 1964); James Morley, ed., Dilemmas of Growth in Prewar Japan (Princeton, 1971). Also see the other five volumes of this Princeton University Press modernization of Japan series, beginning with Marius Jansen, ed., Changing Japanese Attitudes toward Modernization (Princeton, 1965); and John W. Dower, ed., Origins of the Modern Japanese State: Selected Writings of E. H. Norman (New York, 1975).
30. Robert E. Ward and Dankwart A. Rustow, Political Modernization in Japan and Turkey (Princeton, 1964); James Morley, ed., Dilemmas of Growth in Prewar Japan (Princeton, 1971). Also see the other five volumes of this Princeton University Press modernization of Japan series, beginning with Marius Jansen, ed., Changing Japanese Attitudes toward Modernization (Princeton, 1965); and John W. Dower, ed., Origins of the Modern Japanese State: Selected Writings of E. H. Norman (New York, 1975).
31. Robert E. Ward and Dankwart A. Rustow, Political Modernization in Japan and Turkey (Princeton, 1964); James Morley, ed., Dilemmas of Growth in Prewar Japan (Princeton, 1971). Also see the other five volumes of this Princeton University Press modernization of Japan series, beginning with Marius Jansen, ed., Changing Japanese Attitudes toward Modernization (Princeton, 1965); and John W. Dower, ed., Origins of the Modern Japanese State: Selected Writings of E. H. Norman (New York, 1975).
32. Robert E. Ward and Dankwart A. Rustow, Political Modernization in Japan and Turkey (Princeton, 1964); James Morley, ed., Dilemmas of Growth in Prewar Japan (Princeton, 1971). Also see the other five volumes of this Princeton University Press modernization of Japan series, beginning with Marius Jansen, ed., Changing Japanese Attitudes toward Modernization (Princeton, 1965); and John W. Dower, ed., Origins of the Modern Japanese State: Selected Writings of E. H. Norman (New York, 1975).
33. Maruyama Masao and Toyama Shigeki quoted in John Hall, "Changing Conceptions of the Modernization of Japan," in Jansen, ed., Changing Japanese Attitudes toward Modernization, 7-42. See also Toyama Shigeki, "The Meiji Restoration and the Present Day," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 2 (October 1969): 10-14; Nakayama Ichirō in debate with Edwin Reischauer, "Nihon kindaika no rekishiteki hyōka," 84-89; and Takeshi Ishida, Japanese Political Culture: Change and Continuity (New Brunswick, 1985), ix-xviii.
34. Maruyama Masao and Toyama Shigeki quoted in John Hall, "Changing Conceptions of the Modernization of Japan," in Jansen, ed., Changing Japanese Attitudes toward Modernization, 7-42. See also Toyama Shigeki, "The Meiji Restoration and the Present Day," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 2 (October 1969): 10-14; Nakayama Ichirō in debate with Edwin Reischauer, "Nihon kindaika no rekishiteki hyōka," 84-89; and Takeshi Ishida, Japanese Political Culture: Change and Continuity (New Brunswick, 1985), ix-xviii.
35. Maruyama Masao and Toyama Shigeki quoted in John Hall, "Changing Conceptions of the Modernization of Japan," in Jansen, ed., Changing Japanese Attitudes toward Modernization, 7-42. See also Toyama Shigeki, "The Meiji Restoration and the Present Day," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 2 (October 1969): 10-14; Nakayama Ichirō in debate with Edwin Reischauer, "Nihon kindaika no rekishiteki hyōka," 84-89; and Takeshi Ishida, Japanese Political Culture: Change and Continuity (New Brunswick, 1985), ix-xviii.
36. Maruyama Masao and Toyama Shigeki quoted in John Hall, "Changing Conceptions of the Modernization of Japan," in Jansen, ed., Changing Japanese Attitudes toward Modernization, 7-42. See also Toyama Shigeki, "The Meiji Restoration and the Present Day," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 2 (October 1969): 10-14; Nakayama Ichirō in debate with Edwin Reischauer, "Nihon kindaika no rekishiteki hyōka," 84-89; and Takeshi Ishida, Japanese Political Culture: Change and Continuity (New Brunswick, 1985), ix-xviii.
37. MacArthur quoted in Richard B. Finn, Winners in Peace: MacArthur, Yoshida, and Postwar Japan (Berkeley, 1992), 292. This sense of Japanese political immaturity is not entirely gone either inside or outside Japan. An Associated Press article printed in the Chicago Tribune of 1 October 1992 flatly stated that the political corruption scandal exploding around Shin Kanemaru, and specifically the deference shown the LDP kingmaker by the Tokyo prosecutor's office, "shows a lack of sophistication in Japan's democracy, which dates from the U.S. occupation after World War II." The article then quotes Kaoru Okano, a professor of politics at Meiji University, that "Japanese democracy can only be said to be in its kindergarten stage." No similar assessment of the maturity of democracy was prompted by the concurrent attempt by the GOP White House to use the justice system here to hide prior acceptance of an Italian bank's routing of loans to Iraq through its Atlanta office. Masao Maruyama, "Author's Introduction," Thought and Behavior in Modern Japanese Politics (Oxford, 1963), xii-xiii; Ōkōchi Kazuo, Sengo Nihon no Rōdō Undō [The labor movement in postwar Japan] (Tokyo, 1955). See also J. Victor Koschmann, "Intellectuals and Politics," in Postwar Japan as History, ed. Andrew Gordon (Berkeley, 1993), 395-423, for a more richly developed history of high intellectual Japanese thought in the postwar period.
38. MacArthur quoted in Richard B. Finn, Winners in Peace: MacArthur, Yoshida, and Postwar Japan (Berkeley, 1992), 292. This sense of Japanese political immaturity is not entirely gone either inside or outside Japan. An Associated Press article printed in the Chicago Tribune of 1 October 1992 flatly stated that the political corruption scandal exploding around Shin Kanemaru, and specifically the deference shown the LDP kingmaker by the Tokyo prosecutor's office, "shows a lack of sophistication in Japan's democracy, which dates from the U.S. occupation after World War II." The article then quotes Kaoru Okano, a professor of politics at Meiji University, that "Japanese democracy can only be said to be in its kindergarten stage." No similar assessment of the maturity of democracy was prompted by the concurrent attempt by the GOP White House to use the justice system here to hide prior acceptance of an Italian bank's routing of loans to Iraq through its Atlanta office. Masao Maruyama, "Author's Introduction," Thought and Behavior in Modern Japanese Politics (Oxford, 1963), xii-xiii; Ōkōchi Kazuo, Sengo Nihon no Rōdō Undō [The labor movement in postwar Japan] (Tokyo, 1955). See also J. Victor Koschmann, "Intellectuals and Politics," in Postwar Japan as History, ed. Andrew Gordon (Berkeley, 1993), 395-423, for a more richly developed history of high intellectual Japanese thought in the postwar period.
39. MacArthur quoted in Richard B. Finn, Winners in Peace: MacArthur, Yoshida, and Postwar Japan (Berkeley, 1992), 292. This sense of Japanese political immaturity is not entirely gone either inside or outside Japan. An Associated Press article printed in the Chicago Tribune of 1 October 1992 flatly stated that the political corruption scandal exploding around Shin Kanemaru, and specifically the deference shown the LDP kingmaker by the Tokyo prosecutor's office, "shows a lack of sophistication in Japan's democracy, which dates from the U.S. occupation after World War II." The article then quotes Kaoru Okano, a professor of politics at Meiji University, that "Japanese democracy can only be said to be in its kindergarten stage." No similar assessment of the maturity of democracy was prompted by the concurrent attempt by the GOP White House to use the justice system here to hide prior acceptance of an Italian bank's routing of loans to Iraq through its Atlanta office. Masao Maruyama, "Author's Introduction," Thought and Behavior in Modern Japanese Politics (Oxford, 1963), xii-xiii; Ōkōchi Kazuo, Sengo Nihon no Rōdō Undō [The labor movement in postwar Japan] (Tokyo, 1955). See also J. Victor Koschmann, "Intellectuals and Politics," in Postwar Japan as History, ed. Andrew Gordon (Berkeley, 1993), 395-423, for a more richly developed history of high intellectual Japanese thought in the postwar period.
40. MacArthur quoted in Richard B. Finn, Winners in Peace: MacArthur, Yoshida, and Postwar Japan (Berkeley, 1992), 292. This sense of Japanese political immaturity is not entirely gone either inside or outside Japan. An Associated Press article printed in the Chicago Tribune of 1 October 1992 flatly stated that the political corruption scandal exploding around Shin Kanemaru, and specifically the deference shown the LDP kingmaker by the Tokyo prosecutor's office, "shows a lack of sophistication in Japan's democracy, which dates from the U.S. occupation after World War II." The article then quotes Kaoru Okano, a professor of politics at Meiji University, that "Japanese democracy can only be said to be in its kindergarten stage." No similar assessment of the maturity of democracy was prompted by the concurrent attempt by the GOP White House to use the justice system here to hide prior acceptance of an Italian bank's routing of loans to Iraq through its Atlanta office. Masao Maruyama, "Author's Introduction," Thought and Behavior in Modern Japanese Politics (Oxford, 1963), xii-xiii; Ōkōchi Kazuo, Sengo Nihon no Rōdō Undō [The labor movement in postwar Japan] (Tokyo, 1955). See also J. Victor Koschmann, "Intellectuals and Politics," in Postwar Japan as History, ed. Andrew Gordon (Berkeley, 1993), 395-423, for a more richly developed history of high intellectual Japanese thought in the postwar period.
41. Laura E. Hein, "In Search of Peace and Democracy: Postwar Japanese Economic Debate in Political Context," Journal of Asian Studies 55 (August 1994): 752-78. Jeff Hanes has traced a very similar set of attitudes among architects and city planners in Japan - and a similar trajectory to a sense of difference in later decades. See his "From Megalopolis to Megaroporisu," Journal of Urban History 19 (February 1993): 56-94.
42. Laura E. Hein, "In Search of Peace and Democracy: Postwar Japanese Economic Debate in Political Context," Journal of Asian Studies 55 (August 1994): 752-78. Jeff Hanes has traced a very similar set of attitudes among architects and city planners in Japan - and a similar trajectory to a sense of difference in later decades. See his "From Megalopolis to Megaroporisu," Journal of Urban History 19 (February 1993): 56-94.
