Managing Protectionism: American Trade Policy in the Early Cold War

Diplomatic History

Volumn 22, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 337-360

  Zeiler, Thomas W ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0347654969     PISSN: 01452096     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1467-7709.00124     Document Type: Article

References (105)

1. Robert Martin, Vitrified China Association, U.S. Congress, House Committee on Ways and Means, Reciprocal Trade Agreements Program, 80th Cong., 1st sess., 1947 (hereafter RTAA - House, 1947), 747-48.
2. Thomas J. McCormick, America's Half Century: United States Foreign Policy in the Cold War (Baltimore, 1989); Harry Shutt, The Myth of Free Trade: Patterns of Protectionism since 1945 (Oxford, 1985); and Richard M. Freeland, The Truman Doctrine and the Origins of McCarthyism (New York, 1972).
3. Thomas J. McCormick, America's Half Century: United States Foreign Policy in the Cold War (Baltimore, 1989); Harry Shutt, The Myth of Free Trade: Patterns of Protectionism since 1945 (Oxford, 1985); and Richard M. Freeland, The Truman Doctrine and the Origins of McCarthyism (New York, 1972).
4. Thomas J. McCormick, America's Half Century: United States Foreign Policy in the Cold War (Baltimore, 1989); Harry Shutt, The Myth of Free Trade: Patterns of Protectionism since 1945 (Oxford, 1985); and Richard M. Freeland, The Truman Doctrine and the Origins of McCarthyism (New York, 1972).
5. Alfred E. Eckes Jr., Opening America's Market: U.S. Foreign Trade Policy since 1776 (Chapel Hill, 1995); William Greider, One World, Ready or Not: The Manic Logic of Global Capitalism New York, 1997); H. Ross Perot, Save Your Job, Save Our Country: Why NAFTA Must Be Stopped-Now (New York, 1993); Clyde Prestowitz, Trading Places: How We Allowed Japan to Take the Lead (New York, 1988). Engaging the debate from the side of free trade are Douglas A. Irwin, Against the Tide: An Intellectual History of Free Trade (Princeton, 1996); Melvyn B. Krauss, How Nations Grow Rich: The Case for Free Trade (New York, 1997); and Paul Krugman, Pop Internationalism (Cambridge, MA, 1996). See also Paul Bairoch, Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes (Chicago, 1993); and Edward Leamer, Sources of International Comparative Advantage: Theory and Evidence (Cambridge, MA, 1984). NAFTA and the WTO in Edward S. Kaplan, American Trade Policy, 1923-1995 (Westport CT, 1996), 125-54. Conservative presidential aspirants Patrick Buchanan and H. Ross Perot joined unions and environmentalists in voicing the populist critique against NAFTA.
6. Alfred E. Eckes Jr., Opening America's Market: U.S. Foreign Trade Policy since 1776 (Chapel Hill, 1995); William Greider, One World, Ready or Not: The Manic Logic of Global Capitalism New York, 1997); H. Ross Perot, Save Your Job, Save Our Country: Why NAFTA Must Be Stopped-Now (New York, 1993); Clyde Prestowitz, Trading Places: How We Allowed Japan to Take the Lead (New York, 1988). Engaging the debate from the side of free trade are Douglas A. Irwin, Against the Tide: An Intellectual History of Free Trade (Princeton, 1996); Melvyn B. Krauss, How Nations Grow Rich: The Case for Free Trade (New York, 1997); and Paul Krugman, Pop Internationalism (Cambridge, MA, 1996). See also Paul Bairoch, Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes (Chicago, 1993); and Edward Leamer, Sources of International Comparative Advantage: Theory and Evidence (Cambridge, MA, 1984). NAFTA and the WTO in Edward S. Kaplan, American Trade Policy, 1923-1995 (Westport CT, 1996), 125-54. Conservative presidential aspirants Patrick Buchanan and H. Ross Perot joined unions and environmentalists in voicing the populist critique against NAFTA.
7. Alfred E. Eckes Jr., Opening America's Market: U.S. Foreign Trade Policy since 1776 (Chapel Hill, 1995); William Greider, One World, Ready or Not: The Manic Logic of Global Capitalism New York, 1997); H. Ross Perot, Save Your Job, Save Our Country: Why NAFTA Must Be Stopped-Now (New York, 1993); Clyde Prestowitz, Trading Places: How We Allowed Japan to Take the Lead (New York, 1988). Engaging the debate from the side of free trade are Douglas A. Irwin, Against the Tide: An Intellectual History of Free Trade (Princeton, 1996); Melvyn B. Krauss, How Nations Grow Rich: The Case for Free Trade (New York, 1997); and Paul Krugman, Pop Internationalism (Cambridge, MA, 1996). See also Paul Bairoch, Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes (Chicago, 1993); and Edward Leamer, Sources of International Comparative Advantage: Theory and Evidence (Cambridge, MA, 1984). NAFTA and the WTO in Edward S. Kaplan, American Trade Policy, 1923-1995 (Westport CT, 1996), 125-54. Conservative presidential aspirants Patrick Buchanan and H. Ross Perot joined unions and environmentalists in voicing the populist critique against NAFTA.
