Minority Voices and Citizen Attitudes about Government Responsiveness in the American States: Do Social and Institutional Context Matter?

British Journal of Political Science

Volumn 34, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 109-121

  Hero, Rodney E ^a   Tolbert, Caroline J ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NOTRE DAME   (United States)

^b KENT STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0347931984     PISSN: 00071234     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007123403000371     Document Type: Article

References (109)

1. B. Gamble, 'Putting Civil Rights to a Popular Vote', American Journal of Political Science, 91 (1997), 245-69; P. Schrag, Paradise Lost: California 's Experience, America 's Future (New York; New York Press, 1998); T. Donovan and S. Bowler, 'Direct Democracy and Minority Rights: An Extension', American Journal of Political Science, 42 (1998), 1020-4; T. Donovan and S. Bowler, 'Responsive or Responsible Government?' in S. Bowler, T. Donovan and C. Tolbert, eds, Citizens as Legislators; Direct Democracy in the United States (Columbus; Ohio State University Press, 1998), 249-73. S. Bowler and T. Donovan, 'Popular Control of Referendum Agendas; Implications for Democratic Outcomes and Minority Rights', in M. Mendelsohn and A. Parkin, eds, Referendum Democracy: Citizens, Elites, and Deliberation in Referendum Campaigns (New York: Palgrave, 2001); Z. Hajnal, E. Gerber and H. Louch, 'Minorities and Direct Legislation: Evidence from California Ballot Proposition Elections', Journal of Politics, 64 (2002), 154-77; B. Frey and L. Goette, 'Does the Popular Vote Destroy Civil Rights?' American Journal of Political Science, 41 (1998), 245-69.
2. B. Gamble, 'Putting Civil Rights to a Popular Vote', American Journal of Political Science, 91 (1997), 245-69; P. Schrag, Paradise Lost: California 's Experience, America 's Future (New York; New York Press, 1998); T. Donovan and S. Bowler, 'Direct Democracy and Minority Rights: An Extension', American Journal of Political Science, 42 (1998), 1020-4; T. Donovan and S. Bowler, 'Responsive or Responsible Government?' in S. Bowler, T. Donovan and C. Tolbert, eds, Citizens as Legislators; Direct Democracy in the United States (Columbus; Ohio State University Press, 1998), 249-73. S. Bowler and T. Donovan, 'Popular Control of Referendum Agendas; Implications for Democratic Outcomes and Minority Rights', in M. Mendelsohn and A. Parkin, eds, Referendum Democracy: Citizens, Elites, and Deliberation in Referendum Campaigns (New York: Palgrave, 2001); Z. Hajnal, E. Gerber and H. Louch, 'Minorities and Direct Legislation: Evidence from California Ballot Proposition Elections', Journal of Politics, 64 (2002), 154-77; B. Frey and L. Goette, 'Does the Popular Vote Destroy Civil Rights?' American Journal of Political Science, 41 (1998), 245-69.
3. B. Gamble, 'Putting Civil Rights to a Popular Vote', American Journal of Political Science, 91 (1997), 245-69; P. Schrag, Paradise Lost: California 's Experience, America 's Future (New York; New York Press, 1998); T. Donovan and S. Bowler, 'Direct Democracy and Minority Rights: An Extension', American Journal of Political Science, 42 (1998), 1020-4; T. Donovan and S. Bowler, 'Responsive or Responsible Government?' in S. Bowler, T. Donovan and C. Tolbert, eds, Citizens as Legislators; Direct Democracy in the United States (Columbus; Ohio State University Press, 1998), 249-73. S. Bowler and T. Donovan, 'Popular Control of Referendum Agendas; Implications for Democratic Outcomes and Minority Rights', in M. Mendelsohn and A. Parkin, eds, Referendum Democracy: Citizens, Elites, and Deliberation in Referendum Campaigns (New York: Palgrave, 2001); Z. Hajnal, E. Gerber and H. Louch, 'Minorities and Direct Legislation: Evidence from California Ballot Proposition Elections', Journal of Politics, 64 (2002), 154-77; B. Frey and L. Goette, 'Does the Popular Vote Destroy Civil Rights?' American Journal of Political Science, 41 (1998), 245-69.
4. B. Gamble, 'Putting Civil Rights to a Popular Vote', American Journal of Political Science, 91 (1997), 245-69; P. Schrag, Paradise Lost: California 's Experience, America 's Future (New York; New York Press, 1998); T. Donovan and S. Bowler, 'Direct Democracy and Minority Rights: An Extension', American Journal of Political Science, 42 (1998), 1020-4; T. Donovan and S. Bowler, 'Responsive or Responsible Government?' in S. Bowler, T. Donovan and C. Tolbert, eds, Citizens as Legislators; Direct Democracy in the United States (Columbus; Ohio State University Press, 1998), 249-73. S. Bowler and T. Donovan, 'Popular Control of Referendum Agendas; Implications for Democratic Outcomes and Minority Rights', in M. Mendelsohn and A. Parkin, eds, Referendum Democracy: Citizens, Elites, and Deliberation in Referendum Campaigns (New York: Palgrave, 2001); Z. Hajnal, E. Gerber and H. Louch, 'Minorities and Direct Legislation: Evidence from California Ballot Proposition Elections', Journal of Politics, 64 (2002), 154-77; B. Frey and L. Goette, 'Does the Popular Vote Destroy Civil Rights?' American Journal of Political Science, 41 (1998), 245-69.