43. Seki Yoshihiko, New Politics 1 (Winter 1962): 62-64; Junnosuke Masumi and Robert Scalapino, Parties and Politics in Contemporary Japan (Berkeley, 1962), vii. See also Laura Hein and Ellen Hammond, "Homing in on Asia" (in author's possession).
44. Seki Yoshihiko, New Politics 1 (Winter 1962): 62-64; Junnosuke Masumi and Robert Scalapino, Parties and Politics in Contemporary Japan (Berkeley, 1962), vii. See also Laura Hein and Ellen Hammond, "Homing in on Asia" (in author's possession).
45. Seki Yoshihiko, New Politics 1 (Winter 1962): 62-64; Junnosuke Masumi and Robert Scalapino, Parties and Politics in Contemporary Japan (Berkeley, 1962), vii. See also Laura Hein and Ellen Hammond, "Homing in on Asia" (in author's possession).
46. Richard J. Samuels makes a similar point in "Japanese Political Studies and the Myth of the Independent Intellectual," in The Political Culture of Foreign Area and International Studies: Essays in Honor of Lucian W. Pye, ed. Richard J. Samuels and Myron Weiner (Washington, 1992), 17-56.
47. For example, see Kazushi Ohkawa and Henry Rosofsky, "A Century of Japanese Economic Growth ," and Yasuzo Horie, "Modern Entrepreneurship in Meiji Japan," both in The State and Economic Enterprise, ed. W. W. Lockwood (Princeton, 1965), 47-92, 183-208; Ohkawa Kazushi, Differential Structure and Agriculture (Tokyo, 1972); and Tessa Morris-Suzuki, A History of Japanese Economic Thought (London, 1989).
48. For example, see Kazushi Ohkawa and Henry Rosofsky, "A Century of Japanese Economic Growth ," and Yasuzo Horie, "Modern Entrepreneurship in Meiji Japan," both in The State and Economic Enterprise, ed. W. W. Lockwood (Princeton, 1965), 47-92, 183-208; Ohkawa Kazushi, Differential Structure and Agriculture (Tokyo, 1972); and Tessa Morris-Suzuki, A History of Japanese Economic Thought (London, 1989).
49. For example, see Kazushi Ohkawa and Henry Rosofsky, "A Century of Japanese Economic Growth ," and Yasuzo Horie, "Modern Entrepreneurship in Meiji Japan," both in The State and Economic Enterprise, ed. W. W. Lockwood (Princeton, 1965), 47-92, 183-208; Ohkawa Kazushi, Differential Structure and Agriculture (Tokyo, 1972); and Tessa Morris-Suzuki, A History of Japanese Economic Thought (London, 1989).
50. For example, see Kazushi Ohkawa and Henry Rosofsky, "A Century of Japanese Economic Growth ," and Yasuzo Horie, "Modern Entrepreneurship in Meiji Japan," both in The State and Economic Enterprise, ed. W. W. Lockwood (Princeton, 1965), 47-92, 183-208; Ohkawa Kazushi, Differential Structure and Agriculture (Tokyo, 1972); and Tessa Morris-Suzuki, A History of Japanese Economic Thought (London, 1989).
51. John Hall, "Rule by Status in Tokugawa Japan," Journal of Japanese Studies 1 (Autumn 1974): 39-49; Sidney Crawcour, "The Tokugawa Heritage," in Lockwood, ed., The State and Economic Enterprise in Japan, 17-44; R. P. Dore, "The Legacy of Tokugawa Education," in Jansen, ed., Changing Japanese Attitudes, 99-132. For older English-language work on prewar society as militarized see most of the memoirs and reports created by occupation officials, including Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, Political Reorientation of Japan: September 1945 - September 1948, 2 vols. (Westport, 1970).
52. John Hall, "Rule by Status in Tokugawa Japan," Journal of Japanese Studies 1 (Autumn 1974): 39-49; Sidney Crawcour, "The Tokugawa Heritage," in Lockwood, ed., The State and Economic Enterprise in Japan, 17-44; R. P. Dore, "The Legacy of Tokugawa Education," in Jansen, ed., Changing Japanese Attitudes, 99-132. For older English-language work on prewar society as militarized see most of the memoirs and reports created by occupation officials, including Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, Political Reorientation of Japan: September 1945 - September 1948, 2 vols. (Westport, 1970).
53. John Hall, "Rule by Status in Tokugawa Japan," Journal of Japanese Studies 1 (Autumn 1974): 39-49; Sidney Crawcour, "The Tokugawa Heritage," in Lockwood, ed., The State and Economic Enterprise in Japan, 17-44; R. P. Dore, "The Legacy of Tokugawa Education," in Jansen, ed., Changing Japanese Attitudes, 99-132. For older English-language work on prewar society as militarized see most of the memoirs and reports created by occupation officials, including Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, Political Reorientation of Japan: September 1945 - September 1948, 2 vols. (Westport, 1970).
54. John Hall, "Rule by Status in Tokugawa Japan," Journal of Japanese Studies 1 (Autumn 1974): 39-49; Sidney Crawcour, "The Tokugawa Heritage," in Lockwood, ed., The State and Economic Enterprise in Japan, 17-44; R. P. Dore, "The Legacy of Tokugawa Education," in Jansen, ed., Changing Japanese Attitudes, 99-132. For older English-language work on prewar society as militarized see most of the memoirs and reports created by occupation officials, including Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, Political Reorientation of Japan: September 1945 - September 1948, 2 vols. (Westport, 1970).
55. The Iwanami imprimatur is significant, given that the same publisher brought out the 1932 "kōza," which gave its name to one wing of Marxist thought in Japan. Yasuba Yasukichi and Inoki Takenori, eds., Nihon Keizai Shi, vols. 1-8 (Tokyo, 1989). Also see the remarkable review bv Kozo Yamamura in Journal of Japanese Studies 17 (Winter 1991): 127-42, and ones by Sugihara Kaoru and Makino Fumio in Japan Forum 3 (April 1991). Two scholars who have personally traversed this path from research on the Japanese case within universal development to the unique nature of Japanese history are Hayami Yujiro and Yamada Saburo. See Yujiro Hayami and Saburo Yamada, "Agricultural Productivity at the Beginning of Industrialization," in Agriculture and Economic Growth: Japan's Experience, ed. Kazushi Ohkawa, Bruce F. Johnston, and Hiromitsu Kaneda (Princeton, 1970); versus Yujiro Hayami and Saburo Yamada, The Agricultural Development of Japan (Tokyo, 1991).
56. The Iwanami imprimatur is significant, given that the same publisher brought out the 1932 "kōza," which gave its name to one wing of Marxist thought in Japan. Yasuba Yasukichi and Inoki Takenori, eds., Nihon Keizai Shi, vols. 1-8 (Tokyo, 1989). Also see the remarkable review bv Kozo Yamamura in Journal of Japanese Studies 17 (Winter 1991): 127-42, and ones by Sugihara Kaoru and Makino Fumio in Japan Forum 3 (April 1991). Two scholars who have personally traversed this path from research on the Japanese case within universal development to the unique nature of Japanese history are Hayami Yujiro and Yamada Saburo. See Yujiro Hayami and Saburo Yamada, "Agricultural Productivity at the Beginning of Industrialization," in Agriculture and Economic Growth: Japan's Experience, ed. Kazushi Ohkawa, Bruce F. Johnston, and Hiromitsu Kaneda (Princeton, 1970); versus Yujiro Hayami and Saburo Yamada, The Agricultural Development of Japan (Tokyo, 1991).
57. The Iwanami imprimatur is significant, given that the same publisher brought out the 1932 "kōza," which gave its name to one wing of Marxist thought in Japan. Yasuba Yasukichi and Inoki Takenori, eds., Nihon Keizai Shi, vols. 1-8 (Tokyo, 1989). Also see the remarkable review bv Kozo Yamamura in Journal of Japanese Studies 17 (Winter 1991): 127-42, and ones by Sugihara Kaoru and Makino Fumio in Japan Forum 3 (April 1991). Two scholars who have personally traversed this path from research on the Japanese case within universal development to the unique nature of Japanese history are Hayami Yujiro and Yamada Saburo. See Yujiro Hayami and Saburo Yamada, "Agricultural Productivity at the Beginning of Industrialization," in Agriculture and Economic Growth: Japan's Experience, ed. Kazushi Ohkawa, Bruce F. Johnston, and Hiromitsu Kaneda (Princeton, 1970); versus Yujiro Hayami and Saburo Yamada, The Agricultural Development of Japan (Tokyo, 1991).
58. The Iwanami imprimatur is significant, given that the same publisher brought out the 1932 "kōza," which gave its name to one wing of Marxist thought in Japan. Yasuba Yasukichi and Inoki Takenori, eds., Nihon Keizai Shi, vols. 1-8 (Tokyo, 1989). Also see the remarkable review bv Kozo Yamamura in Journal of Japanese Studies 17 (Winter 1991): 127-42, and ones by Sugihara Kaoru and Makino Fumio in Japan Forum 3 (April 1991). Two scholars who have personally traversed this path from research on the Japanese case within universal development to the unique nature of Japanese history are Hayami Yujiro and Yamada Saburo. See Yujiro Hayami and Saburo Yamada, "Agricultural Productivity at the Beginning of Industrialization," in Agriculture and Economic Growth: Japan's Experience, ed. Kazushi Ohkawa, Bruce F. Johnston, and Hiromitsu Kaneda (Princeton, 1970); versus Yujiro Hayami and Saburo Yamada, The Agricultural Development of Japan (Tokyo, 1991).
59. The Iwanami imprimatur is significant, given that the same publisher brought out the 1932 "kōza," which gave its name to one wing of Marxist thought in Japan. Yasuba Yasukichi and Inoki Takenori, eds., Nihon Keizai Shi, vols. 1-8 (Tokyo, 1989). Also see the remarkable review bv Kozo Yamamura in Journal of Japanese Studies 17 (Winter 1991): 127-42, and ones by Sugihara Kaoru and Makino Fumio in Japan Forum 3 (April 1991). Two scholars who have personally traversed this path from research on the Japanese case within universal development to the unique nature of Japanese history are Hayami Yujiro and Yamada Saburo. See Yujiro Hayami and Saburo Yamada, "Agricultural Productivity at the Beginning of Industrialization," in Agriculture and Economic Growth: Japan's Experience, ed. Kazushi Ohkawa, Bruce F. Johnston, and Hiromitsu Kaneda (Princeton, 1970); versus Yujiro Hayami and Saburo Yamada, The Agricultural Development of Japan (Tokyo, 1991).