8. Alfred E. Eckes Jr., Opening America's Market: U.S. Foreign Trade Policy since 1776 (Chapel Hill, 1995); William Greider, One World, Ready or Not: The Manic Logic of Global Capitalism New York, 1997); H. Ross Perot, Save Your Job, Save Our Country: Why NAFTA Must Be Stopped-Now (New York, 1993); Clyde Prestowitz, Trading Places: How We Allowed Japan to Take the Lead (New York, 1988). Engaging the debate from the side of free trade are Douglas A. Irwin, Against the Tide: An Intellectual History of Free Trade (Princeton, 1996); Melvyn B. Krauss, How Nations Grow Rich: The Case for Free Trade (New York, 1997); and Paul Krugman, Pop Internationalism (Cambridge, MA, 1996). See also Paul Bairoch, Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes (Chicago, 1993); and Edward Leamer, Sources of International Comparative Advantage: Theory and Evidence (Cambridge, MA, 1984). NAFTA and the WTO in Edward S. Kaplan, American Trade Policy, 1923-1995 (Westport CT, 1996), 125-54. Conservative presidential aspirants Patrick Buchanan and H. Ross Perot joined unions and environmentalists in voicing the populist critique against NAFTA.
9. Alfred E. Eckes Jr., Opening America's Market: U.S. Foreign Trade Policy since 1776 (Chapel Hill, 1995); William Greider, One World, Ready or Not: The Manic Logic of Global Capitalism New York, 1997); H. Ross Perot, Save Your Job, Save Our Country: Why NAFTA Must Be Stopped-Now (New York, 1993); Clyde Prestowitz, Trading Places: How We Allowed Japan to Take the Lead (New York, 1988). Engaging the debate from the side of free trade are Douglas A. Irwin, Against the Tide: An Intellectual History of Free Trade (Princeton, 1996); Melvyn B. Krauss, How Nations Grow Rich: The Case for Free Trade (New York, 1997); and Paul Krugman, Pop Internationalism (Cambridge, MA, 1996). See also Paul Bairoch, Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes (Chicago, 1993); and Edward Leamer, Sources of International Comparative Advantage: Theory and Evidence (Cambridge, MA, 1984). NAFTA and the WTO in Edward S. Kaplan, American Trade Policy, 1923-1995 (Westport CT, 1996), 125-54. Conservative presidential aspirants Patrick Buchanan and H. Ross Perot joined unions and environmentalists in voicing the populist critique against NAFTA.
10. Alfred E. Eckes Jr., Opening America's Market: U.S. Foreign Trade Policy since 1776 (Chapel Hill, 1995); William Greider, One World, Ready or Not: The Manic Logic of Global Capitalism New York, 1997); H. Ross Perot, Save Your Job, Save Our Country: Why NAFTA Must Be Stopped-Now (New York, 1993); Clyde Prestowitz, Trading Places: How We Allowed Japan to Take the Lead (New York, 1988). Engaging the debate from the side of free trade are Douglas A. Irwin, Against the Tide: An Intellectual History of Free Trade (Princeton, 1996); Melvyn B. Krauss, How Nations Grow Rich: The Case for Free Trade (New York, 1997); and Paul Krugman, Pop Internationalism (Cambridge, MA, 1996). See also Paul Bairoch, Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes (Chicago, 1993); and Edward Leamer, Sources of International Comparative Advantage: Theory and Evidence (Cambridge, MA, 1984). NAFTA and the WTO in Edward S. Kaplan, American Trade Policy, 1923-1995 (Westport CT, 1996), 125-54. Conservative presidential aspirants Patrick Buchanan and H. Ross Perot joined unions and environmentalists in voicing the populist critique against NAFTA.
11. Alfred E. Eckes Jr., Opening America's Market: U.S. Foreign Trade Policy since 1776 (Chapel Hill, 1995); William Greider, One World, Ready or Not: The Manic Logic of Global Capitalism New York, 1997); H. Ross Perot, Save Your Job, Save Our Country: Why NAFTA Must Be Stopped-Now (New York, 1993); Clyde Prestowitz, Trading Places: How We Allowed Japan to Take the Lead (New York, 1988). Engaging the debate from the side of free trade are Douglas A. Irwin, Against the Tide: An Intellectual History of Free Trade (Princeton, 1996); Melvyn B. Krauss, How Nations Grow Rich: The Case for Free Trade (New York, 1997); and Paul Krugman, Pop Internationalism (Cambridge, MA, 1996). See also Paul Bairoch, Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes (Chicago, 1993); and Edward Leamer, Sources of International Comparative Advantage: Theory and Evidence (Cambridge, MA, 1984). NAFTA and the WTO in Edward S. Kaplan, American Trade Policy, 1923-1995 (Westport CT, 1996), 125-54. Conservative presidential aspirants Patrick Buchanan and H. Ross Perot joined unions and environmentalists in voicing the populist critique against NAFTA.
