Colonial Knowledge and the Fate of Hindustani

Comparative Studies in Society and History

Volumn 35, Issue 4, 1993, Pages 665-682

  Lelyveld, David ^a  

^a Howard Hughes Medical Institute   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0347633497     PISSN: 00104175     EISSN: 14752999     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0010417500018661     Document Type: Article

References (73)

1. Paul Scott, A Division of the Spoils (New York: Avon Books, 1979), 616.
2. The manifesto of the “conceptual systems” project was by David L. Szanton, “South and Southeast Asia: New Concerns of the Council,” Items [newsletter of the Social Science Research Council], vol. 30:2 (June 1976), 13-17.
3. Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Pantheon, 1978)
4. Gayatri Chakravarty Spivak, “Can the Subaltern Speak?,” in Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg, eds. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988), 271-313
5. cf. Benita Parry, “Problems in Current Theories of Colonial Discourse,” Oxford Literary Review, vol. 9:27-58.
6. Important full-length studies of colonial discourse in the South Asian context are Gauri Viswantahn, Masks of Conquest: Literary Study and British Rule in India (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989)
7. Ronald Inden, Imagining India (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990). Sara Suleri argues that there is a powerful Indian presence that infiltrates and subverts even the most hegemonic British texts.
8. See her book, The Rhetoric of English India (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1992).
9. For example, Francis Robinson, “Islam and Muslim Society in South Asia,” Contributions to Indian Sociology, 17 (1983), 185-203
10. “Islam and Muslim Separatism” in Political Identity in South Asia, David Taylor and Malcolm Yapp, eds. (London: Curzon Press, 1979), 78-112.
11. See Paul R. Brass's contribution to “the Robinson-Brass debate” in his “Elite Groups, Symbol Manipulation and Ethnic Identity among the Muslims of South Asia,” in Taylor and Yapp, Political Identity, 35-77
12. Religion, Language and Politics in Northern India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974).
13. Anil Seal, The Emergence of Indian Nationalism: Competition and Collaboration in the Later Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), the initial work of what was briefly known as “the Cambridge school” of South Asian history.
14. See Sarah Grey Thomason and Terrence Kaufman, Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 1-109.
15. Uriel Weinreich, William Labov, and Marvin Herzog, “Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change,” in Directions for Historical Linguistics, W. Lehman and Y. Malkiel, eds. (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1968), 97-195
16. Gillian Sankoff, The Social Life of Language (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1980), 29-46.
17. For my first attempts in this direction, see “Urdu as a Public Language,” in Systems of Communication and Interaction, Peter Gaeffke and Susan Oleksiw, eds. (Philadelphia: South Asia Regional Studies, University of Pennsylvania, 1981)
18. “Eloquence and Authority in Urdu: Poetry, Oratory and Film,” in Shari at and Ambiguity in South Asian Islam, Katherine Ewing, ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).
19. M. K. Gandhi, Our Language Problem, A. T. Hingorani, ed. (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, n.d.)
20. This was pointed out by Rajendralala Mitra in “On the Origins of the Hindvi Language and its Relation to the Urdu Dialect,” Journal of the Asiatic Society, vol. 33 (1865), 513-518.
21. David Shulman, “Muslim Popular Literature in Tamil: the Tamimancari Malai,” in Islam in Asia, Yohanan Friedmann, ed. (Boulder: Westview Press, 1984), 174-207
22. Asim Roy, The Islamic Syncretist Tradition in Bengal (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), 8-15.
23. (Reprint ed. Mentson, England: The Scolar Press, 1967).
24. See Tej K. Bhatia, A History of the Hindi Grammatical Tradition (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1987), 16-77.
25. Bernard Cohn, “The Command of Language and the Language of Command,” in Ranajit Guha, ed., Subaltern Studies IV (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1985), 276-329.I am of course heavily indebted to Cohn, but I will briefly go over the same ground to make some additional points.
26. See Michel Foucault, The Order of Things (New York: Vintage, 1973), 294-300.
27. This is part of the lengthy subtitle of Gilchrist, The Stranger's Infallible East-lndian Guide, third ed. (London: Kingsbury, Parbury, and Allen, 1820).
28. Quoted in M. Atique Siddiqi, Origins of Modern Hindustani Literature (Aligarh: Naya Kitab Garh, 1963), 49.
29. Sadiq-Ur-Rahman Kidwai, Gilchrist and the “Language of Hindoostan” (New Delhi: Rachna Prakashan, 1972), 37-43.