5. B. Gamble, 'Putting Civil Rights to a Popular Vote', American Journal of Political Science, 91 (1997), 245-69; P. Schrag, Paradise Lost: California 's Experience, America 's Future (New York; New York Press, 1998); T. Donovan and S. Bowler, 'Direct Democracy and Minority Rights: An Extension', American Journal of Political Science, 42 (1998), 1020-4; T. Donovan and S. Bowler, 'Responsive or Responsible Government?' in S. Bowler, T. Donovan and C. Tolbert, eds, Citizens as Legislators; Direct Democracy in the United States (Columbus; Ohio State University Press, 1998), 249-73. S. Bowler and T. Donovan, 'Popular Control of Referendum Agendas; Implications for Democratic Outcomes and Minority Rights', in M. Mendelsohn and A. Parkin, eds, Referendum Democracy: Citizens, Elites, and Deliberation in Referendum Campaigns (New York: Palgrave, 2001); Z. Hajnal, E. Gerber and H. Louch, 'Minorities and Direct Legislation: Evidence from California Ballot Proposition Elections', Journal of Politics, 64 (2002), 154-77; B. Frey and L. Goette, 'Does the Popular Vote Destroy Civil Rights?' American Journal of Political Science, 41 (1998), 245-69.
6. B. Gamble, 'Putting Civil Rights to a Popular Vote', American Journal of Political Science, 91 (1997), 245-69; P. Schrag, Paradise Lost: California 's Experience, America 's Future (New York; New York Press, 1998); T. Donovan and S. Bowler, 'Direct Democracy and Minority Rights: An Extension', American Journal of Political Science, 42 (1998), 1020-4; T. Donovan and S. Bowler, 'Responsive or Responsible Government?' in S. Bowler, T. Donovan and C. Tolbert, eds, Citizens as Legislators; Direct Democracy in the United States (Columbus; Ohio State University Press, 1998), 249-73. S. Bowler and T. Donovan, 'Popular Control of Referendum Agendas; Implications for Democratic Outcomes and Minority Rights', in M. Mendelsohn and A. Parkin, eds, Referendum Democracy: Citizens, Elites, and Deliberation in Referendum Campaigns (New York: Palgrave, 2001); Z. Hajnal, E. Gerber and H. Louch, 'Minorities and Direct Legislation: Evidence from California Ballot Proposition Elections', Journal of Politics, 64 (2002), 154-77; B. Frey and L. Goette, 'Does the Popular Vote Destroy Civil Rights?' American Journal of Political Science, 41 (1998), 245-69.
7. B. Gamble, 'Putting Civil Rights to a Popular Vote', American Journal of Political Science, 91 (1997), 245-69; P. Schrag, Paradise Lost: California 's Experience, America 's Future (New York; New York Press, 1998); T. Donovan and S. Bowler, 'Direct Democracy and Minority Rights: An Extension', American Journal of Political Science, 42 (1998), 1020-4; T. Donovan and S. Bowler, 'Responsive or Responsible Government?' in S. Bowler, T. Donovan and C. Tolbert, eds, Citizens as Legislators; Direct Democracy in the United States (Columbus; Ohio State University Press, 1998), 249-73. S. Bowler and T. Donovan, 'Popular Control of Referendum Agendas; Implications for Democratic Outcomes and Minority Rights', in M. Mendelsohn and A. Parkin, eds, Referendum Democracy: Citizens, Elites, and Deliberation in Referendum Campaigns (New York: Palgrave, 2001); Z. Hajnal, E. Gerber and H. Louch, 'Minorities and Direct Legislation: Evidence from California Ballot Proposition Elections', Journal of Politics, 64 (2002), 154-77; B. Frey and L. Goette, 'Does the Popular Vote Destroy Civil Rights?' American Journal of Political Science, 41 (1998), 245-69.
8. J. March and J. Olsen, The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life', American Political Science Review, 78 (1984), 734-49; J. March and J. Olsen, Rediscovering Institutions (New York: Free Press, 1989); S. Steinmo, K. Thelen and F. Longstreth, eds, Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); S. Steinmo, 'Political Institutions and Tax Policy in the United States, Sweden, and Britain', World Politics, 41 (1989), 500-34; B. G. Peters, Institutional Theory in Political Science: The New Institutionalism (New York: Pinter, 1999).
9. J. March and J. Olsen, The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life', American Political Science Review, 78 (1984), 734-49; J. March and J. Olsen, Rediscovering Institutions (New York: Free Press, 1989); S. Steinmo, K. Thelen and F. Longstreth, eds, Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); S. Steinmo, 'Political Institutions and Tax Policy in the United States, Sweden, and Britain', World Politics, 41 (1989), 500-34; B. G. Peters, Institutional Theory in Political Science: The New Institutionalism (New York: Pinter, 1999).
10. J. March and J. Olsen, The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life', American Political Science Review, 78 (1984), 734-49; J. March and J. Olsen, Rediscovering Institutions (New York: Free Press, 1989); S. Steinmo, K. Thelen and F. Longstreth, eds, Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); S. Steinmo, 'Political Institutions and Tax Policy in the United States, Sweden, and Britain', World Politics, 41 (1989), 500-34; B. G. Peters, Institutional Theory in Political Science: The New Institutionalism (New York: Pinter, 1999).
11. J. March and J. Olsen, The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life', American Political Science Review, 78 (1984), 734-49; J. March and J. Olsen, Rediscovering Institutions (New York: Free Press, 1989); S. Steinmo, K. Thelen and F. Longstreth, eds, Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); S. Steinmo, 'Political Institutions and Tax Policy in the United States, Sweden, and Britain', World Politics, 41 (1989), 500-34; B. G. Peters, Institutional Theory in Political Science: The New Institutionalism (New York: Pinter, 1999).