12. Alfred E. Eckes Jr., Opening America's Market: U.S. Foreign Trade Policy since 1776 (Chapel Hill, 1995); William Greider, One World, Ready or Not: The Manic Logic of Global Capitalism New York, 1997); H. Ross Perot, Save Your Job, Save Our Country: Why NAFTA Must Be Stopped-Now (New York, 1993); Clyde Prestowitz, Trading Places: How We Allowed Japan to Take the Lead (New York, 1988). Engaging the debate from the side of free trade are Douglas A. Irwin, Against the Tide: An Intellectual History of Free Trade (Princeton, 1996); Melvyn B. Krauss, How Nations Grow Rich: The Case for Free Trade (New York, 1997); and Paul Krugman, Pop Internationalism (Cambridge, MA, 1996). See also Paul Bairoch, Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes (Chicago, 1993); and Edward Leamer, Sources of International Comparative Advantage: Theory and Evidence (Cambridge, MA, 1984). NAFTA and the WTO in Edward S. Kaplan, American Trade Policy, 1923-1995 (Westport CT, 1996), 125-54. Conservative presidential aspirants Patrick Buchanan and H. Ross Perot joined unions and environmentalists in voicing the populist critique against NAFTA.
13. Alfred E. Eckes Jr., Opening America's Market: U.S. Foreign Trade Policy since 1776 (Chapel Hill, 1995); William Greider, One World, Ready or Not: The Manic Logic of Global Capitalism New York, 1997); H. Ross Perot, Save Your Job, Save Our Country: Why NAFTA Must Be Stopped-Now (New York, 1993); Clyde Prestowitz, Trading Places: How We Allowed Japan to Take the Lead (New York, 1988). Engaging the debate from the side of free trade are Douglas A. Irwin, Against the Tide: An Intellectual History of Free Trade (Princeton, 1996); Melvyn B. Krauss, How Nations Grow Rich: The Case for Free Trade (New York, 1997); and Paul Krugman, Pop Internationalism (Cambridge, MA, 1996). See also Paul Bairoch, Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes (Chicago, 1993); and Edward Leamer, Sources of International Comparative Advantage: Theory and Evidence (Cambridge, MA, 1984). NAFTA and the WTO in Edward S. Kaplan, American Trade Policy, 1923-1995 (Westport CT, 1996), 125-54. Conservative presidential aspirants Patrick Buchanan and H. Ross Perot joined unions and environmentalists in voicing the populist critique against NAFTA.
14. Alfred E. Eckes Jr., Opening America's Market: U.S. Foreign Trade Policy since 1776 (Chapel Hill, 1995); William Greider, One World, Ready or Not: The Manic Logic of Global Capitalism New York, 1997); H. Ross Perot, Save Your Job, Save Our Country: Why NAFTA Must Be Stopped-Now (New York, 1993); Clyde Prestowitz, Trading Places: How We Allowed Japan to Take the Lead (New York, 1988). Engaging the debate from the side of free trade are Douglas A. Irwin, Against the Tide: An Intellectual History of Free Trade (Princeton, 1996); Melvyn B. Krauss, How Nations Grow Rich: The Case for Free Trade (New York, 1997); and Paul Krugman, Pop Internationalism (Cambridge, MA, 1996). See also Paul Bairoch, Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes (Chicago, 1993); and Edward Leamer, Sources of International Comparative Advantage: Theory and Evidence (Cambridge, MA, 1984). NAFTA and the WTO in Edward S. Kaplan, American Trade Policy, 1923-1995 (Westport CT, 1996), 125-54. Conservative presidential aspirants Patrick Buchanan and H. Ross Perot joined unions and environmentalists in voicing the populist critique against NAFTA.
15. John Gerard Ruggie, "International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order," in International Regimes, ed. Stephen D. Krasner (Ithaca, 1983), 215. See also Krasner, "United States Commercial and Monetary Policy: Unraveling the Paradox of External Strength and Internal Weakness," in Between Power and Plenty: Foreign Economic Policies of Advanced Industrial States, ed. Peter J. Katzenstein (Madison, 1978). Daniel Verdier, Democracy and International Trade: Britain, France, and the United States, 1860-1990 (Princeton, 1994), does not address the notion of embedded liberalism, but he does analyze the impact of politicians, lobbies, and voters on the trade policy process. For the early tariff revisionists see Paul Wolman, Most Favored Nation: The Republican Revisionists and U.S. Tariff Policy, 1897-1912 (Chapel Hill, 1992).
16. John Gerard Ruggie, "International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order," in International Regimes, ed. Stephen D. Krasner (Ithaca, 1983), 215. See also Krasner, "United States Commercial and Monetary Policy: Unraveling the Paradox of External Strength and Internal Weakness," in Between Power and Plenty: Foreign Economic Policies of Advanced Industrial States, ed. Peter J. Katzenstein (Madison, 1978). Daniel Verdier, Democracy and International Trade: Britain, France, and the United States, 1860-1990 (Princeton, 1994), does not address the notion of embedded liberalism, but he does analyze the impact of politicians, lobbies, and voters on the trade policy process. For the early tariff revisionists see Paul Wolman, Most Favored Nation: The Republican Revisionists and U.S. Tariff Policy, 1897-1912 (Chapel Hill, 1992).