60. Nishikawa Shunsaku and Saito Osamu, "The Economic History of the Restoration Period ," and Yoshida Mitsukuni, "The Restoration and the History of Technology," both in Meiji Ishin: Restoration and Revolution, ed. Nagai Michio and Miguel Urritia (Tokyo, 1985), 175-91, 192-204; Tessa Morris-Suzuki, "Sericulture and the Origins of Japanese Industrialization," Technology and Culture 33 (January 1992): 101-21; Chie Nakane and Shinzaburō Oishi, eds., Tokugawa Japan: The Social and Economic Antecedents of Modern Japan (Tokyo, 1990). Charles Sabel and Jonathan Zeitlin, "Historical Alternatives to Mass Production: Politics, Markets and Technology in Nineteenth-Century Industrialization," Past and Present 108 (August 1985): 133-76.
61. Nishikawa Shunsaku and Saito Osamu, "The Economic History of the Restoration Period ," and Yoshida Mitsukuni, "The Restoration and the History of Technology," both in Meiji Ishin: Restoration and Revolution, ed. Nagai Michio and Miguel Urritia (Tokyo, 1985), 175-91, 192-204; Tessa Morris-Suzuki, "Sericulture and the Origins of Japanese
62. Nishikawa Shunsaku and Saito Osamu, "The Economic History of the Restoration Period ," and Yoshida Mitsukuni, "The Restoration and the History of Technology," both in Meiji Ishin: Restoration and Revolution, ed. Nagai Michio and Miguel Urritia (Tokyo, 1985), 175-91, 192-204; Tessa Morris-Suzuki, "Sericulture and the Origins of Japanese Industrialization," Technology and Culture 33 (January 1992): 101-21; Chie Nakane and Shinzaburō Oishi, eds., Tokugawa Japan: The Social and Economic Antecedents of Modern Japan (Tokyo, 1990). Charles Sabel and Jonathan Zeitlin, "Historical Alternatives to Mass Production: Politics, Markets and Technology in Nineteenth-Century Industrialization," Past and Present 108 (August 1985): 133-76.
63. Nishikawa Shunsaku and Saito Osamu, "The Economic History of the Restoration Period ," and Yoshida Mitsukuni, "The Restoration and the History of Technology," both in Meiji Ishin: Restoration and Revolution, ed. Nagai Michio and Miguel Urritia (Tokyo, 1985), 175-91, 192-204; Tessa Morris-Suzuki, "Sericulture and the Origins of Japanese Industrialization," Technology and Culture 33 (January 1992): 101-21; Chie Nakane and Shinzaburō Oishi, eds., Tokugawa Japan: The Social and Economic Antecedents of Modern Japan (Tokyo, 1990). Charles Sabel and Jonathan Zeitlin, "Historical Alternatives to Mass Production: Politics, Markets and Technology in Nineteenth-Century Industrialization," Past and Present 108 (August 1985): 133-76.
64. Nishikawa Shunsaku and Saito Osamu, "The Economic History of the Restoration Period ," and Yoshida Mitsukuni, "The Restoration and the History of Technology," both in Meiji Ishin: Restoration and Revolution, ed. Nagai Michio and Miguel Urritia (Tokyo, 1985), 175-91, 192-204; Tessa Morris-Suzuki, "Sericulture and the Origins of Japanese Industrialization," Technology and Culture 33 (January 1992): 101-21; Chie Nakane and Shinzaburō Oishi, eds., Tokugawa Japan: The Social and Economic Antecedents of Modern Japan (Tokyo, 1990). Charles Sabel and Jonathan Zeitlin, "Historical Alternatives to Mass Production: Politics, Markets and Technology in Nineteenth-Century Industrialization," Past and Present 108 (August 1985): 133-76.
65. J. Victor Koschmann, ed., Authority and the Individual in Japan (Tokyo, 1978), esp. Sakuta Keiichi, "The Controversy over Community and Autonomy," 220-49; Irokawa Daikichi, The Culture of the Meiji Period (Princeton, 1985); Carol Gluck, "The People in History: Recent Trends in Japanese Historiography," Journal of Asian Studies 38 (November 1978): 25-50. Kathleen Neils Conzen presented suggestive parallels from within the American tradition in her analysis of the way that nineteenth-century German Americans saw themselves as different from their neighbors because of their greater love of nature, of high culture, and of the family rather than the lone individual. "Ethnicity as Festive Culture: Nineteenth-Century German America on Parade," in Sollers, ed., The Invention of Ethnicity, 44-76. See also Lawrence Olson, Ambivalent Moderns: Portraits of Japanese Cultural Identity (Savage, MD, 1992); and for analyses of related intellectual thought H. D. Harootunian, "Visible Discourses/Invisible Ideologies," in Postmodernism and Japan, Special Issue of South Atlantic Quarterly 87 (Summer 1988): 453-60.
66. J. Victor Koschmann, ed., Authority and the Individual in Japan (Tokyo, 1978), esp. Sakuta Keiichi, "The Controversy over Community and Autonomy," 220-49; Irokawa Daikichi, The Culture of the Meiji Period (Princeton, 1985); Carol Gluck, "The People in History: Recent Trends in Japanese Historiography," Journal of Asian Studies 38 (November 1978): 25-50. Kathleen Neils Conzen presented suggestive parallels from within the American tradition in her analysis of the way that nineteenth-century German Americans saw themselves as different from their neighbors because of their greater love of nature, of high culture, and of the family rather than the lone individual. "Ethnicity as Festive Culture: Nineteenth-Century German America on Parade," in Sollers, ed., The Invention of Ethnicity, 44-76. See also Lawrence Olson, Ambivalent Moderns: Portraits of Japanese Cultural Identity (Savage, MD, 1992); and for analyses of related intellectual thought H. D. Harootunian, "Visible Discourses/Invisible Ideologies," in Postmodernism and Japan, Special Issue of South Atlantic Quarterly 87 (Summer 1988): 453-60.
67. J. Victor Koschmann, ed., Authority and the Individual in Japan (Tokyo, 1978), esp. Sakuta Keiichi, "The Controversy over Community and Autonomy," 220-49; Irokawa Daikichi, The Culture of the Meiji Period (Princeton, 1985); Carol Gluck, "The People in History: Recent Trends in Japanese Historiography," Journal of Asian Studies 38 (November 1978): 25-50. Kathleen Neils Conzen presented suggestive parallels from within the American tradition in her analysis of the way that nineteenth-century German Americans saw themselves as different from their neighbors because of their greater love of nature, of high culture, and of the family rather than the lone individual. "Ethnicity as Festive Culture: Nineteenth-Century German America on Parade," in Sollers, ed., The Invention of Ethnicity, 44-76. See also Lawrence Olson, Ambivalent Moderns: Portraits of Japanese Cultural Identity (Savage, MD, 1992); and for analyses of related intellectual thought H. D. Harootunian, "Visible Discourses/Invisible Ideologies," in Postmodernism and Japan, Special Issue of South Atlantic Quarterly 87 (Summer 1988): 453-60.
68. J. Victor Koschmann, ed., Authority and the Individual in Japan (Tokyo, 1978), esp. Sakuta Keiichi, "The Controversy over Community and Autonomy," 220-49; Irokawa Daikichi, The Culture of the Meiji Period (Princeton, 1985); Carol Gluck, "The People in History: Recent Trends in Japanese Historiography," Journal of Asian Studies 38 (November 1978): 25-50. Kathleen Neils Conzen presented suggestive parallels from within the American tradition in her analysis of the way that nineteenth-century German Americans saw themselves as different from their neighbors because of their greater love of nature, of high culture, and of the family rather than the lone individual. "Ethnicity as Festive Culture: Nineteenth-Century German America on Parade," in Sollers, ed., The Invention of Ethnicity, 44-76. See also Lawrence Olson, Ambivalent Moderns: Portraits of Japanese Cultural Identity (Savage, MD, 1992); and for analyses of related intellectual thought H. D. Harootunian, "Visible Discourses/Invisible Ideologies," in Postmodernism and Japan, Special Issue of South Atlantic Quarterly 87 (Summer 1988): 453-60.
69. J. Victor Koschmann, ed., Authority and the Individual in Japan (Tokyo, 1978), esp. Sakuta Keiichi, "The Controversy over Community and Autonomy," 220-49; Irokawa Daikichi, The Culture of the Meiji Period (Princeton, 1985); Carol Gluck, "The People in History: Recent Trends in Japanese Historiography," Journal of Asian Studies 38 (November 1978): 25-50. Kathleen Neils Conzen presented suggestive parallels from within the American tradition in her analysis of the way that nineteenth-century German Americans saw themselves as different from their neighbors because of their greater love of nature, of high culture, and of the family rather than the lone individual. "Ethnicity as Festive Culture: Nineteenth-Century German America on Parade," in Sollers, ed., The Invention of Ethnicity, 44-76. See also Lawrence Olson, Ambivalent Moderns: Portraits of Japanese Cultural Identity (Savage, MD, 1992); and for analyses of related intellectual thought H. D. Harootunian, "Visible Discourses/Invisible Ideologies," in Postmodernism and Japan, Special Issue of South Atlantic Quarterly 87 (Summer 1988): 453-60.
70. J. Victor Koschmann, ed., Authority and the Individual in Japan (Tokyo, 1978), esp. Sakuta Keiichi, "The Controversy over Community and Autonomy," 220-49; Irokawa Daikichi, The Culture of the Meiji Period (Princeton, 1985); Carol Gluck, "The People in History: Recent Trends in Japanese Historiography," Journal of Asian Studies 38 (November 1978): 25-50. Kathleen Neils Conzen presented suggestive parallels from within the American tradition in her analysis of the way that nineteenth-century German Americans saw themselves as different from their neighbors because of their greater love of nature, of high culture, and of the family rather than the lone individual. "Ethnicity as Festive Culture: Nineteenth-Century German America on Parade," in Sollers, ed., The Invention of Ethnicity, 44-76. See also Lawrence Olson, Ambivalent Moderns: Portraits of Japanese Cultural Identity (Savage, MD, 1992); and for analyses of related intellectual thought H. D. Harootunian, "Visible Discourses/Invisible Ideologies," in Postmodernism and Japan, Special Issue of South Atlantic Quarterly 87 (Summer 1988): 453-60.
