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Volumn 10, Issue 3, 2002, Pages 575-630

On the edge of respectability: Sexual politics in China's tibet

(1)  Makley, Charlene E a  

a NONE

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EID: 0347673278     PISSN: 10679847     EISSN: 15278271     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1215/10679847-10-3-575     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (19)

References (99)
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    • By 1990, in contrast to more rural townships and villages in and around the valley that were predominately Tibetan, Tibetans in town comprised only around 20 percent of some twelve thousand registered residents, with Han and Muslim Chinese making up equal proportions of the rest. See Ma Denghun and Wanma Duoji (Pad-ma rDo-rJe), Gannan Zangzu Buluo Gaihuang [An introduction to the Tibetan tribes of Gannan] (Hezuo: Zhongguo Renmin Zhengxie Shanghui Gannan Zangzu Zizhizhou, 1994).
    • (1994) Gannan Zangzu Buluo Gaihuang [An introduction to the Tibetan tribes of Gannan]
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  • 2
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    • The History of Sexuality
    • New York: Random House
    • Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, vol. 1, An Introduction (New York: Random House, 1978).
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    • Foucault, M.1
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    • 0003674836 scopus 로고
    • New York: Routledge
    • There has been a recent convergence of interest in such an approach in a variety of disciplines. Interest in "performativity" in gender studies, epitomized perhaps in the work of Judith Butler, has taken inspiration from J. L. Austin's theories of the social construction functions of "performatives" in speech. See Butler, Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limitations of "Sex" (New York: Routledge, 1993);
    • (1993) Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limitations of Sex
    • Butler1
  • 4
    • 79955005689 scopus 로고
    • All Made Up: Performance Theory and the New Anthropology of Sex and Gender
    • also Rosalind C. Morris, "All Made Up: Performance Theory and the New Anthropology of Sex and Gender," Annual Review of Anthropology 24 (1995): 567-592.
    • (1995) Annual Review of Anthropology , vol.24 , pp. 567-592
    • Morris, R.C.1
  • 5
    • 0004256693 scopus 로고
    • Chicago: University of Illinois Press
    • However, I find the most inspirational recent works to be those bringing a wider range of analytic tools to bear in socio- or anthropological-linguistic studies of interlocutors' "dialogic" coproduction of sooocultural realities in particular speech events. See, for example, Bruce Mannheim and Dennis Tedlock, eds., The Dialogic Emergence of Culture (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1995).
    • (1995) The Dialogic Emergence of Culture
    • Mannheim, B.1    Tedlock, D.2
  • 6
    • 0004100305 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
    • See, for example, Michael Dutton, Street-life China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998);
    • (1998) Street-life China
    • Dutton, M.1
  • 12
    • 0008792956 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Sex Tourism Practices on the Periphery: Eroticizing Ethnicity and Pathologizing Sex on the Lancang
    • Chen et al
    • Sandra Teresa Hyde, "Sex Tourism Practices on the Periphery: Eroticizing Ethnicity and Pathologizing Sex on the Lancang," in Chen et al., China Urban, 143-162;
    • China Urban , pp. 143-162
    • Hyde, S.T.1
  • 13
    • 0010189193 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • From Gender Erasure to Gender Difference: State Feminism, Consumer Sexuality, and Women's Public Sphere in China
    • Yang
    • Mayfair Yang, "From Gender Erasure to Gender Difference: State Feminism, Consumer Sexuality, and Women's Public Sphere in China," in Yang, Spaces of Their Own, 35-67;
    • Spaces of Their Own , pp. 35-67
    • Yang, M.1
  • 14
    • 0008751202 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Consumption of Color and the Politics of White Skin in Post-Mao China
    • ed, Roger N, Lancaster and Micaela di Leonardo New York: Routledge
    • Louisa Schein, "The Consumption of Color and the Politics of White Skin in Post-Mao China," in The Gender/Sexuality Reader, ed. Roger N, Lancaster and Micaela di Leonardo (New York: Routledge, 1997), 473-486;
    • (1997) The Gender/Sexuality Reader , pp. 473-486
    • Schein, L.1
  • 15
    • 79954839885 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Tibet Information Network, Social Evils: Prostitution and Pornography in Lhasa
    • and Tibet Information Network, "Social Evils: Prostitution and Pornography in Lhasa," Tibet Information Network Briefing Paper 31 (1999).