17. John Gerard Ruggie, "International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order," in International Regimes, ed. Stephen D. Krasner (Ithaca, 1983), 215. See also Krasner, "United States Commercial and Monetary Policy: Unraveling the Paradox of External Strength and Internal Weakness," in Between Power and Plenty: Foreign Economic Policies of Advanced Industrial States, ed. Peter J. Katzenstein (Madison, 1978). Daniel Verdier, Democracy and International Trade: Britain, France, and the United States, 1860-1990 (Princeton, 1994), does not address the notion of embedded liberalism, but he does analyze the impact of politicians, lobbies, and voters on the trade policy process. For the early tariff revisionists see Paul Wolman, Most Favored Nation: The Republican Revisionists and U.S. Tariff Policy, 1897-1912 (Chapel Hill, 1992).
18. John Gerard Ruggie, "International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order," in International Regimes, ed. Stephen D. Krasner (Ithaca, 1983), 215. See also Krasner, "United States Commercial and Monetary Policy: Unraveling the Paradox of External Strength and Internal Weakness," in Between Power and Plenty: Foreign Economic Policies of Advanced Industrial States, ed. Peter J. Katzenstein (Madison, 1978). Daniel Verdier, Democracy and International Trade: Britain, France, and the United States, 1860-1990 (Princeton, 1994), does not address the notion of embedded liberalism, but he does analyze the impact of politicians, lobbies, and voters on the trade policy process. For the early tariff revisionists see Paul Wolman, Most Favored Nation: The Republican Revisionists and U.S. Tariff Policy, 1897-1912 (Chapel Hill, 1992).
19. Razeen Sally, "International Trade and the Conclusions of the Uruguay Round: A Liberal Critique," Paper for the European Community Studies Association Convention, Charleston, South Carolina, May 1995, 5;
20. Judith Goldstein, "Creating the GATT Rules: Politics, Institutions, and American Policy," in Multilateralism Matters: The Theory and Praxis of an Institutional Form, ed. John Gerard Ruggie (New York, 1993), 219;
21. Charles Lipson, "The Transformation of Trade: The Sources and Effects of Regime Change," in Krasner, ed., International Regimes, 242.
22. See also Carolyn Rhodes, Reciprocity, U.S. Trade Policy, and the GATT Regime (Ithaca, 1993), x, 8, 76, 79-113;
23. and John H. Jackson, The World Trading System: Law and Policy of International Economic Relations (Cambridge, MA, 1989), 17-21.
24. For the resiliency of free-trade doctrine and its overweaning effect on policy see Irwin, Against the Tide: An Intellectual History of Free Trade.
25. Randall Bennett Woods, A Changing of the Guard: Anglo-American Relations, 1941-1946 (Chapel Hill, 1990), 33-61, 188-211, 274-300; Richard N. Gardner, Sterling-Dollar Diplomacy: The Origins and Prospects of Our International Economic Order, 2d ed. (New York, 1969), 24-39; Rory MacLeod, "The Promise of Full Employment," in War and Social Change: British Society in the Second World War, ed. Harold D. Smith (Manchester, 1986).
26. Randall Bennett Woods, A Changing of the Guard: Anglo-American Relations, 1941-1946 (Chapel Hill, 1990), 33-61, 188-211, 274-300; Richard N. Gardner, Sterling-Dollar Diplomacy: The Origins and Prospects of Our International Economic Order, 2d ed. (New York, 1969), 24-39; Rory MacLeod, "The Promise of Full Employment," in War and Social Change: British Society in the Second World War, ed. Harold D. Smith (Manchester, 1986).
27. Randall Bennett Woods, A Changing of the Guard: Anglo-American Relations, 1941-1946 (Chapel Hill, 1990), 33-61, 188-211, 274-300; Richard N. Gardner, Sterling-Dollar Diplomacy: The Origins and Prospects of Our International Economic Order, 2d ed. (New York, 1969), 24-39; Rory MacLeod, "The Promise of Full Employment," in War and Social Change: British Society in the Second World War, ed. Harold D. Smith (Manchester, 1986).
28. Lieut.-Colonel Elliot (Glasgow, Kelvingrove), Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), House of Common Official Report, 37th Parl., 9th sess., 400 (25 May 1944), 998.
29. Coombs in S. J. Butlin and C. B. Schedvin, Australia in the War of 1939-1945, Ser. 4, Vol. 4: War Economy, 1942-1945 (Canberra, 1977), 657-58; Richard Law to the secretary of state, 24 February 1944, Records of the Dominion and Commonwealth Relations Office, Correspondence-Original File, DO 35 1216/WR 254/47, Public Record Office (PRO), Kew, England. See also draft minutes of Article VII Discussions with the Dominions and India, 29 February 1944, Personal Papers of Herbert Coombs, Bun 1 Pt 1, CP 855, Australian Archives, National Office, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
30. ITO in William Diebold, "The End of the ITO," Essays in International Finance 16 (October 1952): 1-37; William A. Brown, Jr., The United States and the Restoration of World Trade (Washington, 1950); Clair Wilcox, A Charter for World Trade (New York, 1949). Two sessions of a Preparatory Committee of the UN Conference on Trade and Employment (London, October-November 1946; Geneva, May-August 1947) and a redrafting meeting at Lake Success, New York (January-February 1947) preceded the Havana conference (November 1947-March 1948), where fifty-three nations signed the ITO Charter. The ITO addressed commerce, commodity accords, employment, investment, cartels, economic development, and state trading. The GATT Round in Geneva in Department of State, Analysis of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, Pub. 2983, Commercial Policy Ser. 109 (Washington, November 1947).