71. J. Victor Koschmann, ed., Authority and the Individual in Japan (Tokyo, 1978), esp. Sakuta Keiichi, "The Controversy over Community and Autonomy," 220-49; Irokawa Daikichi, The Culture of the Meiji Period (Princeton, 1985); Carol Gluck, "The People in History: Recent Trends in Japanese Historiography," Journal of Asian Studies 38 (November 1978): 25-50. Kathleen Neils Conzen presented suggestive parallels from within the American tradition in her analysis of the way that nineteenth-century German Americans saw themselves as different from their neighbors because of their greater love of nature, of high culture, and of the family rather than the lone individual. "Ethnicity as Festive Culture: Nineteenth-Century German America on Parade," in Sollers, ed., The Invention of Ethnicity, 44-76. See also Lawrence Olson, Ambivalent Moderns: Portraits of Japanese Cultural Identity (Savage, MD, 1992); and for analyses of related intellectual thought H. D. Harootunian, "Visible Discourses/Invisible Ideologies," in Postmodernism and Japan, Special Issue of South Atlantic Quarterly 87 (Summer 1988): 453-60.
72. Murakami Yasusuke, Kumon Shumpei, and Satō Seizaburō, Bunmei to shite no ie-shakai (Tokyo, 1979) - translated in condensed form as Murakami Yasusuke, "le Society as a Pattern of Civilization," Journal of Japanese Studies 10 (Summer 1984): 281-363 - is one influential example. See also Murakami Yasusuke, "le Society as a Pattern of Civilization: Response to Criticism," ibid. 11 (Summer 1985): 401-21. Harumi Befu, "Symbols of nationalism and Nihonjinron," in Ideology and Practice in Modern Japan, ed. Roger Goodman and Kirsten Refsing (London, 1992), 26-46; Harumi Befu, "Nationalism and Nihonjinron," in Cultural Nationalism in East Asia: Representations and Identity, ed. idem (Berkeley, 1993), 107-35; Harumi Befu, "Internationalization of Japan and Nihon Runkaron," in The Challenge of Japan's Internationalization: Organization and Culture, ed. Hiroshi Mannari and Harumi Befu (Tokyo, 1983). See also Peter N. Dale, The Myth of Japanese Uniqueness (London, 1986). Right now, this concept is being updated as the Asian model rather than the Japanese model, particularly in Singapore, where the judicial sentence of caning has become a vehicle for the argument that authoritarianism contributes to economic growth and political stability.
73. Murakami Yasusuke, Kumon Shumpei, and Satō Seizaburō, Bunmei to shite no ie-shakai (Tokyo, 1979) - translated in condensed form as Murakami Yasusuke, "le Society as a Pattern of Civilization," Journal of Japanese Studies 10 (Summer 1984): 281-363 - is one influential example. See also Murakami Yasusuke, "le Society as a Pattern of Civilization: Response to Criticism," ibid. 11 (Summer 1985): 401-21. Harumi Befu, "Symbols of nationalism and Nihonjinron," in Ideology and Practice in Modern Japan, ed. Roger Goodman and Kirsten Refsing (London, 1992), 26-46; Harumi Befu, "Nationalism and Nihonjinron," in Cultural Nationalism in East Asia: Representations and Identity, ed. idem (Berkeley, 1993), 107-35; Harumi Befu, "Internationalization of Japan and Nihon Runkaron," in The Challenge of Japan's Internationalization: Organization and Culture, ed. Hiroshi Mannari and Harumi Befu (Tokyo, 1983). See also Peter N. Dale, The Myth of Japanese Uniqueness (London, 1986). Right now, this concept is being updated as the Asian model rather than the Japanese model, particularly in Singapore, where the judicial sentence of caning has become a vehicle for the argument that authoritarianism contributes to economic growth and political stability.
74. Murakami Yasusuke, Kumon Shumpei, and Satō Seizaburō, Bunmei to shite no ie-shakai (Tokyo, 1979) - translated in condensed form as Murakami Yasusuke, "le Society as a Pattern of Civilization," Journal of Japanese Studies 10 (Summer 1984): 281-363 - is one influential example. See also Murakami Yasusuke, "le Society as a Pattern of Civilization: Response to Criticism," ibid. 11 (Summer 1985): 401-21. Harumi Befu, "Symbols of nationalism and Nihonjinron," in Ideology and Practice in Modern Japan, ed. Roger Goodman and Kirsten Refsing (London, 1992), 26-46; Harumi Befu, "Nationalism and Nihonjinron," in Cultural Nationalism in East Asia: Representations and Identity, ed. idem (Berkeley, 1993), 107-35; Harumi Befu, "Internationalization of Japan and Nihon Runkaron," in The Challenge of Japan's Internationalization: Organization and Culture, ed. Hiroshi Mannari and Harumi Befu (Tokyo, 1983). See also Peter N. Dale, The Myth of Japanese Uniqueness (London, 1986). Right now, this concept is being updated as the Asian model rather than the Japanese model, particularly in Singapore, where the judicial sentence of caning has become a vehicle for the argument that authoritarianism contributes to economic growth and political stability.
75. Murakami Yasusuke, Kumon Shumpei, and Satō Seizaburō, Bunmei to shite no ie-shakai (Tokyo, 1979) - translated in condensed form as Murakami Yasusuke, "le Society as a Pattern of Civilization," Journal of Japanese Studies 10 (Summer 1984): 281-363 - is one influential example. See also Murakami Yasusuke, "le Society as a Pattern of Civilization: Response to Criticism," ibid. 11 (Summer 1985): 401-21. Harumi Befu, "Symbols of nationalism and Nihonjinron," in Ideology and Practice in Modern Japan, ed. Roger Goodman and Kirsten Refsing (London, 1992), 26-46; Harumi Befu, "Nationalism and Nihonjinron," in Cultural Nationalism in East Asia: Representations and Identity, ed. idem (Berkeley, 1993), 107-35; Harumi Befu, "Internationalization of Japan and Nihon Runkaron," in The Challenge of Japan's Internationalization: Organization and Culture, ed. Hiroshi Mannari and Harumi Befu (Tokyo, 1983). See also Peter N. Dale, The Myth of Japanese Uniqueness (London, 1986). Right now, this concept is being updated as the Asian model rather than the Japanese model, particularly in Singapore, where the judicial sentence of caning has become a vehicle for the argument that authoritarianism contributes to economic growth and political stability.
76. Murakami Yasusuke, Kumon Shumpei, and Satō Seizaburō, Bunmei to shite no ie-shakai (Tokyo, 1979) - translated in condensed form as Murakami Yasusuke, "le Society as a Pattern of Civilization," Journal of Japanese Studies 10 (Summer 1984): 281-363 - is one influential example. See also Murakami Yasusuke, "le Society as a Pattern of Civilization: Response to Criticism," ibid. 11 (Summer 1985): 401-21. Harumi Befu, "Symbols of nationalism and Nihonjinron," in Ideology and Practice in Modern Japan, ed. Roger Goodman and Kirsten Refsing (London, 1992), 26-46; Harumi Befu, "Nationalism and Nihonjinron," in Cultural Nationalism in East Asia: Representations and Identity, ed. idem (Berkeley, 1993), 107-35; Harumi Befu, "Internationalization of Japan and Nihon Runkaron," in The Challenge of Japan's Internationalization: Organization and Culture, ed. Hiroshi Mannari and Harumi Befu (Tokyo, 1983). See also Peter N. Dale, The Myth of Japanese Uniqueness (London, 1986). Right now, this concept is being updated as the Asian model rather than the Japanese model, particularly in Singapore, where the judicial sentence of caning has become a vehicle for the argument that authoritarianism contributes to economic growth and political stability.
77. Murakami Yasusuke, Kumon Shumpei, and Satō Seizaburō, Bunmei to shite no ie-shakai (Tokyo, 1979) - translated in condensed form as Murakami Yasusuke, "le Society as a Pattern of Civilization," Journal of Japanese Studies 10 (Summer 1984): 281-363 - is one influential example. See also Murakami Yasusuke, "le Society as a Pattern of Civilization: Response to Criticism," ibid. 11 (Summer 1985): 401-21. Harumi Befu, "Symbols of nationalism and Nihonjinron," in Ideology and Practice in Modern Japan, ed. Roger Goodman and Kirsten Refsing (London, 1992), 26-46; Harumi Befu, "Nationalism and Nihonjinron," in Cultural Nationalism in East Asia: Representations and Identity, ed. idem (Berkeley, 1993), 107-35; Harumi Befu, "Internationalization of Japan and Nihon Runkaron," in The Challenge of Japan's Internationalization: Organization and Culture, ed. Hiroshi Mannari and Harumi Befu (Tokyo, 1983). See also Peter N. Dale, The Myth of Japanese Uniqueness (London, 1986). Right now, this concept is being updated as the Asian model rather than the Japanese model, particularly in Singapore, where the judicial sentence of caning has become a vehicle for the argument that authoritarianism contributes to economic growth and political stability.
78. Murakami Yasusuke, Kumon Shumpei, and Satō Seizaburō, Bunmei to shite no ie-shakai (Tokyo, 1979) - translated in condensed form as Murakami Yasusuke, "le Society as a Pattern of Civilization," Journal of Japanese Studies 10 (Summer 1984): 281-363 - is one influential example. See also Murakami Yasusuke, "le Society as a Pattern of Civilization: Response to Criticism," ibid. 11 (Summer 1985): 401-21. Harumi Befu, "Symbols of nationalism and Nihonjinron," in Ideology and Practice in Modern Japan, ed. Roger Goodman and Kirsten Refsing (London, 1992), 26-46; Harumi Befu, "Nationalism and Nihonjinron," in Cultural Nationalism in East Asia: Representations and Identity, ed. idem (Berkeley, 1993), 107-35; Harumi Befu, "Internationalization of Japan and Nihon Runkaron," in The Challenge of Japan's Internationalization: Organization and Culture, ed. Hiroshi Mannari and Harumi Befu (Tokyo, 1983). See also Peter N. Dale, The Myth of Japanese Uniqueness (London, 1986). Right now, this concept is being updated as the Asian model rather than the Japanese model, particularly in Singapore, where the judicial sentence of caning has become a vehicle for the argument that authoritarianism contributes to economic growth and political stability.