    • (1999) Tibet Information Network Briefing Paper , vol.31
  • 21
    • 0037577145 scopus 로고
    • Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Gender, Race, and Morality in Colonial Asia
    • ed. Micaela di Leonardo Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press
    • and Ann Stoler, "Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Gender, Race, and Morality in Colonial Asia," in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge, ed. Micaela di Leonardo (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990, 13-36.
    • (1990) Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge , pp. 13-36
    • Stoler, A.1
  • 23
    • 85171954237 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Revival of Monastic Life in Drepung Monastery
    • ed. Melvyn Goldstein and Matthew Kapstem (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press
    • Melvyn Goldstein points out that whereas in Tibet, this "mass monasticism" resulted in 10-15 percent of the male population entering monasteries, Buddhist monasteries in Thailand held only 1-2 percent of men. The situation at Labrang was the same as that described by Goldstein for the huge monastery of Drepung in Lhasa: the size of the monastic community, at more than 3,400 monks by 1949, was considered to indicate the success of the monastery itself. See Goldstein, "The Revival of Monastic Life in Drepung Monastery," in Buddhism in Contemporary Tibet: Religious Revival and Cultural Identity, ed. Melvyn Goldstein and Matthew Kapstem (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1998), 15-52.
    • (1998) Buddhism in Contemporary Tibet: Religious Revival and Cultural Identity , pp. 15-52
    • Goldstein1
  • 24
    • 79954790157 scopus 로고
    • Li Anzhai Zangxue Wenlun Xuan [Li Anzhai: Selected writings in Tibetan studies rpt., Beijing: Zhongguo Zangxue Chubanshe
    • Based on figures from censuses taken before 1949, monks in the region now roughly equivalent to Gannan prefecture were about 17 percent of the Tibetan male population, while monks in Labrang monastery represented about 15 percent of the Tibetan male population in Xiahe County. See Li Anzhai,"Chuan,Gan ShuXian Bianmm Fenbu Gaikuang, 1941-1942" [The distribution of frontier peoples in several counties of Gansu and Sichuan Provinces], in Li Anzhai Zangxue Wenlun Xuan [Li Anzhai: Selected writings in Tibetan studies) (1941; rpt., Beijing: Zhongguo Zangxue Chubanshe, 1992), 72-107.
    • (1941) Chuan,Gan ShuXian Bianmm Fenbu Gaikuang, 1941-1942 [The distribution of frontier peoples in several counties of Gansu and Sichuan Provinces] , pp. 72-107
    • Li, A.1
  • 25
    • 79954888406 scopus 로고
    • Hequ Zangqu Youmu Zangmin zhi Jiating Zuzhi
    • Yu Xiangwen, in his analysis of kinship and marriage among nomads just west of Labrang, found that monks represented 16 percent (21 of 133 men) of the male population there. See "Hequ Zangqu Youmu Zangmin zhi Jiating Zuzhi" (The marriage system among Tibetan nomads in the bend of the Yellow River], Dongfang Zazhi [Oriental magazine] 39, no. 1 (1943): 1-3.