12. J. March and J. Olsen, The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life', American Political Science Review, 78 (1984), 734-49; J. March and J. Olsen, Rediscovering Institutions (New York: Free Press, 1989); S. Steinmo, K. Thelen and F. Longstreth, eds, Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); S. Steinmo, 'Political Institutions and Tax Policy in the United States, Sweden, and Britain', World Politics, 41 (1989), 500-34; B. G. Peters, Institutional Theory in Political Science: The New Institutionalism (New York: Pinter, 1999).
13. Schrag, Paradise Lost; C. Tolbert and R. Hero, 'Dealing with Diversity: Racial/Ethnic Context and Social Policy Change', Political Research Quarterly, 54 (2001), 571-604.
14. Schrag, Paradise Lost; C. Tolbert and R. Hero, 'Dealing with Diversity: Racial/Ethnic Context and Social Policy Change', Political Research Quarterly, 54 (2001), 571-604.
15. R. Alvarez and T. Butterfield, 'The Resurgence of Nativism in California? The Case of Proposition 187 and Illegal Immigration', Social Science Quarterly, 81 (2000), 167-79; B. Cain, 'Voting Rights and Democratic Theory: Toward a Color-Blind Society?' in B. Grofman and C. Davidson, eds, Controversies in Minority Voting (Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1992); Shrag, Paradise Lost; Tolbert and Hero, 'Dealing with Diversity'; Hajnal, Gerber and Louch, 'Minorities and Direct Legislation'; M. Preston, B. Cain and S. Bass, eds, Racial and Ethnic Politics in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
16. R. Alvarez and T. Butterfield, 'The Resurgence of Nativism in California? The Case of Proposition 187 and Illegal Immigration', Social Science Quarterly, 81 (2000), 167-79; B. Cain, 'Voting Rights and Democratic Theory: Toward a Color-Blind Society?' in B. Grofman and C. Davidson, eds, Controversies in Minority Voting (Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1992); Shrag, Paradise Lost; Tolbert and Hero, 'Dealing with Diversity'; Hajnal, Gerber and Louch, 'Minorities and Direct Legislation'; M. Preston, B. Cain and S. Bass, eds, Racial and Ethnic Politics in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
17. R. Alvarez and T. Butterfield, 'The Resurgence of Nativism in California? The Case of Proposition 187 and Illegal Immigration', Social Science Quarterly, 81 (2000), 167-79; B. Cain, 'Voting Rights and Democratic Theory: Toward a Color-Blind Society?' in B. Grofman and C. Davidson, eds, Controversies in Minority Voting (Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1992); Shrag, Paradise Lost; Tolbert and Hero, 'Dealing with Diversity'; Hajnal, Gerber and Louch, 'Minorities and Direct Legislation'; M. Preston, B. Cain and S. Bass, eds, Racial and Ethnic Politics in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
18. R. Alvarez and T. Butterfield, 'The Resurgence of Nativism in California? The Case of Proposition 187 and Illegal Immigration', Social Science Quarterly, 81 (2000), 167-79; B. Cain, 'Voting Rights and Democratic Theory: Toward a Color-Blind Society?' in B. Grofman and C. Davidson, eds, Controversies in Minority Voting (Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1992); Shrag, Paradise Lost; Tolbert and Hero, 'Dealing with Diversity'; Hajnal, Gerber and Louch, 'Minorities and Direct Legislation'; M. Preston, B. Cain and S. Bass, eds, Racial and Ethnic Politics in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
19. R. Alvarez and T. Butterfield, 'The Resurgence of Nativism in California? The Case of Proposition 187 and Illegal Immigration', Social Science Quarterly, 81 (2000), 167-79; B. Cain, 'Voting Rights and Democratic Theory: Toward a Color-Blind Society?' in B. Grofman and C. Davidson, eds, Controversies in Minority Voting (Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1992); Shrag, Paradise Lost; Tolbert and Hero, 'Dealing with Diversity'; Hajnal, Gerber and Louch, 'Minorities and Direct Legislation'; M. Preston, B. Cain and S. Bass, eds, Racial and Ethnic Politics in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
20. R. Alvarez and T. Butterfield, 'The Resurgence of Nativism in California? The Case of Proposition 187 and Illegal Immigration', Social Science Quarterly, 81 (2000), 167-79; B. Cain, 'Voting Rights and Democratic Theory: Toward a Color-Blind Society?' in B. Grofman and C. Davidson, eds, Controversies in Minority Voting (Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1992); Shrag, Paradise Lost; Tolbert and Hero, 'Dealing with Diversity'; Hajnal, Gerber and Louch, 'Minorities and Direct Legislation'; M. Preston, B. Cain and S. Bass, eds, Racial and Ethnic Politics in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
21. M. Hetherington, 'The Political Relevance of Political Trust', American Political Science Review, 92 (1998),791-808; M. Hetherington, The Effects of Political Trust on the Presidential Vote, 1968-96', American Political Science Review, 92 (1999), 311-26; P. Abramson, Political Attitudes in America: Formation and Change (San Francisco: Freeman, 1993); P. Norris, Critical Citizens: Global Support for Democratic Governance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999); S. Craig, ed., Broken Contract? Changing Relationships Between Americans and their Government (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1996); J. Citrin, 'Who's the Boss? Direct Democracy and the Popular Control of Government', in S. Craig, ed., Broken Contract (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1996).