79. The leading English-language surveys of Japanese political economy in the early 1970s and the 1980s exemplify this shift as well. See Hugh Patrick and Henry Rosofsky, eds., Asia's New Giant: How the Japanese Economy Works (Washington, 1976); and the three-volume scries The Political Economy of Japan, ed. Yasusuke Murakami and Hugh Patrick (Stanford, 1987, 1989, 1992). See also Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford, 1982); and Ezra Vogel, Japan as Number One (Cambridge, MA, 1979). One of the reasons Johnson gives for Japan's difference is its late-developer status (after Gerschenkron). Although this is a status that theoretically links Japan to other late developers, it has become a factor that sets Japan apart from all Western countries in most analyses. R. P. Dore, Taking Japan Seriously: A Confucian Perspective and Leading Economic Issues (London, 1987). James Abbeglen, The Japanese Factory (Glencoe, IL, 1958). See Koji Taira's brilliant critique of Abbeglen, which points out the absurdity of thinking about a highly developed economic system such as postwar Japan in terms of preindustrial values. Economic Development and Cultural Change 10 (January 1962): 150-68. James Fallows, More Like Us (New York, 1989) ; idem, "The Japanese are Different," Atlantic Monthly 258 (September 1986): 35-41. Karel van Wolferen. The Enigma of Japanese Power (New York, 1989).
80. The leading English-language surveys of Japanese political economy in the early 1970s and the 1980s exemplify this shift as well. See Hugh Patrick and Henry Rosofsky, eds., Asia's New Giant: How the Japanese Economy Works (Washington, 1976); and the three-volume scries The Political Economy of Japan, ed. Yasusuke Murakami and Hugh Patrick (Stanford, 1987, 1989, 1992). See also Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford, 1982); and Ezra Vogel, Japan as Number One (Cambridge, MA, 1979). One of the reasons Johnson gives for Japan's difference is its late-developer status (after Gerschenkron). Although this is a status that theoretically links Japan to other late developers, it has become a factor that sets Japan apart from all Western countries in most analyses. R. P. Dore, Taking Japan Seriously: A Confucian Perspective and Leading Economic Issues (London, 1987). James Abbeglen, The Japanese Factory (Glencoe, IL, 1958). See Koji Taira's brilliant critique of Abbeglen, which points out the absurdity of thinking about a highly developed economic system such as postwar Japan in terms of preindustrial values. Economic Development and Cultural Change 10 (January 1962): 150-68. James Fallows, More Like Us (New York, 1989) ; idem, "The Japanese are Different," Atlantic Monthly 258 (September 1986): 35-41. Karel van Wolferen. The Enigma of Japanese Power (New York, 1989).
81. The leading English-language surveys of Japanese political economy in the early 1970s and the 1980s exemplify this shift as well. See Hugh Patrick and Henry Rosofsky, eds., Asia's New Giant: How the Japanese Economy Works (Washington, 1976); and the three-volume scries The Political Economy of Japan, ed. Yasusuke Murakami and Hugh Patrick (Stanford, 1987, 1989, 1992). See also Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford, 1982); and Ezra Vogel, Japan as Number One (Cambridge, MA, 1979). One of the reasons Johnson gives for Japan's difference is its late-developer status (after Gerschenkron). Although this is a status that theoretically links Japan to other late developers, it has become a factor that sets Japan apart from all Western countries in most analyses. R. P. Dore, Taking Japan Seriously: A Confucian Perspective and Leading Economic Issues (London, 1987). James Abbeglen, The Japanese Factory (Glencoe, IL, 1958). See Koji Taira's brilliant critique of Abbeglen, which points out the absurdity of thinking about a highly developed economic system such as postwar Japan in terms of preindustrial values. Economic Development and Cultural Change 10 (January 1962): 150-68. James Fallows, More Like Us (New York, 1989) ; idem, "The Japanese are Different," Atlantic Monthly 258 (September 1986): 35-41. Karel van Wolferen. The Enigma of Japanese Power (New York, 1989).
82. The leading English-language surveys of Japanese political economy in the early 1970s and the 1980s exemplify this shift as well. See Hugh Patrick and Henry Rosofsky, eds., Asia's New Giant: How the Japanese Economy Works (Washington, 1976); and the three-volume scries The Political Economy of Japan, ed. Yasusuke Murakami and Hugh Patrick (Stanford, 1987, 1989, 1992). See also Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford, 1982); and Ezra Vogel, Japan as Number One (Cambridge, MA, 1979). One of the reasons Johnson gives for Japan's difference is its late-developer status (after Gerschenkron). Although this is a status that theoretically links Japan to other late developers, it has become a factor that sets Japan apart from all Western countries in most analyses. R. P. Dore, Taking Japan Seriously: A Confucian Perspective and Leading Economic Issues (London, 1987). James Abbeglen, The Japanese Factory (Glencoe, IL, 1958). See Koji Taira's brilliant critique of Abbeglen, which points out the absurdity of thinking about a highly developed economic system such as postwar Japan in terms of preindustrial values. Economic Development and Cultural Change 10 (January 1962): 150-68. James Fallows, More Like Us (New York, 1989) ; idem, "The Japanese are Different," Atlantic Monthly 258 (September 1986): 35-41. Karel van Wolferen. The Enigma of Japanese Power (New York, 1989).
83. The leading English-language surveys of Japanese political economy in the early 1970s and the 1980s exemplify this shift as well. See Hugh Patrick and Henry Rosofsky, eds., Asia's New Giant: How the Japanese Economy Works (Washington, 1976); and the three-volume scries The Political Economy of Japan, ed. Yasusuke Murakami and Hugh Patrick (Stanford, 1987, 1989, 1992). See also Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford, 1982); and Ezra Vogel, Japan as Number One (Cambridge, MA, 1979). One of the reasons Johnson gives for Japan's difference is its late-developer status (after Gerschenkron). Although this is a status that theoretically links Japan to other late developers, it has become a factor that sets Japan apart from all Western countries in most analyses. R. P. Dore, Taking Japan Seriously: A Confucian Perspective and Leading Economic Issues (London, 1987). James Abbeglen, The Japanese Factory (Glencoe, IL, 1958). See Koji Taira's brilliant critique of Abbeglen, which points out the absurdity of thinking about a highly developed economic system such as postwar Japan in terms of preindustrial values. Economic Development and Cultural Change 10 (January 1962): 150-68. James Fallows, More Like Us (New York, 1989) ; idem, "The Japanese are Different," Atlantic Monthly 258 (September 1986): 35-41. Karel van Wolferen. The Enigma of Japanese Power (New York, 1989).
84. The leading English-language surveys of Japanese political economy in the early 1970s and the 1980s exemplify this shift as well. See Hugh Patrick and Henry Rosofsky, eds., Asia's New Giant: How the Japanese Economy Works (Washington, 1976); and the three-volume scries The Political Economy of Japan, ed. Yasusuke Murakami and Hugh Patrick (Stanford, 1987, 1989, 1992). See also Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford, 1982); and Ezra Vogel, Japan as Number One (Cambridge, MA, 1979). One of the reasons Johnson gives for Japan's difference is its late-developer status (after Gerschenkron). Although this is a status that theoretically links Japan to other late developers, it has become a factor that sets Japan apart from all Western countries in most analyses. R. P. Dore, Taking Japan Seriously: A Confucian Perspective and Leading Economic Issues (London, 1987). James Abbeglen, The Japanese Factory (Glencoe, IL, 1958). See Koji Taira's brilliant critique of Abbeglen, which points out the absurdity of thinking about a highly developed economic system such as postwar Japan in terms of preindustrial values. Economic Development and Cultural Change 10 (January 1962): 150-68. James Fallows, More Like Us (New York, 1989) ; idem, "The Japanese are Different," Atlantic Monthly 258 (September 1986): 35-41. Karel van Wolferen. The Enigma of Japanese Power (New York, 1989).
85. The leading English-language surveys of Japanese political economy in the early 1970s and the 1980s exemplify this shift as well. See Hugh Patrick and Henry Rosofsky, eds., Asia's New Giant: How the Japanese Economy Works (Washington, 1976); and the three-volume scries The Political Economy of Japan, ed. Yasusuke Murakami and Hugh Patrick (Stanford, 1987, 1989, 1992). See also Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford, 1982); and Ezra Vogel, Japan as Number One (Cambridge, MA, 1979). One of the reasons Johnson gives for Japan's difference is its late-developer status (after Gerschenkron). Although this is a status that theoretically links Japan to other late developers, it has become a factor that sets Japan apart from all Western countries in most analyses. R. P. Dore, Taking Japan Seriously: A Confucian Perspective and Leading Economic Issues (London, 1987). James Abbeglen, The Japanese Factory (Glencoe, IL, 1958). See Koji Taira's brilliant critique of Abbeglen, which points out the absurdity of thinking about a highly developed economic system such as postwar Japan in terms of preindustrial values. Economic Development and Cultural Change 10 (January 1962): 150-68. James Fallows, More Like Us (New York, 1989) ; idem, "The Japanese are Different," Atlantic Monthly 258 (September 1986): 35-41. Karel van Wolferen. The Enigma of Japanese Power (New York, 1989).
86. The leading English-language surveys of Japanese political economy in the early 1970s and the 1980s exemplify this shift as well. See Hugh Patrick and Henry Rosofsky, eds., Asia's New Giant: How the Japanese Economy Works (Washington, 1976); and the three-volume scries The Political Economy of Japan, ed. Yasusuke Murakami and Hugh Patrick (Stanford, 1987, 1989, 1992). See also Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford, 1982); and Ezra Vogel, Japan as Number One (Cambridge, MA, 1979). One of the reasons Johnson gives for Japan's difference is its late-developer status (after Gerschenkron). Although this is a status that theoretically links Japan to other late developers, it has become a factor that sets Japan apart from all Western countries in most analyses. R. P. Dore, Taking Japan Seriously: A Confucian Perspective and Leading Economic Issues (London, 1987). James Abbeglen, The Japanese Factory (Glencoe, IL, 1958). See Koji Taira's brilliant critique of Abbeglen, which points out the absurdity of thinking about a highly developed economic system such as postwar Japan in terms of preindustrial values. Economic Development and Cultural Change 10 (January 1962): 150-68. James Fallows, More Like Us (New York, 1989) ; idem, "The Japanese are Different," Atlantic Monthly 258 (September 1986): 35-41. Karel van Wolferen. The Enigma of Japanese Power (New York, 1989).