    • (1943) Dongfang Zazhi [Oriental magazine] , vol.39 , Issue.1 , pp. 1-3
  • 27
    • 79954908406 scopus 로고
    • Di 22 Ti: Labuleng: Jinkuang ji qi Kaifa Yijian
    • Zhengzhong Shuju
    • Gao Changzhu, "Di 22 Ti: Labuleng: Jinkuang ji qi Kaifa Yijian" [The twenty-second district: Labrang: Some perspectives on its current situation and development], in Bianjiang Wenti Lunwen Ji [Collected works on frontier issues] (Zhengzhong Shuju, 1942), 430-489;
    • (1942) Bianjiang Wenti Lunwen Ji [Collected works on frontier issues] , pp. 430-489
    • Gao, C.1
  • 29
    • 79954919097 scopus 로고
    • Xikang Dege zhi Lishi yu Renkou
    • Beijing: Zhongguo Zangxue Chubanshe
    • Li Anzhai, "Xikang Dege zhi Lishi yu Renkou" (The history and population of Derge in Xikang], in Li Anzhai Zangxue Wenlun Xuan (1946; rpt., Beijing: Zhongguo Zangxue Chubanshe, 1992), 152-217;
    • (1946) Li Anzhai Zangxue Wenlun Xuan , pp. 152-217
    • Li, A.1
  • 32
    • 79954745230 scopus 로고
    • Cambridge, Mass.: Peabody Museum
    • Frederic Wulsm, an American explorer who traveled to Labrang in 1923, practically drooled over the Tibetan women he saw there, describing them as "pretty girls with magnificent headdresses, often with their gowns dropped down to leave the right shoulder bare" (cited in China's Inner Asian Frontier, ed. Mary Ellen Alonso [Cambridge, Mass.: Peabody Museum, 19791, 96;
    • (1979) China's Inner Asian Frontier , vol.1 , pp. 96
    • Alonso, M.E.1
  • 33
    • 0009786225 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Regime of Authenticity: Timelessness, Gender, and National History in Modern China
    • October
    • Prasenjit Duara, "The Regime of Authenticity: Timelessness, Gender, and National History in Modern China," History and Theory 37, no. 3 (October 1998): 298.
    • (1998) History and Theory , vol.37 , Issue.3 , pp. 298
    • Duara, P.1
  • 37
    • 79954722628 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The entire passage reads, "Labuleng hao bi shi yi ge hen rnei de chunu, yijing you ren xiang ta [fem. pronoun] juezhu le, shangshi zhege chunu, bu neng qinfen zili, ta [fem. pronoun] biding yao duoluo." [Labrang is like a beautiful virgin; there are already rivals for her. If this virgin cannot become diligent and establish herself, then she will inevitably degenerate (duoluo)]. The term duoluo has connotations of moral corruption. Duoluo fengchen means to be driven to prostitution (see Gu and Long, Dao Qinghai Qu, 79).
    • Dao Qinghai Qu , pp. 79
    • Gu1    Long2
  • 38
    • 1842363693 scopus 로고
    • rpt, New York: Dover
    • The use of a sexualized analogy for a longed-for yet vulnerable territory is not unique to Chinese would-be colonists. The orientalist scholar and colonial agent Austine L. Waddell draws on strikingly similar images to describe a Tibet debauched by its encounter with modernity: "But now .. . the fairy Prince of Civilization has roused her from her slumbers, her closed doors are broken down, her dark veil of mystery is lifted up and the long sealed shrine with its grotesque cults and its idolised Grand Lama, shorn of his sham nimbus, have yielded up their secrets and he disenchanted before our Western eyes" (Waddell, Tibetan Buddhism: With Its Mystic Cults, Symbolism, and Mythology [1895; rpt., New York: Dover, 1972], 1-2).
    • (1895) Tibetan Buddhism: With Its Mystic Cults, Symbolism, and Mythology , pp. 1-2
    • Waddell1
  • 39
    • 0003217521 scopus 로고
    • Irony in Tibetan Notions of the Good Life
    • ed. Charles Keyes and Valentine Daniel Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press
    • David Lichter and Lawrence Epstein, "Irony in Tibetan Notions of the Good Life," in Karma; An Anthropological Inquiry, ed. Charles Keyes and Valentine Daniel (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1983), 249.