22. M. Hetherington, 'The Political Relevance of Political Trust', American Political Science Review, 92 (1998),791-808; M. Hetherington, The Effects of Political Trust on the Presidential Vote, 1968-96', American Political Science Review, 92 (1999), 311-26; P. Abramson, Political Attitudes in America: Formation and Change (San Francisco: Freeman, 1993); P. Norris, Critical Citizens: Global Support for Democratic Governance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999); S. Craig, ed., Broken Contract? Changing Relationships Between Americans and their Government (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1996); J. Citrin, 'Who's the Boss? Direct Democracy and the Popular Control of Government', in S. Craig, ed., Broken Contract (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1996).
23. M. Hetherington, 'The Political Relevance of Political Trust', American Political Science Review, 92 (1998),791-808; M. Hetherington, The Effects of Political Trust on the Presidential Vote, 1968-96', American Political Science Review, 92 (1999), 311-26; P. Abramson, Political Attitudes in America: Formation and Change (San Francisco: Freeman, 1993); P. Norris, Critical Citizens: Global Support for Democratic Governance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999); S. Craig, ed., Broken Contract? Changing Relationships Between Americans and their Government (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1996); J. Citrin, 'Who's the Boss? Direct Democracy and the Popular Control of Government', in S. Craig, ed., Broken Contract (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1996).
24. M. Hetherington, 'The Political Relevance of Political Trust', American Political Science Review, 92 (1998),791-808; M. Hetherington, The Effects of Political Trust on the Presidential Vote, 1968-96', American Political Science Review, 92 (1999), 311-26; P. Abramson, Political Attitudes in America: Formation and Change (San Francisco: Freeman, 1993); P. Norris, Critical Citizens: Global Support for Democratic Governance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999); S. Craig, ed., Broken Contract? Changing Relationships Between Americans and their Government (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1996); J. Citrin, 'Who's the Boss? Direct Democracy and the Popular Control of Government', in S. Craig, ed., Broken Contract (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1996).
25. M. Hetherington, 'The Political Relevance of Political Trust', American Political Science Review, 92 (1998),791-808; M. Hetherington, The Effects of Political Trust on the Presidential Vote, 1968-96', American Political Science Review, 92 (1999), 311-26; P. Abramson, Political Attitudes in America: Formation and Change (San Francisco: Freeman, 1993); P. Norris, Critical Citizens: Global Support for Democratic Governance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999); S. Craig, ed., Broken Contract? Changing Relationships Between Americans and their Government (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1996); J. Citrin, 'Who's the Boss? Direct Democracy and the Popular Control of Government', in S. Craig, ed., Broken Contract (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1996).
26. M. Hetherington, 'The Political Relevance of Political Trust', American Political Science Review, 92 (1998),791-808; M. Hetherington, The Effects of Political Trust on the Presidential Vote, 1968-96', American Political Science Review, 92 (1999), 311-26; P. Abramson, Political Attitudes in America: Formation and Change (San Francisco: Freeman, 1993); P. Norris, Critical Citizens: Global Support for Democratic Governance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999); S. Craig, ed., Broken Contract? Changing Relationships Between Americans and their Government (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1996); J. Citrin, 'Who's the Boss? Direct Democracy and the Popular Control of Government', in S. Craig, ed., Broken Contract (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1996).
27. C. Anderson and C. Guilory, 'Political Institutions and Satisfaction with Democracy: A Cross-National Analysis of Consensus and Majoritarian Systems', American Political Science Review, 91 (1997), 66-81; S. Gordon and G. Segura, 'Cross National Variation in the Political Sophistication of Individuals: Capability of Choice?' Journal of Politics, 59 (1997), 26-47; R. Huckfeldt and J. Sprague, 'Choice, Social-Structure, and Political Information - The Informational Coercion of Minorities', American Journal of Political Science, 32 (1988), 467-82. See also John Hibbing and Elizabeth Theiss-Morse, 'Process Preferences and American Politics: What the People Want Government to Be', American Political Science Review, 95 (2001), 145-53.
28. C. Anderson and C. Guilory, 'Political Institutions and Satisfaction with Democracy: A Cross-National Analysis of Consensus and Majoritarian Systems', American Political Science Review, 91 (1997), 66-81; S. Gordon and G. Segura, 'Cross National Variation in the Political Sophistication of Individuals: Capability of Choice?' Journal of Politics, 59 (1997), 26-47; R. Huckfeldt and J. Sprague, 'Choice, Social-Structure, and Political Information - The Informational Coercion of Minorities', American Journal of Political Science, 32 (1988), 467-82. See also John Hibbing and Elizabeth Theiss-Morse, 'Process Preferences and American Politics: What the People Want Government to Be', American Political Science Review, 95 (2001), 145-53.
29. C. Anderson and C. Guilory, 'Political Institutions and Satisfaction with Democracy: A Cross-National Analysis of Consensus and Majoritarian Systems', American Political Science Review, 91 (1997), 66-81; S. Gordon and G. Segura, 'Cross National Variation in the Political Sophistication of Individuals: Capability of Choice?' Journal of Politics, 59 (1997), 26-47; R. Huckfeldt and J. Sprague, 'Choice, Social-Structure, and Political Information - The Informational Coercion of Minorities', American Journal of Political Science, 32 (1988), 467-82. See also John Hibbing and Elizabeth Theiss-Morse, 'Process Preferences and American Politics: What the People Want Government to Be', American Political Science Review, 95 (2001), 145-53.