87. The leading English-language surveys of Japanese political economy in the early 1970s and the 1980s exemplify this shift as well. See Hugh Patrick and Henry Rosofsky, eds., Asia's New Giant: How the Japanese Economy Works (Washington, 1976); and the three-volume scries The Political Economy of Japan, ed. Yasusuke Murakami and Hugh Patrick (Stanford, 1987, 1989, 1992). See also Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford, 1982); and Ezra Vogel, Japan as Number One (Cambridge, MA, 1979). One of the reasons Johnson gives for Japan's difference is its late-developer status (after Gerschenkron). Although this is a status that theoretically links Japan to other late developers, it has become a factor that sets Japan apart from all Western countries in most analyses. R. P. Dore, Taking Japan Seriously: A Confucian Perspective and Leading Economic Issues (London, 1987). James Abbeglen, The Japanese Factory (Glencoe, IL, 1958). See Koji Taira's brilliant critique of Abbeglen, which points out the absurdity of thinking about a highly developed economic system such as postwar Japan in terms of preindustrial values. Economic Development and Cultural Change 10 (January 1962): 150-68. James Fallows, More Like Us (New York, 1989) ; idem, "The Japanese are Different," Atlantic Monthly 258 (September 1986): 35-41. Karel van Wolferen. The Enigma of Japanese Power (New York, 1989).
88. The leading English-language surveys of Japanese political economy in the early 1970s and the 1980s exemplify this shift as well. See Hugh Patrick and Henry Rosofsky, eds., Asia's New Giant: How the Japanese Economy Works (Washington, 1976); and the three-volume scries The Political Economy of Japan, ed. Yasusuke Murakami and Hugh Patrick (Stanford, 1987, 1989, 1992). See also Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Stanford, 1982); and Ezra Vogel, Japan as Number One (Cambridge, MA, 1979). One of the reasons Johnson gives for Japan's difference is its late-developer status (after Gerschenkron). Although this is a status that theoretically links Japan to other late developers, it has become a factor that sets Japan apart from all Western countries in most analyses. R. P. Dore, Taking Japan Seriously: A Confucian Perspective and Leading Economic Issues (London, 1987). James Abbeglen, The Japanese Factory (Glencoe, IL, 1958). See Koji Taira's brilliant critique of Abbeglen, which points out the absurdity of thinking about a highly developed economic system such as postwar Japan in terms of preindustrial values. Economic Development and Cultural Change 10 (January 1962): 150-68. James Fallows, More Like Us (New York, 1989) ; idem, "The Japanese are Different," Atlantic Monthly 258 (September 1986): 35-41. Karel van Wolferen. The Enigma of Japanese Power (New York, 1989).
89. Ishihara Shintarō, "Danko 'No' to iu beki jōken" [The circumstances under which Japan must say a firm "no"] Bungei Shunjū (August 1991): 132.
90. See Laura Hein, "Growth versus Success: Japan's Economic Policy in Historical Perspective," in Postwar Japan as History, ed. Andrew Gordon (Berkeley, 1993), 99-122.
91. Sumiya Mikio, "Development of the Lifelong Employment System," Developing Economies 4 (December 1966): 409-515; Solomon B. Levine, Industrial Relations in Postwar Japan (Urbana, 1958). For recent work that acknowledges this material but still fails to incorporate it see William Chapman, Inventing Japan: The Making of a Postwar Civilization (New York, 1991), esp. 111, 118.
92. Sumiya Mikio, "Development of the Lifelong Employment System," Developing Economies 4 (December 1966): 409-515; Solomon B. Levine, Industrial Relations in Postwar Japan (Urbana, 1958). For recent work that acknowledges this material but still fails to incorporate it see William Chapman, Inventing Japan: The Making of a Postwar Civilization (New York, 1991), esp. 111, 118.
93. Sumiya Mikio, "Development of the Lifelong Employment System," Developing Economies 4 (December 1966): 409-515; Solomon B. Levine, Industrial Relations in Postwar Japan (Urbana, 1958). For recent work that acknowledges this material but still fails to incorporate it see William Chapman, Inventing Japan: The Making of a Postwar Civilization (New York, 1991), esp. 111, 118.
94. Quote is from Japan Times Weekly, 3-9 May 1993, 13. Karel van Wolferen, New York Times, 2 December 1991, op-ed page. Chalmers Johnson, "How to Think about Economic Competition from Japan," Journal of Japanese Studies 13 (Summer 1987): 415-28.
95. Quote is from Japan Times Weekly, 3-9 May 1993, 13. Karel van Wolferen, New York Times, 2 December 1991, op-ed page. Chalmers Johnson, "How to Think about Economic Competition from Japan," Journal of Japanese Studies 13 (Summer 1987): 415-28.
96. Quote is from Japan Times Weekly, 3-9 May 1993, 13. Karel van Wolferen, New York Times, 2 December 1991, op-ed page. Chalmers Johnson, "How to Think about Economic Competition from Japan," Journal of Japanese Studies 13 (Summer 1987): 415-28.
97. Robert E. Ward, "Urban-Rural Differences and the Process of Political Modernization in Japan: A Case Study," Economic Development and Cultural Change 9 (October 1960): 135-66.
98. But note the very sophisticated rebuttal of this approach in the same journal: John W. Bennett, "Economic Aspects of a Boss-Henchman System in the Japanese Forestry Industry," ibid. 7 (October 1958): 13-30.
99. For more on history transposed as geography see Kären Wigen, "The Geographic Imagination in Early Modern Japanese History: Retrospect and Prospect," Journal of Asian Studies 51 (February 1992): 3-29.
100. Chapman, Inventing Japan, draws heavily on the work of Bradley M. Richardson and Scott C. Flanagan, Politics in Japan (Boston, 1984). Van Wolfeen, Enigma of Japanese Power.
101. Chapman, Inventing Japan, draws heavily on the work of Bradley M. Richardson and Scott C. Flanagan, Politics in Japan (Boston, 1984). Van Wolfeen, Enigma of Japanese Power.
102. Masao Maruyama, Thought and Behavior . Van Wolferen follows Maruyama's worries and analysis of prewar Japan in this regard but diverges in his claim that diffuse authoritarianism intensified in the postwar period. Many Japanese scholars strangle with the problem of "managed society" in Japan and elsewhere. See Shunsuke Tsurumi, A Cultural History of Postwar Japan, 1945-1980 (London, 1987); Watanabe Osamu, "Yutaka na shakai" Nihon no Kōzō [The structure of japan's "affluent society"] (Tokyo, 1990); and Rokuro Hidaka, The Price of Affluence: Dilemmas of Contemporary Japan (Tokyo, 1980). For Masao Maruyama's views see "Fascism - Some Problems: A Consideration of its Political Dynamics " and "Politics and Man in the Contemporary World," both in Thought and Behavior, 157-76, 321-48. Many scholars have pointed out the contrast between presurrender and postwar politics but still see Japan as sui generis in today's world. For example, see articles by Masataka Kosaka. "The Showa Era (1926-1989), " Chikashi Moriguchi, "Rice and Melons - Japanese Agriculture in the Showa Era," and Michio Muramatsu, "Bringing Politics back into Japan," all in Showa: The Japan of Hirohito, ed. Carol Gluck and Stephen R. Graubard (Neu York, [1990] 1992), 27-48, 131-40, 141-54, in addition to works cited earlier.
103. Masao Maruyama, Thought and Behavior . Van Wolferen follows Maruyama's worries and analysis of prewar Japan in this regard but diverges in his claim that diffuse authoritarianism intensified in the postwar period. Many Japanese scholars strangle with the problem of "managed society" in Japan and elsewhere. See Shunsuke Tsurumi, A Cultural History of Postwar Japan, 1945-1980 (London, 1987); Watanabe Osamu, "Yutaka na shakai" Nihon no Kōzō [The structure of japan's "affluent society"] (Tokyo, 1990); and Rokuro Hidaka, The Price of Affluence: Dilemmas of Contemporary Japan (Tokyo, 1980). For Masao Maruyama's views see "Fascism - Some Problems: A Consideration of its Political Dynamics " and "Politics and Man in the Contemporary World," both in Thought and Behavior, 157-76, 321-48. Many scholars have pointed out the contrast between presurrender and postwar politics but still see Japan as sui generis in today's world. For example, see articles by Masataka Kosaka. "The Showa Era (1926-1989), " Chikashi Moriguchi, "Rice and Melons - Japanese Agriculture in the Showa Era," and Michio Muramatsu, "Bringing Politics back into Japan," all in Showa: The Japan of Hirohito, ed. Carol Gluck and Stephen R. Graubard (Neu York, [1990] 1992), 27-48, 131-40, 141-54, in addition to works cited earlier.
104. Masao Maruyama, Thought and Behavior . Van Wolferen follows Maruyama's worries and analysis of prewar Japan in this regard but diverges in his claim that diffuse authoritarianism intensified in the postwar period. Many Japanese scholars strangle with the problem of "managed society" in Japan and elsewhere. See Shunsuke Tsurumi, A Cultural History of Postwar Japan, 1945-1980 (London, 1987); Watanabe Osamu, "Yutaka na shakai" Nihon no Kōzō [The structure of japan's "affluent society"] (Tokyo, 1990); and Rokuro Hidaka, The Price of Affluence: Dilemmas of Contemporary Japan (Tokyo, 1980). For Masao Maruyama's views see "Fascism - Some Problems: A Consideration of its Political Dynamics " and "Politics and Man in the Contemporary World," both in Thought and Behavior, 157-76, 321-48. Many scholars have pointed out the contrast between presurrender and postwar politics but still see Japan as sui generis in today's world. For example, see articles by Masataka Kosaka. "The Showa Era (1926-1989), " Chikashi Moriguchi, "Rice and Melons - Japanese Agriculture in the Showa Era," and Michio Muramatsu, "Bringing Politics back into Japan," all in Showa: The Japan of Hirohito, ed. Carol Gluck and Stephen R. Graubard (Neu York, [1990] 1992), 27-48, 131-40, 141-54, in addition to works cited earlier.