30. Siddiqi, Origins, 49-50.
31. Siddiqi, Origins, 63.
32. Gilchrist, The Stranger's Infallible East-Indian Guide, xiii-xiv.
33. Siddiqi, Origins, 155.
34. Quoted in Kidwai, Gilchrist, 90-91.
35. Kidwai, Gilchrist, 89-96
36. Siddiqi, Origins, 153-155
37. Sisir Kumar Das, Sahibs and Munshis: An Account of the College at Fort William (New Delhi: Orion, 1978), 65, 82-84.
38. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (London: Verso, 1983)
39. Lucien Febvre and Henri-Jean Martin, The Coming of the Book (London: New Left Books, 1976).
40. There is considerable controversy about the influence and popularity of the Fort William College publications. See Frances W. Pritchett, Marvelous Encounters: Folk Romance in Urdu and Hindi (New Delhi: Manohar, 1985), 21-22.
41. John Borthwick Gilchrist, Parliamentary Reform, on Constitutional Principles (Glasgow: W. Lang, 1815)
42. Kidwai, Gilchrist, 57.
43. Hans Aarsleff, The Study of Language in England, 1780-1860 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967), 44-72
44. Olivia Smith, The Politics of Language, 1791-1819 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), 110-153.
45. In addition to Eric Stokes, The English Utilitarians and India (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959)
46. Lynn B. Zastoupil, John Stuart Mill and India (Stanford: Stanford University Press, forthcoming).
47. Christopher Rolland King, “The Nagari Pracharini Sabha (Society for the Promotion of the Nagari Script and Language) of Benares, 1893-1914: A Study in the Social and Political History of the Hindi Language” (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms, 1974).
48. GOI Home/Political 311-329, 1887; reprinted in R. A. Singh, “Inquiries into the Spoken Languages, of India, from Early Times to the Census of 1901,” Census of India (1961), vol. I, pt. XI-C(i).
49. GOI Home/Public A, 43-54, 1886, in R. A. Singh, Inquiries, 126; see also 267-71.
50. GOI, Finance and Commerce/Bonuses and Honorariums 143, 1887, in Singh, Inquiries, 133.
51. GOI Home/Public, 253-279 (KW N.P.), in Singh, Inquiries, 178-81.
52. Linguistic Survey of India, vol. IX, Pt. I (Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, 1916), 42-56.
53. For a critique of the methodology of the LSI, see John J. Gumperz, Language in Social Groups (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1971), 1-11.
54. Singh, Inquiries, 107-114.
55. See Grierson, The Linguistic Survey of India and the Census of 1911 (Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, 1919)
56. Index of Language Names (Calcutta: Superintendent of Printing, 1920) and the General Reports in the 1901, 1911, and 1921 censuses.
57. J. A. Baines, “General Report,” Census of India, 1891 in Singh, Inquiries, 319-320.
58. Risley, The People of India (Calcutta: Thacker, Spink and Co., 1915), 8-10.
59. L. Middleton and S. M. Jacob, Report: Punjab and Delhi, Census of India, 1921, vol. XV, Pt. I (Lahore: Civil and Military Gazette Press, 1923), 310-312
60. Bernard S. Cohn, “The Census, Social Structure and Objectification in South Asia” [1970], in his An Anthropologist among the Historians and Other Essays (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1987), 250
61. Aligarh's First Generation, 9-16.
62. Durga Das, ed., Sardar Patel's Correspondence, 1945-50, vol. IV (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House 1972), 60-91.
63. The relevant records are in the archives of All-India Radio, New Delhi; see also H. R. Luthra, Indian Broadcasting (New Delhi: Publications Division), 255-273.
64. I have discussed this at greater length in “Transmitters and Culture: The Colonial Roots of Indian Broadcasting,” South Asia Research, 10:1 (May 1990), 41-52.
65. See correspondence between Bukhari and S. N. Aggarwal of the Hindustani Prachar Sabha, Wardha, in P(1)2-5/45, 1945 (AIR Archives).
66. Richards and C. K. Ogden, The Meaning of Meaning, 10th ed. (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1966) and numerous other works
67. D. Terrence Langendoen, The London School of Linguistics: A Study of the Linguistic Theories of B. Malinowski and J. R. Firth (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1968), 37-48. Bukhari's essays are collected in Patras ke Muzamin (Lahore: Maktaba-i Urdu-i Adab, n.d.)
68. His brother's autobiography, Zulfiqar Ali Bukhari, Sarguzisht (Karachi: Ma'arif, 1966).
69. Directorate-General, All India Radio, “Basic Plan for the Development of Broadcasting in India” (first draft, November 1944; revised, September 1945) in Home-Public 179/1946 (National Archives of India).
70. See Bernard S. Cohn, “Regions Subjective and Objective: Their Relation to the Study of Modern Indian History” [1967], in his Anthropologist Among the Historians, 100-135.
71. See Aijaz Ahmad, “Some Reflections on Urdu,” Seminar (No. 359), “Literature and Society” (July 1989), 23-29.