31. ITO in William Diebold, "The End of the ITO," Essays in International Finance 16 (October 1952): 1-37; William A. Brown, Jr., The United States and the Restoration of World Trade (Washington, 1950); Clair Wilcox, A Charter for World Trade (New York, 1949). Two sessions of a Preparatory Committee of the UN Conference on Trade and Employment (London, October-November 1946; Geneva, May-August 1947) and a redrafting meeting at Lake Success, New York (January-February 1947) preceded the Havana conference (November 1947-March 1948), where fifty-three nations signed the ITO Charter. The ITO addressed commerce, commodity accords, employment, investment, cartels, economic development, and state trading. The GATT Round in Geneva in Department of State, Analysis of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, Pub. 2983, Commercial Policy Ser. 109 (Washington, November 1947).
32. ITO in William Diebold, "The End of the ITO," Essays in International Finance 16 (October 1952): 1-37; William A. Brown, Jr., The United States and the Restoration of World Trade (Washington, 1950); Clair Wilcox, A Charter for World Trade (New York, 1949). Two sessions of a Preparatory Committee of the UN Conference on Trade and Employment (London, October-November 1946; Geneva, May-August 1947) and a redrafting meeting at Lake Success, New York (January-February 1947) preceded the Havana conference (November 1947-March 1948), where fifty-three nations signed the ITO Charter. The ITO addressed commerce, commodity accords, employment, investment, cartels, economic development, and state trading. The GATT Round in Geneva in Department of State, Analysis of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, Pub. 2983, Commercial Policy Ser. 109 (Washington, November 1947).
33. ITO in William Diebold, "The End of the ITO," Essays in International Finance 16 (October 1952): 1-37; William A. Brown, Jr., The United States and the Restoration of World Trade (Washington, 1950); Clair Wilcox, A Charter for World Trade (New York, 1949). Two sessions of a Preparatory Committee of the UN Conference on Trade and Employment (London, October-November 1946; Geneva, May-August 1947) and a redrafting meeting at Lake Success, New York (January-February 1947) preceded the Havana conference (November 1947-March 1948), where fifty-three nations signed the ITO Charter. The ITO addressed commerce, commodity accords, employment, investment, cartels, economic development, and state trading. The GATT Round in Geneva in Department of State, Analysis of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, Pub. 2983, Commercial Policy Ser. 109 (Washington, November 1947).
34. James Boylan, The New Deal Coalition and the Election of 1946 (New York, 1981); David W. Reinhard, The Republican Right since 1945 (Lexington, KY, 1983), 15-36.
35. James Boylan, The New Deal Coalition and the Election of 1946 (New York, 1981); David W. Reinhard, The Republican Right since 1945 (Lexington, KY, 1983), 15-36.
36. Joseph M. Jones, The Fifteen Weeks (New York, 1995), 90; Bevin to the prime minister, 9 January 1947, FO 800 514, Ernest Bevin Papers, PRO.
37. House GOP Right in Frank McNaughton and Walter Hehmeyer, Harry Truman: President (New York, 1948), 196. See also "Statement of Senator O'Mahoney to President Truman on Wool Problem," 5 January 1946, Joseph C. O'Mahoney Papers, box 157, University of Wyoming, Laramie; Association of Southern Commissioners of Agriculture, Congressional Record - Appendix 93:11 (6 January 1947), A11-A16. Survey in "An Estimate of the Public Opinion Situation on the U.S. Foreign Trade Program by States," 2 April 1947, Office of Public Opinion Studies (OPOS), General Records of the Department of State (RG 59), box 48, National Archives, Washington, DC (NA).
38. House GOP Right in Frank McNaughton and Walter Hehmeyer, Harry Truman: President (New York, 1948), 196. See also "Statement of Senator O'Mahoney to President Truman on Wool Problem," 5 January 1946, Joseph C. O'Mahoney Papers, box 157, University of Wyoming, Laramie; Association of Southern Commissioners of Agriculture, Congressional Record - Appendix 93:11 (6 January 1947), A11-A16. Survey in "An Estimate of the Public Opinion Situation on the U.S. Foreign Trade Program by States," 2 April 1947, Office of Public Opinion Studies (OPOS), General Records of the Department of State (RG 59), box 48, National Archives, Washington, DC (NA).
39. House GOP Right in Frank McNaughton and Walter Hehmeyer, Harry Truman: President (New York, 1948), 196. See also "Statement of Senator O'Mahoney to President Truman on Wool Problem," 5 January 1946, Joseph C. O'Mahoney Papers, box 157, University of Wyoming, Laramie; Association of Southern Commissioners of Agriculture, Congressional Record - Appendix 93:11 (6 January 1947), A11-A16. Survey in "An Estimate of the Public Opinion Situation on the U.S. Foreign Trade Program by States," 2 April 1947, Office of Public Opinion Studies (OPOS), General Records of the Department of State (RG 59), box 48, National Archives, Washington, DC (NA).
40. U.S. Tariff Commission, Operation of the Trade Agreements Program, June 1934 to April 1948, Part I: Summary (Washington, 1948), 47-49; Robert A. Pollard, Economic Security and the Origins of the Cold War, 1945-1950 (New York, 1985), 136; Melvyn P. Leffler, A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration, and the Cold War (Stanford, 1992), 157-64.