105. Masao Maruyama, Thought and Behavior . Van Wolferen follows Maruyama's worries and analysis of prewar Japan in this regard but diverges in his claim that diffuse authoritarianism intensified in the postwar period. Many Japanese scholars strangle with the problem of "managed society" in Japan and elsewhere. See Shunsuke Tsurumi, A Cultural History of Postwar Japan, 1945-1980 (London, 1987); Watanabe Osamu, "Yutaka na shakai" Nihon no Kōzō [The structure of japan's "affluent society"] (Tokyo, 1990); and Rokuro Hidaka, The Price of Affluence: Dilemmas of Contemporary Japan (Tokyo, 1980). For Masao Maruyama's views see "Fascism - Some Problems: A Consideration of its Political Dynamics " and "Politics and Man in the Contemporary World," both in Thought and Behavior, 157-76, 321-48. Many scholars have pointed out the contrast between presurrender and postwar politics but still see Japan as sui generis in today's world. For example, see articles by Masataka Kosaka. "The Showa Era (1926-1989), " Chikashi Moriguchi, "Rice and Melons - Japanese Agriculture in the Showa Era," and Michio Muramatsu, "Bringing Politics back into Japan," all in Showa: The Japan of Hirohito, ed. Carol Gluck and Stephen R. Graubard (Neu York, [1990] 1992), 27-48, 131-40, 141-54, in addition to works cited earlier.
106. Masao Maruyama, Thought and Behavior . Van Wolferen follows Maruyama's worries and analysis of prewar Japan in this regard but diverges in his claim that diffuse authoritarianism intensified in the postwar period. Many Japanese scholars strangle with the problem of "managed society" in Japan and elsewhere. See Shunsuke Tsurumi, A Cultural History of Postwar Japan, 1945-1980 (London, 1987); Watanabe Osamu, "Yutaka na shakai" Nihon no Kōzō [The structure of japan's "affluent society"] (Tokyo, 1990); and Rokuro Hidaka, The Price of Affluence: Dilemmas of Contemporary Japan (Tokyo, 1980). For Masao Maruyama's views see "Fascism - Some Problems: A Consideration of its Political Dynamics " and "Politics and Man in the Contemporary World," both in Thought and Behavior, 157-76, 321-48. Many scholars have pointed out the contrast between presurrender and postwar politics but still see Japan as sui generis in today's world. For example, see articles by Masataka Kosaka. "The Showa Era (1926-1989), " Chikashi Moriguchi, "Rice and Melons - Japanese Agriculture in the Showa Era," and Michio Muramatsu, "Bringing Politics back into Japan," all in Showa: The Japan of Hirohito, ed. Carol Gluck and Stephen R. Graubard (Neu York, [1990] 1992), 27-48, 131-40, 141-54, in addition to works cited earlier.
107. Masao Maruyama, Thought and Behavior . Van Wolferen follows Maruyama's worries and analysis of prewar Japan in this regard but diverges in his claim that diffuse authoritarianism intensified in the postwar period. Many Japanese scholars strangle with the problem of "managed society" in Japan and elsewhere. See Shunsuke Tsurumi, A Cultural History of Postwar Japan, 1945-1980 (London, 1987); Watanabe Osamu, "Yutaka na shakai" Nihon no Kōzō [The structure of japan's "affluent society"] (Tokyo, 1990); and Rokuro Hidaka, The Price of Affluence: Dilemmas of Contemporary Japan (Tokyo, 1980). For Masao Maruyama's views see "Fascism - Some Problems: A Consideration of its Political Dynamics " and "Politics and Man in the Contemporary World," both in Thought and Behavior, 157-76, 321-48. Many scholars have pointed out the contrast between presurrender and postwar politics but still see Japan as sui generis in today's world. For example, see articles by Masataka Kosaka. "The Showa Era (1926-1989), " Chikashi Moriguchi, "Rice and Melons - Japanese Agriculture in the Showa Era," and Michio Muramatsu, "Bringing Politics back into Japan," all in Showa: The Japan of Hirohito, ed. Carol Gluck and Stephen R. Graubard (Neu York, [1990] 1992), 27-48, 131-40, 141-54, in addition to works cited earlier.
108. Masao Maruyama, Thought and Behavior . Van Wolferen follows Maruyama's worries and analysis of prewar Japan in this regard but diverges in his claim that diffuse authoritarianism intensified in the postwar period. Many Japanese scholars strangle with the problem of "managed society" in Japan and elsewhere. See Shunsuke Tsurumi, A Cultural History of Postwar Japan, 1945-1980 (London, 1987); Watanabe Osamu, "Yutaka na shakai" Nihon no Kōzō [The structure of japan's "affluent society"] (Tokyo, 1990); and Rokuro Hidaka, The Price of Affluence: Dilemmas of Contemporary Japan (Tokyo, 1980). For Masao Maruyama's views see "Fascism - Some Problems: A Consideration of its Political Dynamics " and "Politics and Man in the Contemporary World," both in Thought and Behavior, 157-76, 321-48. Many scholars have pointed out the contrast between presurrender and postwar politics but still see Japan as sui generis in today's world. For example, see articles by Masataka Kosaka. "The Showa Era (1926-1989), " Chikashi Moriguchi, "Rice and Melons - Japanese Agriculture in the Showa Era," and Michio Muramatsu, "Bringing Politics back into Japan," all in Showa: The Japan of Hirohito, ed. Carol Gluck and Stephen R. Graubard (Neu York, [1990] 1992), 27-48, 131-40, 141-54, in addition to works cited earlier.
109. Masao Maruyama, Thought and Behavior . Van Wolferen follows Maruyama's worries and analysis of prewar Japan in this regard but diverges in his claim that diffuse authoritarianism intensified in the postwar period. Many Japanese scholars strangle with the problem of "managed society" in Japan and elsewhere. See Shunsuke Tsurumi, A Cultural History of Postwar Japan, 1945-1980 (London, 1987); Watanabe Osamu, "Yutaka na shakai" Nihon no Kōzō [The structure of japan's "affluent society"] (Tokyo, 1990); and Rokuro Hidaka, The Price of Affluence: Dilemmas of Contemporary Japan (Tokyo, 1980). For Masao Maruyama's views see "Fascism - Some Problems: A Consideration of its Political Dynamics " and "Politics and Man in the Contemporary World," both in Thought and Behavior, 157-76, 321-48. Many scholars have pointed out the contrast between presurrender and postwar politics but still see Japan as sui generis in today's world. For example, see articles by Masataka Kosaka. "The Showa Era (1926-1989), " Chikashi Moriguchi, "Rice and Melons - Japanese Agriculture in the Showa Era," and Michio Muramatsu, "Bringing Politics back into Japan," all in Showa: The Japan of Hirohito, ed. Carol Gluck and Stephen R. Graubard (Neu York, [1990] 1992), 27-48, 131-40, 141-54, in addition to works cited earlier.
110. Masao Maruyama, Thought and Behavior . Van Wolferen follows Maruyama's worries and analysis of prewar Japan in this regard but diverges in his claim that diffuse authoritarianism intensified in the postwar period. Many Japanese scholars strangle with the problem of "managed society" in Japan and elsewhere. See Shunsuke Tsurumi, A Cultural History of Postwar Japan, 1945-1980 (London, 1987); Watanabe Osamu, "Yutaka na shakai" Nihon no Kōzō [The structure of japan's "affluent society"] (Tokyo, 1990); and Rokuro Hidaka, The Price of Affluence: Dilemmas of Contemporary Japan (Tokyo, 1980). For Masao Maruyama's views see "Fascism - Some Problems: A Consideration of its Political Dynamics " and "Politics and Man in the Contemporary World," both in Thought and Behavior, 157-76, 321-48. Many scholars have pointed out the contrast between presurrender and postwar politics but still see Japan as sui generis in today's world. For example, see articles by Masataka Kosaka. "The Showa Era (1926-1989), " Chikashi Moriguchi, "Rice and Melons - Japanese Agriculture in the Showa Era," and Michio Muramatsu, "Bringing Politics back into Japan," all in Showa: The Japan of Hirohito, ed. Carol Gluck and Stephen R. Graubard (Neu York, [1990] 1992), 27-48, 131-40, 141-54, in addition to works cited earlier.
111. David Riesman and Evelyn Thompson Riesman, Conversations in Japan: Modernization, Politics, and Culture (New York, 1967), 18. Robert Jay Lifton, "Youth in Postwar Japan," in The Challenge of Youth, ed. Erik H. Erikson (New York, 1963), 277 (originally published as Youth: Change and Challenge, 1961).
112. David Riesman and Evelyn Thompson Riesman, Conversations in Japan: Modernization, Politics, and Culture (New York, 1967), 18. Robert Jay Lifton, "Youth in Postwar Japan," in The Challenge of Youth, ed. Erik H. Erikson (New York, 1963), 277 (originally published as Youth: Change and Challenge, 1961).
113. David Riesman and Evelyn Thompson Riesman, Conversations in Japan: Modernization, Politics, and Culture (New York, 1967), 18. Robert Jay Lifton, "Youth in Postwar Japan," in The Challenge of Youth, ed. Erik H. Erikson (New York, 1963), 277 (originally published as Youth: Change and Challenge, 1961).
114. Japan's political upheaval in 1993-94 was almost always described in the United States as a story of how the more things change in Japan the more they remain inscrutable. A more comparative approach would have immediately brought to mind Italy. The collapse of the Cold War revealed the way that the international systems (more specifically, CIA money) sustained the two political structures in very similar ways, leading to very similar implosion of the old Right and Left into a politically bankrupt coalition.
115. Murakami, Kumon, and Satō, Bunmei to shite no ie-shakai; Harootunian, "Visible Discourses/Invisible Ideologies," for the political activism and its implications.
116. Murakami, Kumon, and Satō, Bunmei to shite no ie-shakai; Harootunian, "Visible Discourses/Invisible Ideologies," for the political activism and its implications.
117. From 1994 the Japanese government did loosen its restrictions on rice imports. Probably the emphasis on rice as the cultural well-spring will diminish somewhat as that political battle recedes into the past. But see Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney, Rice as Self: Japanese Identities through Time (Princeton, 1993).