30. C. Anderson and C. Guilory, 'Political Institutions and Satisfaction with Democracy: A Cross-National Analysis of Consensus and Majoritarian Systems', American Political Science Review, 91 (1997), 66-81; S. Gordon and G. Segura, 'Cross National Variation in the Political Sophistication of Individuals: Capability of Choice?' Journal of Politics, 59 (1997), 26-47; R. Huckfeldt and J. Sprague, 'Choice, Social-Structure, and Political Information - The Informational Coercion of Minorities', American Journal of Political Science, 32 (1988), 467-82. See also John Hibbing and Elizabeth Theiss-Morse, 'Process Preferences and American Politics: What the People Want Government to Be', American Political Science Review, 95 (2001), 145-53.
31. Nonis, Critical Citizens; Steinmo, Thelen and Longstreth, Structuring Politics.
32. Nonis, Critical Citizens; Steinmo, Thelen and Longstreth, Structuring Politics.
33. Hajnal, Gerber and Louch, 'Minorities and Direct Legislation'.
34. M. Baldassare, California in the New Millennium: The Changing Social and Political Landscape (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000).
35. J. Wenzel, T. Donovan and S. Bowler. 'Direct Democracy and Minorities: Changing Attitudes about Minorities Targeted by Initiatives', in Bowler, Donovan and Tolbert, eds, Citizens as Legislators, pp. 228-48.
36. J. Madison, Federalist Nos. 10 and 51 (New York: New American Library, [1787] 1937), p. 54.
37. Madison, Federalist Nos. 10 and 51, p. 339.
38. D. Bell, 'The Referendum Democracy's Barrier to Racial Equality', Washington Law Review, 54 (1978), 1-29.
39. Gamble, 'Putting Civil Rights to a Popular Vote'.
40. Hajnal, Gerber and Louch, 'Minorities and Direct Legislation'; Donovan and Bowler, 'Direct Democracy and Minority Rights'; Donovan and Bowler, 'Responsive or Responsible Government?'; T. Donovan, J. Wenzel and S. Bowler, 'Direct Democracy and Gay Rights Initiatives after Romer', in C. Rimmerman, K. Wald and C. Wilcox, The Politics of Gay Rights (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999); Frey and Goette, 'Does the Popular Vote Destroy Civil Rights?'
41. Hajnal, Gerber and Louch, 'Minorities and Direct Legislation'; Donovan and Bowler, 'Direct Democracy and Minority Rights'; Donovan and Bowler, 'Responsive or Responsible Government?'; T. Donovan, J. Wenzel and S. Bowler, 'Direct Democracy and Gay Rights Initiatives after Romer', in C. Rimmerman, K. Wald and C. Wilcox, The Politics of Gay Rights (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999); Frey and Goette, 'Does the Popular Vote Destroy Civil Rights?'
42. Hajnal, Gerber and Louch, 'Minorities and Direct Legislation'; Donovan and Bowler, 'Direct Democracy and Minority Rights'; Donovan and Bowler, 'Responsive or Responsible Government?'; T. Donovan, J. Wenzel and S. Bowler, 'Direct Democracy and Gay Rights Initiatives after Romer', in C. Rimmerman, K. Wald and C. Wilcox, The Politics of Gay Rights (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999); Frey and Goette, 'Does the Popular Vote Destroy Civil Rights?'
43. Hajnal, Gerber and Louch, 'Minorities and Direct Legislation'; Donovan and Bowler, 'Direct Democracy and Minority Rights'; Donovan and Bowler, 'Responsive or Responsible Government?'; T. Donovan, J. Wenzel and S. Bowler, 'Direct Democracy and Gay Rights Initiatives after Romer', in C. Rimmerman, K. Wald and C. Wilcox, The Politics of Gay Rights (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999); Frey and Goette, 'Does the Popular Vote Destroy Civil Rights?'
44. Hajnal, Gerber and Louch, 'Minorities and Direct Legislation'; Donovan and Bowler, 'Direct Democracy and Minority Rights'; Donovan and Bowler, 'Responsive or Responsible Government?'; T. Donovan, J. Wenzel and S. Bowler, 'Direct Democracy and Gay Rights Initiatives after Romer', in C. Rimmerman, K. Wald and C. Wilcox, The Politics of Gay Rights (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999); Frey and Goette, 'Does the Popular Vote Destroy Civil Rights?'
45. The initiative was opposed by 91 per cent of blacks, 74 per cent of Asian Americans and 71 per cent of Latinos, but was enacted with strong white support (Los Angeles Times exit poll quoted in Lydia Chavez, The Color Bind: California's Battle to End Affirmative Action (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
46. C. Tolbert and R. Hero, 'Race/Ethnicity and Direct Democracy: An Analysis of California's Illegal Immigration Initiative', Journal of Politics, 58 (1996), 806-18; Alvarez and Butterfield, 'The Resurgence of Nativism in California? The Case of Proposition 187 and Illegal Immigration'; Preston, Cain and Bass, Racial and Ethnic Politics in California. See also J. Citrin, B. Reingold, E. Walters and D. Green, The "Official English" Movement and the Symbolic Politics of Language in the United States', Western Political Quarterly, 43 (1990), 535-60.
47. C. Tolbert and R. Hero, 'Race/Ethnicity and Direct Democracy: An Analysis of California's Illegal Immigration Initiative', Journal of Politics, 58 (1996), 806-18; Alvarez and Butterfield, 'The Resurgence of Nativism in California? The Case of Proposition 187 and Illegal Immigration'; Preston, Cain and Bass, Racial and Ethnic Politics in California. See also J. Citrin, B. Reingold, E. Walters and D. Green, The "Official English" Movement and the Symbolic Politics of Language in the United States', Western Political Quarterly, 43 (1990), 535-60.