41. U.S. Tariff Commission, Operation of the Trade Agreements Program, June 1934 to April 1948, Part I: Summary (Washington, 1948), 47-49; Robert A. Pollard, Economic Security and the Origins of the Cold War, 1945-1950 (New York, 1985), 136; Melvyn P. Leffler, A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration, and the Cold War (Stanford, 1992), 157-64.
42. U.S. Tariff Commission, Operation of the Trade Agreements Program, June 1934 to April 1948, Part I: Summary (Washington, 1948), 47-49; Robert A. Pollard, Economic Security and the Origins of the Cold War, 1945-1950 (New York, 1985), 136; Melvyn P. Leffler, A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration, and the Cold War (Stanford, 1992), 157-64.
43. Congressional Record-House 93:1 (20 January 1947), 477. See also Robert L. Gulick Jr., "The Share of Labor in World Trade," International Conciliation 425 (November 1946): 483-86.
44. Congressional Record-House 93:1 (20 January 1947), 477. See also Robert L. Gulick Jr., "The Share of Labor in World Trade," International Conciliation 425 (November 1946): 483-86.
45. Butler to Clayton, 19 December 1946, Department of State Bulletin 16 (26 January 1947): 161-63; Kearney in Summary Report of 27 January 1947, RG 43, Records of International Conferences, Commissions, and Expositions, International Trade Files, Lot 57D-284 (ITF), box 23, NA. Taft in James T. Patterson, Mr. Republican: A Biography of Robert A. Taft (Boston, 1972), 303. See also William B. Kelly, Jr., ed., Studies in United States Commercial Policy (Chapel Hill, 1963), 77-89.
46. Butler to Clayton, 19 December 1946, Department of State Bulletin 16 (26 January 1947): 161-63; Kearney in Summary Report of 27 January 1947, RG 43, Records of International Conferences, Commissions, and Expositions, International Trade Files, Lot 57D-284 (ITF), box 23, NA. Taft in James T. Patterson, Mr. Republican: A Biography of Robert A. Taft (Boston, 1972), 303. See also William B. Kelly, Jr., ed., Studies in United States Commercial Policy (Chapel Hill, 1963), 77-89.
47. Butler to Clayton, 19 December 1946, Department of State Bulletin 16 (26 January 1947): 161-63; Kearney in Summary Report of 27 January 1947, RG 43, Records of International Conferences, Commissions, and Expositions, International Trade Files, Lot 57D-284 (ITF), box 23, NA. Taft in James T. Patterson, Mr. Republican: A Biography of Robert A. Taft (Boston, 1972), 303. See also William B. Kelly, Jr., ed., Studies in United States Commercial Policy (Chapel Hill, 1963), 77-89.
48. Congressional Record - House 93:1 (3 February 1947), 773-74.
49. See report by Lord Inverchapel to Ernest Bevin, 11 April 1947, Political Departments: General Correspondence FO 371 62292, UE2894/37/53 (FO with filing information), PRO.
50. Thomas D. Rice, Massachusetts Fisheries Association, RTAA -House, 1947, 635; Baerman, RTAA - House, 1947, 1684.
51. Thomas D. Rice, Massachusetts Fisheries Association, RTAA -House, 1947, 635; Baerman, RTAA - House, 1947, 1684.
52. Congressional Record - Senate 93:1 (27 January 1947), Morse, 607-9; toga in Willard L. Thorp Oral History, p. 93, Harry S. Truman Library, Independence, Missouri; Martin, RTAA - House, 1947, 974.
53. Congressional Record - Senate 93:1 (27 January 1947), Morse, 607-9; toga in Willard L. Thorp Oral History, p. 93, Harry S. Truman Library, Independence, Missouri; Martin, RTAA - House, 1947, 974.
54. Brief Opposing Reduction in Tariff on Canned Sardines, RTAA - House, 1947, 645-44; American Glassware Association to the Committee for Reciprocity Information, 29 January 1947, RTAA - House, 1947, 811. See also W. B. Trieker (mineralogist) to Senator Douglas, 17 January 1947, Helen Gahagan Douglas Collection, box 39:3, Carl Albert Research Center, University of Oklahoma, Norman.
55. Congressional Record - House 93:2 (26 February 1947), 1469-73.
56. Summary Reports of 30 December 1946, 6 and 20 January 1947, ITF, box 23.
57. Kaplan, American Trade Policy, 16, 50.
58. Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department (New York, 1969), 96. See also "Spring Flower," Time 49:5 (3 February 1947): 19. Millikin had opposed the Bretton Woods monetary accords and the British loan but backed UN aid programs and increased Export-Import Bank lending authority.
59. Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department (New York, 1969), 96. See also "Spring Flower," Time 49:5 (3 February 1947): 19. Millikin had opposed the Bretton Woods monetary accords and the British loan but backed UN aid programs and increased Export-Import Bank lending authority.
60. Acheson, Present, 200; also Kelly, Studies, 124-27.
61. Acheson, Present, 200; also Kelly, Studies, 124-27.
62. "The Vandenberg Tariff," The Economist 152:5403 (15 March 1947): 377; Summary Report of 24 February 1947, ITF, box 23.