118. Fallows, "The Japanese Talent tor Order," in More Like Us. See also Lester Thurow, Head to Head: The Coming Economic Battle among Japan, Europe, and America (New York, 1992), which states in the first chapter that it is wrong to think in terms of a contest among nations and that we all benefit from strong trade partners but is written entirely within the idiom of head-to-head conflict.
119. Fallows, "The Japanese Talent tor Order," in More Like Us. See also Lester Thurow, Head to Head: The Coming Economic Battle among Japan, Europe, and America (New York, 1992), which states in the first chapter that it is wrong to think in terms of a contest among nations and that we all benefit from strong trade partners but is written entirely within the idiom of head-to-head conflict.
120. Michael Lewis, Rioters & Citizens: Mass Protest in Imperial Japan (Berkeley, 1990), esp. 10-15, 31-36, Note also Charles Horioka's work on the extremely low level of savings in most prewar households, in "Consuming and Saving,& in Gordon, ed., Postwar Japan as History, 259-92.
121. Michael Lewis, Rioters & Citizens: Mass Protest in Imperial Japan (Berkeley, 1990), esp. 10-15, 31-36, Note also Charles Horioka's work on the extremely low level of savings in most prewar households, in "Consuming and Saving,& in Gordon, ed., Postwar Japan as History, 259-92.
122. Chicago Tribune, 19 October 1992.
123. Dower, ed., Origins of the Modern Japanese State, 74.
124. See Hammond and Hein, "Multiculturalism in Japanese Perspective ." As John Russell has shown for African Americans, the specifics of Japanese racism are directly derived from Caucasian beliefs about African Americans and should not be exoticized either. "Race and Reflexivity: The Black Other in Contemporary Japanese Mass Culture," Cultural Anthropology 6 (February 1991): 3-25; idem, "Narratives of Denial: Racial Chauvinism and the Black Other in Japan," Japan Quarterly 38 (October-December 1991): 416-28.
125. See Hammond and Hein, "Multiculturalism in Japanese Perspective ." As John Russell has shown for African Americans, the specifics of Japanese racism are directly derived from Caucasian beliefs about African Americans and should not be exoticized either. "Race and Reflexivity: The Black Other in Contemporary Japanese Mass Culture," Cultural Anthropology 6 (February 1991): 3-25; idem, "Narratives of Denial: Racial Chauvinism and the Black Other in Japan," Japan Quarterly 38 (October-December 1991): 416-28.
126. See Hammond and Hein, "Multiculturalism in Japanese Perspective ." As John Russell has shown for African Americans, the specifics of Japanese racism are directly derived from Caucasian beliefs about African Americans and should not be exoticized either. "Race and Reflexivity: The Black Other in Contemporary Japanese Mass Culture," Cultural Anthropology 6 (February 1991): 3-25; idem, "Narratives of Denial: Racial Chauvinism and the Black Other in Japan," Japan Quarterly 38 (October-December 1991): 416-28.
127. See Stephen Steinberg, The Ethnic Myth: Race, Ethnicity, and Class in America, 2d ed. (Boston, 1989), for the model minority. Michael Crichton, The Rising Sun (New York, 1992), relied heavily on the work of Chalmers Johnson, James Fallows, and Karel van Wolferen, as is acknowledged in the final pages.
128. See Stephen Steinberg, The Ethnic Myth: Race, Ethnicity, and Class in America, 2d ed. (Boston, 1989), for the model minority. Michael Crichton, The Rising Sun (New York, 1992), relied heavily on the work of Chalmers Johnson, James Fallows, and Karel van Wolferen, as is acknowledged in the final pages.
129. See George Friedman and Meredith LeBard, The Coming War with Japan (New York, 1991), for a recent example of American fears. The enormous popularity of the book in Japanese translation attests to Japanese ones. For the Gulf War see Steven Weisman, "Japanese and Americans Struggling to Overcome Their Mutual Resentment," New York Times, 3 December 1991. For use of the 1853 Black Ships incident as a determinant of subsequent U.S.-Japanese relations (described as rape leading to psychological injury) see Kishida Shū in AERA, 15 September 1992. For Luckovitch see Chicago Tribune, 13 November 1989.
130. See George Friedman and Meredith LeBard, The Coming War with Japan (New York, 1991), for a recent example of American fears. The enormous popularity of the book in Japanese translation attests to Japanese ones. For the Gulf War see Steven Weisman, "Japanese and Americans Struggling to Overcome Their Mutual Resentment," New York Times, 3 December 1991. For use of the 1853 Black Ships incident as a determinant of subsequent U.S.-Japanese relations (described as rape leading to psychological injury) see Kishida Shū in AERA, 15 September 1992. For Luckovitch see Chicago Tribune, 13 November 1989.
131. See George Friedman and Meredith LeBard, The Coming War with Japan (New York, 1991), for a recent example of American fears. The enormous popularity of the book in Japanese translation attests to Japanese ones. For the Gulf War see Steven Weisman, "Japanese and Americans Struggling to Overcome Their Mutual Resentment," New York Times, 3 December 1991. For use of the 1853 Black Ships incident as a determinant of subsequent U.S.-Japanese relations (described as rape leading to psychological injury) see Kishida Shū in AERA, 15 September 1992. For Luckovitch see Chicago Tribune, 13 November 1989.
132. See George Friedman and Meredith LeBard, The Coming War with Japan (New York, 1991), for a recent example of American fears. The enormous popularity of the book in Japanese translation attests to Japanese ones. For the Gulf War see Steven Weisman, "Japanese and Americans Struggling to Overcome Their Mutual Resentment," New York Times, 3 December 1991. For use of the 1853 Black Ships incident as a determinant of subsequent U.S.-Japanese relations (described as rape leading to psychological injury) see Kishida Shū in AERA, 15 September 1992. For Luckovitch see Chicago Tribune, 13 November 1989.
133. For useful discussions of these issues see Cohen, Discovering History in China, esp. 58 . See James Clifford, The Predicament of Cultur e; Thomas McCarthy, "Doing the Right Thing in Cross-Cultural Representation," Ethics 102 (April 1992): 635-49, for this distinction.
134. For useful discussions of these issues see Cohen, Discovering History in China, esp. 58 . See James Clifford, The Predicament of Cultur e; Thomas McCarthy, "Doing the Right Thing in Cross-Cultural Representation,"
135. For useful discussions of these issues see Cohen, Discovering History in China, esp. 58 . See James Clifford, The Predicament of Cultur e; Thomas McCarthy, "Doing the Right Thing in Cross-Cultural Representation," Ethics 102 (April 1992): 635-49, for this distinction.
136. Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (Notre Dame, 1981), esp. 6-11; idem, "Individual and Social Morality in Japan and the United States: Rival Conceptions of the Self," Philosophy, East and West 40 (October 1990): 491-97.
137. Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (Notre Dame, 1981), esp. 6-11; idem, "Individual and Social Morality in Japan and the United States: Rival Conceptions of the Self," Philosophy, East and West 40 (October 1990): 491-97.
138. For a recent example, Minister of Justice Shigeto Nagano was forced to step down in May 1994 for publicly stating that Japanese actions in World War II were justified by Western imperialism and that the Nanking massacre was a fabrication. For scholarship see Saburo Ienaga, The Pacific War: 1931-1945 (New York, 1978); Yoshimi Yoshiaki, "Documenting the Truth: The Japanese Government and the 'Comfort Women Issue," presented at the Association for Asian Studies conference, Boston, 24 March 1994; Fujiwara Akira, Awaya Kentarō, Yoshida Yutaka, and Yamada Akira, Tettei kenshō, shōwa tennō "Dukuhakuroku" [The complete and full "monologue of the Show a Emperor] (Tokyo, 1991).
139. For a recent example, Minister of Justice Shigeto Nagano was forced to step down in May 1994 for publicly stating that Japanese actions in World War II were justified by Western imperialism and that the Nanking massacre was a fabrication. For scholarship see Saburo Ienaga, The Pacific War: 1931-1945 (New York, 1978); Yoshimi Yoshiaki, "Documenting the Truth: The Japanese Government and the 'Comfort Women Issue," presented at the Association for Asian Studies conference, Boston, 24 March 1994; Fujiwara Akira, Awaya Kentarō, Yoshida Yutaka, and Yamada Akira, Tettei kenshō, shōwa tennō "Dukuhakuroku" [The complete and full "monologue of the Show a Emperor] (Tokyo, 1991).
140. For a recent example, Minister of Justice Shigeto Nagano was forced to step down in May 1994 for publicly stating that Japanese actions in World War II were justified by Western imperialism and that the Nanking massacre was a fabrication. For scholarship see Saburo Ienaga, The Pacific War: 1931-1945 (New York, 1978); Yoshimi Yoshiaki, "Documenting the Truth: The Japanese Government and the 'Comfort Women Issue," presented at the Association for Asian Studies conference, Boston, 24 March 1994; Fujiwara Akira, Awaya Kentarō, Yoshida Yutaka, and Yamada Akira, Tettei kenshō, shōwa tennō "Dukuhakuroku" [The complete and full "monologue of the Show a Emperor] (Tokyo, 1991).
141. Krank K. Upham, Law and Social Change in Postwar Japan (Cambridge, MA, 1987), 1.
142. Often Japanese news is presented as unique for no apparent reason, such as the editorial in the Chicago Tribune, 2 September 1992, which appeared under the headline "Japan's unique crisis response." The subject was the recently announced antirecession measures by the Japanese government, which mainly consisted of government spending of $87 billion on public projects, such as highways and hospitals. That government measure was based on the absolutely standard Keynesian assumption that government spending can revitalize the private economy. It mirrored actions taken by the U.S. government as recently as 1975. In short, there is nothing in theory, policy, or experience that is unique about the issues discussed in the editorial.
143. JETRO, Business Facts & Figures, Nippon '92 (Tokyo, 1992), 158-59, reports that just under 11 million Japanese traveled abroad, of which 3.7 million went to the United States. Idem, U.S. and Japan in Figures II (Tokyo 1992), 107, notes that 2.5 million Americans traveled to Japan in 1989.
144. JETRO, Business Facts & Figures, Nippon '92 (Tokyo, 1992), 158-59, reports that just under 11 million Japanese traveled abroad, of which 3.7 million went to the United States. Idem, U.S. and Japan in Figures II (Tokyo 1992), 107, notes that 2.5 million Americans traveled to Japan in 1989.