48. C. Tolbert and R. Hero, 'Race/Ethnicity and Direct Democracy: An Analysis of California's Illegal Immigration Initiative', Journal of Politics, 58 (1996), 806-18; Alvarez and Butterfield, 'The Resurgence of Nativism in California? The Case of Proposition 187 and Illegal Immigration'; Preston, Cain and Bass, Racial and Ethnic Politics in California. See also J. Citrin, B. Reingold, E. Walters and D. Green, The "Official English" Movement and the Symbolic Politics of Language in the United States', Western Political Quarterly, 43 (1990), 535-60.
49. C. Tolbert and R. Hero, 'Race/Ethnicity and Direct Democracy: An Analysis of California's Illegal Immigration Initiative', Journal of Politics, 58 (1996), 806-18; Alvarez and Butterfield, 'The Resurgence of Nativism in California? The Case of Proposition 187 and Illegal Immigration'; Preston, Cain and Bass, Racial and Ethnic Politics in California. See also J. Citrin, B. Reingold, E. Walters and D. Green, The "Official English" Movement and the Symbolic Politics of Language in the United States', Western Political Quarterly, 43 (1990), 535-60.
50. Hajnal, Gerber and Louch, 'Minorities and Direct Legislation'.
51. C. Tolbert and G. Steuernagel, 'Race/Ethnicity and Referenda on Redistributive Health Care', in R. Fording, J. Soss and S. Schram, eds, Race, Welfare, and the Politics of Reform (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003). See also D. Kinder and L. Sanders, Divide By Color: Racial Politics and Democratic Ideals (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), for a general discussion of how race motivates whites' views on policy with no apparent racial connotation.
52. C. Tolbert and G. Steuernagel, 'Race/Ethnicity and Referenda on Redistributive Health Care', in R. Fording, J. Soss and S. Schram, eds, Race, Welfare, and the Politics of Reform (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003). See also D. Kinder and L. Sanders, Divide By Color: Racial Politics and Democratic Ideals (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), for a general discussion of how race motivates whites' views on policy with no apparent racial connotation.
53. Wenzel, Donovan and Bowler. 'Direct Democracy and Minorities'.
54. R. Hero, Faces of Inequality: Social Diversity in American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).
55. Tolbert and Hero, 'Dealing with Diversity'.
56. V. O. Key Jr, Southern Politics - In State and Nation (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1949); M. Giles and A. Evans, 'The Power Approach to Intergroup Hostility', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 30 (1986), 469-86; Hero, Faces of Inequality.
57. V. O. Key Jr, Southern Politics - In State and Nation (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1949); M. Giles and A. Evans, 'The Power Approach to Intergroup Hostility', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 30 (1986), 469-86; Hero, Faces of Inequality.
58. V. O. Key Jr, Southern Politics - In State and Nation (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1949); M. Giles and A. Evans, 'The Power Approach to Intergroup Hostility', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 30 (1986), 469-86; Hero, Faces of Inequality.
59. M. Morell, 'Citizens' Evaluations of Participatory Democratic Procedures: Normative Theory Meets Empirical Science', Political Research Quarterly, 52 (1999), 293-322; B. Barber, Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); Carole Pateman, Participation and Democratic Theory (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1970).
60. M. Morell, 'Citizens' Evaluations of Participatory Democratic Procedures: Normative Theory Meets Empirical Science', Political Research Quarterly, 52 (1999), 293-322; B. Barber, Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); Carole Pateman, Participation and Democratic Theory (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1970).
61. M. Morell, 'Citizens' Evaluations of Participatory Democratic Procedures: Normative Theory Meets Empirical Science', Political Research Quarterly, 52 (1999), 293-322; B. Barber, Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); Carole Pateman, Participation and Democratic Theory (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1970).
62. C. Tolbert, J. Grummel and D. A. Smith, The Effects of Ballot Initiatives on Voter Turnout in the American States', American Politics Research, 29 (2001), 625-48; M. Smith, 'The Contingent Effects of Ballot Initiatives and Candidate Races on Turnout', American Journal of Political Science, 45 (2001), 700-6.
63. C. Tolbert, J. Grummel and D. A. Smith, The Effects of Ballot Initiatives on Voter Turnout in the American States', American Politics Research, 29 (2001), 625-48; M. Smith, 'The Contingent Effects of Ballot Initiatives and Candidate Races on Turnout', American Journal of Political Science, 45 (2001), 700-6.
64. Citrin, 'Who's the Boss?'
65. S. Bowler and T. Donovan, 'Democracy, Institutions and Attitudes about Citizen Influence on Government' ; British Journal of Political Science, 32 (2002), 371-90; Hibbing and Theiss-Morse, 'Process Preferences' ; Martin Gilleus, James Glasner and Tali Mendelberg, 'Having a Say: Political Efficacy in the Context of Direct Democracy' (paper given at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, 2001).
66. S. Bowler and T. Donovan, 'Democracy, Institutions and Attitudes about Citizen Influence on Government' ; British Journal of Political Science, 32 (2002), 371-90; Hibbing and Theiss-Morse, 'Process Preferences' ; Martin Gilleus, James Glasner and Tali Mendelberg, 'Having a Say: Political Efficacy in the Context of Direct Democracy' (paper given at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, 2001).
67. S. Bowler and T. Donovan, 'Democracy, Institutions and Attitudes about Citizen Influence on Government' ; British Journal of Political Science, 32 (2002), 371-90; Hibbing and Theiss-Morse, 'Process Preferences' ; Martin Gilleus, James Glasner and Tali Mendelberg, 'Having a Say: Political Efficacy in the Context of Direct Democracy' (paper given at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, 2001).