    • (1983) Karma; An Anthropological Inquiry , pp. 249
    • Lichter, D.1    Epstein, L.2
  • 40
    • 79954962538 scopus 로고
    • Views of Women's Roles in Buddhist Tibet
    • ed. A. K. Narain Delhi: BR Publishing
    • Also, Beatrice Miller says that when World War II trade brought Tibetan women traders down to India, Indian women were horrified by their seeming spatial freedoms and assumed all Tibetan women, including those from the higher social classes, were sexually promiscuous. See Miller, "Views of Women's Roles in Buddhist Tibet," in Studies in the History of Buddhism, ed. A. K. Narain (Delhi: BR Publishing, 1980), 155-165.
    • (1980) Studies in the History of Buddhism , pp. 155-165
    • Miller1
  • 41
    • 0004198335 scopus 로고
    • Princeton: Princeton University School of Architecture
    • See Beatriz Colomma, ed., Sexuality and Space (Princeton: Princeton University School of Architecture, 1992);
    • (1992) Sexuality and Space
    • Colomma, B.1
  • 42
    • 0002508758 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Renegotiating Gender and Sexuality in Public and Private Spaces
    • ed. Duncan London: Routledge
    • Nancy Duncan, "Renegotiating Gender and Sexuality in Public and Private Spaces," in Bodyspace: Destabilizing Geographies of Gender and Sexuality, ed. Duncan (London: Routledge, 1996), 127-145;
    • (1996) Bodyspace: Destabilizing Geographies of Gender and Sexuality , pp. 127-145
    • Duncan, N.1
  • 43
    • 0003882639 scopus 로고
    • Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press
    • and Daphne Spam, Gendered Spaces (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992).
    • (1992) Gendered Spaces
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  • 46
    • 0009142594 scopus 로고
    • The Production of Self and Body in Sherpa-Tibetan Society
    • ed. Mark Nichter Montreux, Switzerland: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers
    • Also see Vincanne Adams, "The Production of Self and Body in Sherpa-Tibetan Society," in Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Ethnomedicine, ed. Mark Nichter (Montreux, Switzerland: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1992),
    • (1992) Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Ethnomedicine
    • Adams, V.1
  • 48
    • 79954786093 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • David Lichter and Lawrence Epstein heuristically distinguish between lay Tibetan notions of pollution (tib.grib) acquired by offending worldly gods through inappropriate actions or bodily impropriety, on one hand, and Buddhist notions of acquiring karmic pollution (tib. sgrib) by accumulating sin (tib. sdig pa) that obscures the mind in pursuit of liberation from rebirth, on the other. See Lichter and Epstein, "Irony in Tibetan Notions of the Good Life," 223-254.
    • Irony in Tibetan Notions of the Good Life , pp. 223-254
    • Lichter1    Epstein2
  • 49
    • 34548541640 scopus 로고
    • Putting the Gnas Back into Gnas-skor: Rethinking Tibetan Buddhist Pilgrimage Practice
    • summer
    • I follow Tom Huber in the view that ordinary Tibetans, lay and monastic, do not necessarily distinguish these two; they are instead united in a widespread notion of ritual-social propriety viewed as "cleanliness" (tib.gtsang ma). See Huber, "Putting the Gnas Back into Gnas-skor: Rethinking Tibetan Buddhist Pilgrimage Practice," Tibet Journal 19, no. 2 (summer 1994): 23-60.
    • (1994) Tibet Journal , vol.19 , Issue.2 , pp. 23-60
    • Huber1
  • 50
    • 0007538243 scopus 로고
    • Chicago: University of Chicago Press
    • I heard various explanations for how an unclean lineage (tib. rgyud pa mi gtsang) originated. Usually, though, it involved a particularly offensive act committed in a sacred place, such as passing gas in a temple. Such explanations also make sense of the widespread leprosy that plagued sedentary populations in northeastern Tibetan regions in the early twentieth century. According to Robert Ekvall, locals attributed the disease to the wrath of offended earth deities (tib. sa bdag); see Ekvall, Religious Observances in Tibet: Patterns and Function (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), 80. The disease is still referred to today as the origin of some unclean lineages. The resulting pollution was then passed down to all children, regardless of whether the offending agent was the mother or father. People most generally said one can tell a member of an unclean lineage by their offensive body odor (tib. ser ru bro gi). One should not eat their food, and matchmakers would advise families not to marry their children to them. However, I never met someone who was identified as such a person.