63. Vandenberg to Sinclair Weeks, 3 January 1947, Arthur Vandenberg Papers, reel 4, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor; Kelly, Studies, 127. See also "Tariff Compromise," Business Week 914 (8 March 1947): 18.
64. Vandenberg to Sinclair Weeks, 3 January 1947, Arthur Vandenberg Papers, reel 4, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor; Kelly, Studies, 127. See also "Tariff Compromise," Business Week 914 (8 March 1947): 18.
65. F.W. Marten, 10 February 1947, FO 371 62283, UE831/37/53; Jones, Fifteen Weeks, 99.
66. RTAA - House, 1947, 1329.
67. Reston, "The Real Test is the Economic Peace," The New York Times Magazine, 9 February 1947, Clark Clifford Papers, box 157; President's Speech Files, Truman Library;
68. Clayton, RTAA -House, 1947, 4.
69. Marshall to Knutson, 28 February 1947, Daniel Reed Papers, box 1, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY; Address on Foreign Economic Policy, 6 March 1947, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Harry S. Truman, 1947 (Washington, 1963), 167-72; Harsch in Initial Press and Radio Reactions to the President's Speech, 6 March 1947, OPOS, box 48.
70. Fortune poll in Summary Report of 3 March 1947, ITF, box 23; National Opinion Research Council (NORC) survey 156 DU-1, 25 May 1948, NORC Records, University of Chicago; report on hearings on ITO Charter, March 1947, ITF, box 22; Kelly, Studies, 128-29.
71. Donald B. Calder (American embassy) to Secretary of State and Enclosures, 29 May 1947, Central Decimal Files, RG 59, 560.AL/5-2947; Fredrick J. Dobney, Selected Papers of Will Clayton (Baltimore, 1971), 204-5. See also A. Imtiaz Hussein, Politics of Compensation: Truman, the Wool Bill of 1947, and the Shaping of Postwar U.S. Trade Policy (New York, 1993).
72. Donald B. Calder (American embassy) to Secretary of State and Enclosures, 29 May 1947, Central Decimal Files, RG 59, 560.AL/5-2947; Fredrick J. Dobney, Selected Papers of Will Clayton (Baltimore, 1971), 204-5. See also A. Imtiaz Hussein, Politics of Compensation: Truman, the Wool Bill of 1947, and the Shaping of Postwar U.S. Trade Policy (New York, 1993).
73. Marshall to Senator George Aiken (Hull and Stimson letters), 4 June 1947, Records of the Executive Secretariat, Dean Acheson (RES - Acheson), RG 59, box 1. See also Congressional Quarterly - Almanac 3 (1947): 181.
74. Vandenberg to Edward O'Neal, American Farm Bureau Federation, 20 June 1947, Vandenberg Papers, reel 4; veto of the Wool Act, 26 June 1947, Public Papers, Truman: 1047, 309-10. See also Marshall to the president, 30 July 1947, White House Central Files, Confidential Files, box 51, Truman Library. For Australian actions see [Prime Minister Ben] Chifley to [Minister for Post-war Reconstruction] John Dedman, 12 August 1947, 20/2/8, Series AA1974/156/1, GATT Trade Negotiations and Agreements Files, 20/2/portion, CA 64, Department of Trade (I), Central Office, Australian Archives. U.S. interests in O'Mahoney to Marshall, 17 July 1947, O'Mahoney Papers, box 40.
75. Walter Lippmann, Today and Tomorrow, 3 May 1948, in Melvin Fox memorandum to Rachel Bell, Douglas Collection, box 69. See also Kelly, Studies, 129-30; Vandenberg to Mrs. Don S. Connor, 16 December 1947, Vandenberg Papers, reel 4. The president was required to inform Congress it he decided to drop a tariff below peril point.
76. Walter Lippmann, Today and Tomorrow, 3 May 1948, in Melvin Fox memorandum to Rachel Bell, Douglas Collection, box 69. See also Kelly, Studies, 129-30; Vandenberg to Mrs. Don S. Connor, 16 December 1947, Vandenberg Papers, reel 4. The president was required to inform Congress it he decided to drop a tariff below peril point.
77. Congressional Record - Houses 94:5 (26 May 1948), Keating, 6535; Congressional Record-Appendix 94:11 (25 May 1948), Herter, A3288. Vandenberg in Congressional Quarterly - Almanac 4 (1948): 191-92.
78. Congressional Record - Houses 94:5 (26 May 1948), Keating, 6535; Congressional Record-Appendix 94:11 (25 May 1948), Herter, A3288. Vandenberg in Congressional Quarterly - Almanac 4 (1948): 191-92.
79. Congressional Record - Houses 94:5 (26 May 1948), Keating, 6535; Congressional Record-Appendix 94:11 (25 May 1948), Herter, A3288. Vandenberg in Congressional Quarterly - Almanac 4 (1948): 191-92.
80. Dobney, Selected Papers of Will Clayton, 215.
81. Statement by the president, 26 June 1948, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Harry S. Truman, 1948 (Washington, 1964), 385.