68. Bowler and Donovan, 'Democracy, Institutions and Attitudes about Citizen Influence on Government'.
69. D. Magleby, Direct Legislation: Voting on Ballot Propositions in the US (Baltimore, Md.: John Hopkins University Press, 1984); T. Cronin, Direct Democracy: The Politics of Initiative, Referendum and Recall (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989); E. Gerber, The Populist Paradox: Interest Group Influence and the Promise of Direct Legislation ("Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999).
70. D. Magleby, Direct Legislation: Voting on Ballot Propositions in the US (Baltimore, Md.: John Hopkins University Press, 1984); T. Cronin, Direct Democracy: The Politics of Initiative, Referendum and Recall (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989); E. Gerber, The Populist Paradox: Interest Group Influence and the Promise of Direct Legislation ("Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999).
71. D. Magleby, Direct Legislation: Voting on Ballot Propositions in the US (Baltimore, Md.: John Hopkins University Press, 1984); T. Cronin, Direct Democracy: The Politics of Initiative, Referendum and Recall (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989); E. Gerber, The Populist Paradox: Interest Group Influence and the Promise of Direct Legislation ("Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999).
72. C. Tolbert, D. Lowestein and T. Donovan, 'Election Law and Rules for Using Initiatives', in Bowler, Donovan and Tolbert, eds, Citizens as Legislators.
73. Hero, Faces of Inequality; R. Hero and C. Tolbert, 'A Racial/Ethnic Diversity Interpretation of Politics and Policy in the States of the US ', American Journal of Political Science, 40 (1996), 851-71 ; K. Hill and J. Leighley, 'Racial Diversity, Voter Turnout, and Mobilizing Institutions in the United States ', American Politics Quarterly, 27 (1999), 275-95; Key, Southern Politics; Giles and Evans, The Power Approach to Intergroup Hostility'; H. Blalock, Toward a Theory of Minority-group Relations (New York: Capricorn Books, 1970).
74. Hero, Faces of Inequality; R. Hero and C. Tolbert, 'A Racial/Ethnic Diversity Interpretation of Politics and Policy in the States of the US ', American Journal of Political Science, 40 (1996), 851-71 ; K. Hill and J. Leighley, 'Racial Diversity, Voter Turnout, and Mobilizing Institutions in the United States ', American Politics Quarterly, 27 (1999), 275-95; Key, Southern Politics; Giles and Evans, The Power Approach to Intergroup Hostility'; H. Blalock, Toward a Theory of Minority-group Relations (New York: Capricorn Books, 1970).
75. Hero, Faces of Inequality; R. Hero and C. Tolbert, 'A Racial/Ethnic Diversity Interpretation of Politics and Policy in the States of the US ', American Journal of Political Science, 40 (1996), 851-71 ; K. Hill and J. Leighley, 'Racial Diversity, Voter Turnout, and Mobilizing Institutions in the United States ', American Politics Quarterly, 27 (1999), 275-95; Key, Southern Politics; Giles and Evans, The Power Approach to Intergroup Hostility'; H. Blalock, Toward a Theory of Minority-group Relations (New York: Capricorn Books, 1970).
76. Hero, Faces of Inequality; R. Hero and C. Tolbert, 'A Racial/Ethnic Diversity Interpretation of Politics and Policy in the States of the US ', American Journal of Political Science, 40 (1996), 851-71 ; K. Hill and J. Leighley, 'Racial Diversity, Voter Turnout, and Mobilizing Institutions in the United States ', American Politics Quarterly, 27 (1999), 275-95; Key, Southern Politics; Giles and Evans, The Power Approach to Intergroup Hostility'; H. Blalock, Toward a Theory of Minority-group Relations (New York: Capricorn Books, 1970).
77. Hero, Faces of Inequality; R. Hero and C. Tolbert, 'A Racial/Ethnic Diversity Interpretation of Politics and Policy in the States of the US ', American Journal of Political Science, 40 (1996), 851-71 ; K. Hill and J. Leighley, 'Racial Diversity, Voter Turnout, and Mobilizing Institutions in the United States ', American Politics Quarterly, 27 (1999), 275-95; Key, Southern Politics; Giles and Evans, The Power Approach to Intergroup Hostility'; H. Blalock, Toward a Theory of Minority-group Relations (New York: Capricorn Books, 1970).
78. Hero, Faces of Inequality; R. Hero and C. Tolbert, 'A Racial/Ethnic Diversity Interpretation of Politics and Policy in the States of the US ', American Journal of Political Science, 40 (1996), 851-71 ; K. Hill and J. Leighley, 'Racial Diversity, Voter Turnout, and Mobilizing Institutions in the United States ', American Politics Quarterly, 27 (1999), 275-95; Key, Southern Politics; Giles and Evans, The Power Approach to Intergroup Hostility'; H. Blalock, Toward a Theory of Minority-group Relations (New York: Capricorn Books, 1970).
79. Hero, Faces of Inequality; see also Key, Southern Politics; and Giles and Evans, The Power Approach to Intergroup Hostility'.
80. Hero, Faces of Inequality; see also Key, Southern Politics; and Giles and Evans, The Power Approach to Intergroup Hostility'.
81. Hero, Faces of Inequality; see also Key, Southern Politics; and Giles and Evans, The Power Approach to Intergroup Hostility'.
82. Hero, Faces of Inequality.
83. K. Hill and J. Leighley, 'Racial Diversity, Voter Turnout, and Mobilizing Institutions in the United States' American Politics Quarterly, 21 (1999), 275-95.