    • (1964) Religious Observances in Tibet: Patterns and Function , pp. 80
    • Ekvall1
  • 53
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    • Ambiguous Gender: Male Initiation in a Northern Thai Buddhist Society
    • ed. Caroline W. Bynum, Stevan Harrell, and Paula Richrnan Boston: Beacon Press
    • See Charles Keyes, "Ambiguous Gender: Male Initiation in a Northern Thai Buddhist Society," in Gender and Religion: On the Complexity of Symbols, ed. Caroline W. Bynum, Stevan Harrell, and Paula Richrnan (Boston: Beacon Press, 1986), 66-89,
    • (1986) Gender and Religion: On the Complexity of Symbols , pp. 66-89
    • Keyes, C.1
  • 54
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    • Buddhism and Homosexuality As Seen in Indian Buddhist Texts
    • ed. José Cabezón Albany: SUNY Press
    • and Leonard Zwilling, "Buddhism and Homosexuality As Seen in Indian Buddhist Texts," in Buddhism, Gender, and Sexuality, ed. José Cabezón (Albany: SUNY Press, 1992).
    • (1992) Buddhism, Gender, and Sexuality
    • Zwilling, L.1
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    • trans. Jeffrey Hopkins New York: Snow Lion
    • The famous iconoclast scholar from Amdo, Gedun Chöpel, in his 1938 Treatise on Passion ['Dod pa'i bs Tan bCos], argues against this widespread view of the female body and says such a notion is not Buddhist. He insists, not unlike recent Western feminist Buddhists, that a real Buddhist view is that all humans are equally unclean because the body of flesh is unclean. However, quite typically of Tibetan androcentrisrn, he redefines the female body against a male standard: she has everything he does, only inside. See Gedun Chöpel, Tibetan Arts of hove: Sex, Orgasm, and Spiritual Healing, trans. Jeffrey Hopkins (New York: Snow Lion, 1992).
    • (1992) Tibetan Arts of hove: Sex, Orgasm, and Spiritual Healing
    • Chöpel, G.1
  • 56
    • 79954702609 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Pregnancy and Childbirth in Tibetan Culture
    • ed. Karma Lekshe Tsomo New York: SUNY Press
    • also cf. Sarah Pinto "Pregnancy and Childbirth in Tibetan Culture," in Buddhist Women across Cultures: Realizations, ed. Karma Lekshe Tsomo (New York: SUNY Press, 1999), 159-168.
    • (1999) Buddhist Women across Cultures: Realizations , pp. 159-168
    • Pinto, S.1
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    • Rethinking Van Gulik: Sexuality and Reproduction in Traditional Chinese Medicine
    • ed. Christina Gilrnartm, Gail Hershatter, Lisa Rofel, and Tyrene White (Cambridge: Harvard University Press
    • Charlotte Furth's work on fang shu practices of sexual "arts" in Ming China is interesting here. She documents in a very different cultural milieu strikingly similar constructions of masculinity and the liberative effects of manly self-control in sexual intercourse with compliant female bodies. See Furth, "Rethinking Van Gulik: Sexuality and Reproduction in Traditional Chinese Medicine," in Engendering China: Women, Culture, and the State, ed. Christina Gilrnartm, Gail Hershatter, Lisa Rofel, and Tyrene White (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994).
    • (1994) Engendering China: Women, Culture, and the State
    • Furth1
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    • A Study of the Ldab Ldop
    • See Melvyn Goldstein, "A Study of the Ldab Ldop," Central Asiatic Journal 9 (1964): 125-141.