82. Address in Philadelphia, 15 July 1948, ibid., 407; Address at Bonham, Texas, 27 September 1948, ibid., 592-95; Address at Dexter, Iowa, 18 September 1948, ibid., 504.
83. Robert Lovett to the president, 10 November 1948, President's Office File, Harry S. Truman Papers, box 899, Truman Library.
84. Quoted in Mark Rupert, Producing Hegemony: The Politics of Mass Production and American Global Power (Cambridge, England, 1995), 46.
85. Diebold, "The End of the ITO," 5-6.
86. Philip Cortney, The Economic Munich: The ITO Charter (New York, 1949). Peak business organizations, including the National Association of Manufacturers, the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, and the National Foreign Trade Council, denounced the ITO.
87. Address in Philadelphia, 29 August 1949, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Harry S. Truman, 1949 (Washington, 1964), 450-51.
88. Leroy Stinebower Oral History, pp. 37-38, Truman Library. See also Pollard, Economic Security, 222-42.
89. Leroy Stinebower Oral History, pp. 37-38, Truman Library. See also Pollard, Economic Security, 222-42.
90. Acheson to the president, 20 November 1950, RES - Acheson Records, box 4; O'Gara to Byroade, 6 December 1950, RG 59, 394.ITO/12-650.
91. Forrestal to Robert Doughton, 28 January 1949, U.S. Congress, House Committee on Ways and Means, 1949 Extension of the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act, 81st Cong., 1st sess., 1949, 387; Congressional Record - Senate 95:10 (7 September 1949), Robertson, 12623.
92. Forrestal to Robert Doughton, 28 January 1949, U.S. Congress, House Committee on Ways and Means, 1949 Extension of the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act, 81st Cong., 1st sess., 1949, 387; Congressional Record - Senate 95:10 (7 September 1949), Robertson, 12623.
93. Kaplan, American Trade Policy, 143, 149. Clinton placed NAFTA within his larger national economic strategy but called on Jimmy Carter, James Baker, and Henry Kissinger to show the importance of liberal trade to international politics and security.
94. Patrick Buchanan, Memorandum for the President's File, Leadership Meeting, 16 November 1971, Record Number 71698, National Security Archive (NSA), George Washington University, Washington, DC. See also Eckes, Opening America's Market, 144-209.
95. Thomas W. Zeiler, American Trade and Power in the 1960s (New York, 1992), 75-76, 89-91, 108-10.
96. Rupert, Producing Hegemony, 176-77;
97. Bennett Harrison and Barry Bluestone, The Great U-Turn. Corporate Restructuring and the Polarizing of America (New York, 1988), 8-9. Imports were 3.8 percent of the GNP in 1949 and 4.1 percent in 1970; exports (excluding U.S. multinationals) hovered around 4 percent. Auto imports rose from 4 percent to 17 percent over that period; electronics shot from 4 percent to 51 percent.
98. U.S. Department of Commerce, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970: Part II (Washington, 1975), 884. See also Cletus C. Coughlin, K. Alec Chrystal, and Geoffrey E. Wood, "Protectionist Trade Policies: A Survey of Theory, Evidence, and Rationale," in International Political Economy: Perspectives on Global Power and Wealth, ed. Jeffry A. Frieden and David A. Lake, 2d ed. (New York, 1991), 23-32.
99. U.S. Department of Commerce, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970: Part II (Washington, 1975), 884. See also Cletus C. Coughlin, K. Alec Chrystal, and Geoffrey E. Wood, "Protectionist Trade Policies: A Survey of Theory, Evidence, and Rationale," in International Political Economy: Perspectives on Global Power and Wealth, ed. Jeffry A. Frieden and David A. Lake, 2d ed. (New York, 1991), 23-32.
100. George Soule, "Foreign Trade After the War," New Republic 103:1 (1 July 1940): 22. See also Kelly, Studies, 105-21; Burton I. Kaufman, Trade and Aid: Eisenbower's Foreign Economic Policy, 1953-1961 (Baltimore, 1982); and Eckes, Opening America's Market, 162-274.
101. George Soule, "Foreign Trade After the War," New Republic 103:1 (1 July 1940): 22. See also Kelly, Studies, 105-21; Burton I. Kaufman, Trade and Aid: Eisenbower's Foreign Economic Policy, 1953-1961 (Baltimore, 1982); and Eckes, Opening America's Market, 162-274.
102. George Soule, "Foreign Trade After the War," New Republic 103:1 (1 July 1940): 22. See also Kelly, Studies, 105-21; Burton I. Kaufman, Trade and Aid: Eisenbower's Foreign Economic Policy, 1953-1961 (Baltimore, 1982); and Eckes, Opening America's Market, 162-274.
103. George Soule, "Foreign Trade After the War," New Republic 103:1 (1 July 1940): 22. See also Kelly, Studies, 105-21; Burton I. Kaufman, Trade and Aid: Eisenbower's Foreign Economic Policy, 1953-1961 (Baltimore, 1982); and Eckes, Opening America's Market, 162-274.
104. See Michael J. Hogan, "Corporatism: A Positive Appraisal," Diplomatic History 10 (Fall 1986): 363-72.
105. Victor A. Mack, background paper, "U.S. Trade Problems and Policies," 11 March 1969, Record Number 28668, NSA.