84. Since our research focuses on the political efficacy of racial and ethnic minorities it would have been preferable to use survey data with a larger sample of these populations. The Black National Election Survey (1996) and Latino National Political Survey (LNPS) (1990), however, do not sample in states with very low minority populations, nor do they provide ten-year longitudinal data. The NES data provides the best representation of the fifty states, providing an adequate sample of state institutional and social context and racial/ethnic minority groups.
85. J. Oliver and T. Mendelberg, 'Reconsidering the Environmental Determinants of White Racial Attitudes', American Journal of Political Science, 44 (2000), 574-89.
86. Tolbert, Lowestein and Donovan, 'Election Law and Rules for Using Initiatives'. There are numerous ways to measure state variation in usage of direct democracy institutions. Bowler and Donovan, 'Democracy, Institutions and Attitudes', use the total number of initiatives that have appeared on state election ballots since inception of the process to measure cumulative exposure to direct democracy mechanisms. Since voters today were not part of the electorate in the early 1900s, the measure used in this research is deemed more appropriate. It also takes into account frequency of initiative use in states that recently adopted the process, such as Florida. There is a high correlation among the various measures of usage of the initiative process, suggesting that the substantive findings of the analysis would not change with a different operationalization. The correlation between the total number of initiatives appearing on state election ballots since state adoption of the process and the number of initiatives appearing on state election ballots during the period 1970-92 is 0.92. The total number of initiatives appearing on state election ballots over time correlates with average annual use of the process in the last two decades at 0.81. Average annual usage of the process from 1970 to 1992 correlates with average annual usage of the process since adoption of the process at 0.97.
87. Tolbert, Lowestein and Donovan, 'Election Law and Rules for Using Initiatives'. There are numerous ways to measure state variation in usage of direct democracy institutions. Bowler and Donovan, 'Democracy, Institutions and Attitudes', use the total number of initiatives that have appeared on state election ballots since inception of the process to measure cumulative exposure to direct democracy mechanisms. Since voters today were not part of the electorate in the early 1900s, the measure used in this research is deemed more appropriate. It also takes into account frequency of initiative use in states that recently adopted the process, such as Florida. There is a high correlation among the various measures of usage of the initiative process, suggesting that the substantive findings of the analysis would not change with a different operationalization. The correlation between the total number of initiatives appearing on state election ballots since state adoption of the process and the number of initiatives appearing on state election ballots during the period 1970-92 is 0.92. The total number of initiatives appearing on state election ballots over time correlates with average annual use of the process in the last two decades at 0.81. Average annual usage of the process from 1970 to 1992 correlates with average annual usage of the process since adoption of the process at 0.97.
88. 2].
89. Hero, Faces of Inequality.
90. California also experienced a severe statewide recession that did not cycle through the national US economy and Republican party leaders were charged with playing the 'race card' during the early 1990s (Schrag, Paradise Lost).
91. Bowler and Donovan, 'Democracy, Institutions and Attitudes'.
92. R. Neimi, S. Craig and F. Mattel, 'Measuring Internal Political Efficacy in the 1988 National Election Study', American Political Science Review, 85 (1991), 1407-13.
93. Future research may explore the impact of state racial and institutional environments on internal efficacy of whites and racial/ethnic minorities.
94. See Bowler and Donovan, 'Democracy, Institutions and Attitudes', for similar measurement of the dependent variables.
95. Bowler and Donovan, 'Democracy, Institutions and Attitudes'.
96. M. Lewis-Beck and T. Rice, Forecasting Elections (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 1992).
97. Bowler and Donovan, 'Popular Control of Referendum Agendas', used OLS regression rather than ordered logistic regression, but the two statistical techniques result in comparable findings.
98. Bowler and Donovan, 'Democracy, Institutions and Attitudes'.
99. Blacks have an average score on the overall index of external efficacy of 5.66, compared to 6.01 for other racial groups (whites, Asian Americans and Native Americans) out of a possible 10. The difference is statistically significant in a simple bivariate analysis (t = - 5.52, p < 0.000).
100. R. O. de la Garza, L. DeSipio, F. C. Garcia, J. Garcia and A. Falcon, Latino Voices: Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Cuban Perspectives on American Politics ("Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1992); Baldassare, California in the New Millennium.
101. R. O. de la Garza, L. DeSipio, F. C. Garcia, J. Garcia and A. Falcon, Latino Voices: Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Cuban Perspectives on American Politics ("Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1992); Baldassare, California in the New Millennium.
102. Baldassare, California in the New Millennium.
103. Bowler and Donovan, 'Democracy, Institutions and Attitudes'.
104. Hajnal, Gerber and Louch, 'Minorities and Direct Legislation'.
105. Hajnal, Gerber and Louch, 'Minorities and Direct Legislation" ; R. O. de la Garza, A. Falcon and F. C. Garcia, 'Will the Real Americans Please Stand Up: Anglo and Mexican-American Support for Core American Political Values', American Journal of Political Science, 40 (1996), 335-51.
106. Hajnal, Gerber and Louch, 'Minorities and Direct Legislation" ; R. O. de la Garza, A. Falcon and F. C. Garcia, 'Will the Real Americans Please Stand Up: Anglo and Mexican-American Support for Core American Political Values', American Journal of Political Science, 40 (1996), 335-51.
107. See M. Mendelsohn and A. Parkin, eds, Referendum Democracy: Citizens, Elites, and Deliberation in Referendum Campaigns (New York: Palgrave, 2001).
108. Bowler and Donovan, 'Democracy, Institutions and Attitudes'.
109. Hero, Faces of Inequality.