    • (1964) Central Asiatic Journal , vol.9 , pp. 125-141
    • Goldstein, M.1
  • 61
    • 0040120668 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • To date, there is very little information on homosexual practice in Tibetan Buddhist monasteries, but some scholars assert that traditional monastic codes singled out heterosexual activity as the paradigmatic form of sexual transgression. For example, Leonard Zwilling argues that the Vinaya (books of monastic discipline) punishes all intentional sexual misconduct with a hierarchy of punishments for monks and nuns, but homosexual practices were considered less grave offenses. See Zwilling, "Buddhism As Seen in Indian Buddhist Texts," 209.
    • Buddhism As Seen in Indian Buddhist Texts , pp. 209
    • Zwilling1
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    • 33644837078 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Irony in Tibetan Notions of the Good Life, and Matthew Kapstem, Turning Back Gossip
    • ed. Donald S. Lopez Jr. Princeton: Princeton University Press
    • Wives were widely considered to be responsible for the propitiation of household deities or "stove gods" (tib. thab lha). Any behavior not in line with ritual-social propriety was potentially "unclean" (tib. migtsang ma) and offensive to the stove gods and thus could bring harm to the whole household. In addition, the embodiment of destructive gossip in some Tibetan communities was a demoness called the Gossip Girl (tib. mi kha hu mo). She was targeted in exorcism rites aimed at eradicating her negative social effects. See Lichter and Epstein, "Irony in Tibetan Notions of the Good Life," and Matthew Kapstem, "Turning Back Gossip," in Religions of Tibet in Practice, ed. Donald S. Lopez Jr. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997), 527-537.
    • (1997) Religions of Tibet in Practice , pp. 527-537
    • Lichter1    Epstein2
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    • The Saintly Madman in Tibet
    • ed. James Fisher The Hague: Mouton
    • John Ardussi and Lawrence Epstein describe how women who were seen to be too publicly pious were called witches (tib. phra men ma) and blamed for various negative effects on the community and individuals; see Ardussi and Epstein, "The Saintly Madman in Tibet," in Himalayan Anthropology: The Indo-Tibetan Interface, ed. James Fisher (The Hague: Mouton, 1973). Also, in my conversations with Labrang villagers, I noted a definite tendency to attribute to young widows or girlfriends an innate, corporeal impurity that had somehow brought about the untimely demise of their husbands or boyfriends. An unlucky woman who lost more than one husband or lover was likely to be deemed unclean and unmarnageable for the rest of her life.
    • (1973) Himalayan Anthropology: The Indo-Tibetan Interface
    • Ardussi1    Epstein2
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    • The Tibetan Self-image
    • See Robert Ekvall, "The Tibetan Self-image," Pacific Affairs 33 (1960): 369,
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    • The Tibetan Family in Relation to Religion
    • summer
    • See Li Anzhai, "The Tibetan Family in Relation to Religion " Asian Horizon 2 (summer 1949): 25-36,
    • (1949) Asian Horizon , vol.2 , pp. 25-36
    • Li, A.1
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    • The Status of Women in Tibet
    • and Matthias Hermanns, "The Status of Women in Tibet," Anthropological Quarterly 26, no. 3 (1953).
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    • Hermanns, M.1
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    • Labuleng zhi Renkou
    • Li Shijin, "Labuleng zhi Renkou" [The population of Labrang], Bianjiang Tongxun [Frontier news] 5, no. 2 (1948).
    • (1948) Bianjiang Tongxun [Frontier news] , vol.5 , Issue.2
    • Li, S.1
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    • 79954687236 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • China Uses Prostitutes to Bring Shame on Tibetan Monks
    • 10 May
    • Hence the spate of accounts in the international news media following the release of the 1999 Tibet Information Network report on prostitution that depict prostitution as a Chinese state "plot" against Tibetans. One such account, probably echoing the politically charged rumor mill among Tibetans there, absurdly states that "the Chinese authorities" have been secretly teaching Chinese prostitutes Tibetan and training them to "target" monks in Lhasa. See Jenny Morris, "'China Uses Prostitutes to Bring Shame on Tibetan Monks," Telegraph (London), 10 May 1999.
    • (1999) Telegraph (London)
    • Morris, J.1
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    • Prostitution Undermining Tibet Culture
    • 12 August
    • Similarly, see Jasper Becker, "Prostitution Undermining Tibet Culture," South China Morning Post, 12 August 1999.
    • (1999) South China Morning Post
    • Becker, J.1
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    • rpt., Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture
    • Li Anzhai, Labrang: A Study in the Field (1957; rpt., Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, 1982);
    • (1957) Labrang: A Study in the Field
    • Li, A.1
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    • The Black Wickedness of the Deceiving Reactionaries Belonging to the Religious Establishments Is Quite Intolerable
    • Nationalities unite, 22 November
    • ''The Black Wickedness of the Deceiving Reactionaries Belonging to the Religious Establishments Is Quite Intolerable," Minzu Tuanjie (Nationalities unite], 22 November 1958.
    • (1958) Minzu Tuanjie
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    • rpt., London: Tibet Information Network
    • Thus, for example, as several former monks told me, when monks were being forced to marry in Amdo regions, including at Labrang, they were lined up with single lay women in a room with state officials looking on. It was the men, however, who were allowed to choose their wives among the women assembled there. Tn the Communist reckoning of households and distribution of land and goods, males were considered the heads. See Panchen Lama, A Poisoned Arrow: The Secret Report of the Tenth Panchen Lama (1960; rpt., London: Tibet Information Network, 1997), 50.
    • (1960) A Poisoned Arrow: The Secret Report of the Tenth Panchen Lama , pp. 50
    • Lama, P.1
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    • Jiefang Chuqi Xiahe Gongwei Fushi yu Fam Fushi Douzheng Shiwei
    • ed. Zhang Qingyou (Lanzhou:Zhonggong Xiahe Xian Wei Dangshi Ziliao Zhengji Bangongshi
    • Zhang Qingyou, "Jiefang Chuqi Xiahe Gongwei Fushi yu Fam Fushi Douzheng Shiwei" [A synopsis of corruption within the Xiahe party committee and the struggle against it during the early liberation period in Xiahe], in Xiahe Dangshi Ziliao [Research on Xiahe party affairs],ed. Zhang Qingyou (Lanzhou:Zhonggong Xiahe Xian Wei Dangshi Ziliao Zhengji Bangongshi, 1991), 1:50.
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    • Zhang, Q.1
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    • Fashioning the Body in Post-Mao China
    • ed. Anne Brydon and Sandra Niessen Oxford: Berg Press
    • and Xiaoping Li, "Fashioning the Body in Post-Mao China," in Consuming Fashion: Adorning the Transnational Body, ed. Anne Brydon and Sandra Niessen (Oxford: Berg Press, 1998), 71-80.
    • (1998) Consuming Fashion: Adorning the Transnational Body , pp. 71-80
    • Li, X.1
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    • A Surfeit of Bodies: Population and the Rationality of the State in Post-Mao China
    • ed. Faye Ginsburg and Rayna Rapp Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press
    • Ann Anagnost, "A Surfeit of Bodies: Population and the Rationality of the State in Post-Mao China," in Conceiving the New World Order: The Global Politics of Reproduction, ed. Faye Ginsburg and Rayna Rapp (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1995), 23
    • (1995) Conceiving the New World Order: The Global Politics of Reproduction , pp. 23
    • Anagnost, A.1
  • 89
    • 79954699008 scopus 로고
    • Chengdu: Sichuan Minzu Chubanshe
    • Note that here Drolma makes recourse to what Wang Qingshan calls the "durative aspect" in Amdo Tibetan verb forms, adding the suffix bsdad gi (past form of the verb 'dug, to stay) to the past form of the verb 'grig, to be correct, appropriate. See Wang Qingshan, A Grammar of Spoken Amdo Tibetan (Chengdu: Sichuan Minzu Chubanshe, 1995). In this way, Drolma emphasizes her reassuringly ongoing state of being correct in marriage.
    • (1995) A Grammar of Spoken Amdo Tibetan
    • Qingshan, W.1
  • 90
    • 84898294863 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Sex Machine: Global Hypermascuhnity and Images of Asian Women in Modernity
    • fall
    • See L. H. M. Lin, "Sex Machine: Global Hypermascuhnity and Images of Asian Women in Modernity,"positions 7 (fall 1999): 277-306.
    • (1999) Positions , vol.7 , pp. 277-306
    • Lin, L.H.M.1
  • 94
    • 84972003660 scopus 로고
    • Representing Nationality in China: Refiguring Minority/Majority Identities
    • February
    • See Dru Gladney, "Representing Nationality in China: Refiguring Minority/Majority Identities, " Journal of Asian Studies 53, no. 1 (February 1994): 92-123.
    • (1994) Journal of Asian Studies , vol.53 , Issue.1 , pp. 92-123
    • Gladney, D.1
  • 95
    • 0003343635 scopus 로고
    • Introduction: Civilizing Projects and the Reaction to Them
    • ed. Harrell (Seattle: University of Washington Press
    • As Stevan Harrell points out, the "Yunnan School" of contemporary painting and the style that emerged in Chengdu in the late 1970s focused on depicting pretty Tibetan girls; see Harrell, "Introduction: Civilizing Projects and the Reaction to Them," in Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic Frontiers, ed. Harrell (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995), 11.
    • (1995) Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic Frontiers , pp. 11
    • Harrell1
  • 96
    • 79954850168 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Waterfall and Fragrant Flowers: The Development of Tibetan Literature since 1950
    • winter
    • See Tsering Shakya, "The Waterfall and Fragrant Flowers: The Development of Tibetan Literature since 1950," Manoa 12, no. 2 (winter 2000): 28-40.
    • (2000) Manoa , vol.12 , Issue.2 , pp. 28-40
    • Shakya, T.1
  • 97
    • 84858568109 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Xin Bi Shen Xian Lao, in Chinese Literature Beijing: Chinese Literature Press
    • During the four-year period I visited Lab rang and other Tibetan regions, I heard many stories of Western men seeking sexual encounters with Tibetan women. I even got to read the dismissive "love letter" sent by an Australian man in response to the pleas of his erstwhile Tibetan woman lover in Labrang for him to return. He told her that what they had had was "special," but right now he was taking a "well-deserved rest" on a beach. The flip side of this eroticization of Tibetans by outsiders is the recent fascination among Chinese men and women with Tibetan masculinity, which they imagine to epitomize virile, brutish sexuality or, in the case of some women writers, virile, yet tender sexuality in contradistinction to uncaring Han men. See Chi Li, "The Heart More Than the Flesh" ("Xin Bi Shen Xian Lao"], in Chinese Literature (Beijing: Chinese Literature Press, 1999), 11-38;
    • (1999) The Heart More Than the Flesh , pp. 11-38
    • Chi, L.1
  • 98
    • 84965799708 scopus 로고
    • The Macho Eunuch: The Politics of Masculinity in Jla Pingwa's 'Human Extremities,'
    • April
    • cf. Kam Louie, "The Macho Eunuch: The Politics of Masculinity in Jla Pingwa's 'Human Extremities,'" Modern China 17, no. 2 (April 1991): 163-182,
    • (1991) Modern China , vol.17 , Issue.2 , pp. 163-182
    • cf1    Louie, K.2
  • 99
    • 0003132583 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Who Are the Mongols? State, Ethnicity, and the Politics of Representation in the PRC
    • ed. Melissa J. Brown Berkeley, Calif, Institute of East Asian Studies
    • and Almaz Khan, "Who Are the Mongols? State, Ethnicity, and the Politics of Representation in the PRC," in Negotiating Ethnicities in China and Taiwan, ed. Melissa J. Brown (Berkeley, Calif.: Institute of East Asian Studies, 1996), 125-155.
    • (1996) Negotiating Ethnicities in China and Taiwan , pp. 125-155
    • Khan, A.1


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