Artificial limbs and industrial workers' bodies in turn-of-the-century Pittsburgh

Journal of Social History

Volumn 37, Issue 2, 2003, Pages

  Slavishak, Edward ^a,b  

^a SUSQUEHANNA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b Department of History ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0347600357     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh.2003.0195     Document Type: Review

References (88)

1. Crystal Eastman, Work-Accidents and the Law (New York, 1910), 149.
2. A. A. Marks, Manual of Artificial Limbs - Copiously Illustrated - An Exhaustive Exposition of Prosthesis (New York, 1914), 267.
3. For other contemporary criticisms, see Arthur B. Reeve, "Our Industrial Juggernaut," Everybody's Magazine 16 (February 1907): 147-57; and William Hard, "Making Steel and Killing Men," Everybody's Magazine XVII (November 1907): 579-93. For an excellent overview of intellectuals' concerns about industrialization, see James B. Gilbert, Work Without Salvation: America's Intellectuals and Industrial Alienation, 1880-1910 (Baltimore, 1977). The best scholarly work on the Pittsburgh Survey is Maurine W. Greenwald and Margo Anderson, eds., Pittsburgh Surveyed: Social Science and Social Reform in the Early Twentieth Century (Pittsburgh, 1996).
4. For other contemporary criticisms, see Arthur B. Reeve, "Our Industrial Juggernaut," Everybody's Magazine 16 (February 1907): 147-57; and William Hard, "Making Steel and Killing Men," Everybody's Magazine XVII (November 1907): 579-93. For an excellent overview of intellectuals' concerns about industrialization, see James B. Gilbert, Work Without Salvation: America's Intellectuals and Industrial Alienation, 1880-1910 (Baltimore, 1977). The best scholarly work on the Pittsburgh Survey is Maurine W. Greenwald and Margo Anderson, eds., Pittsburgh Surveyed: Social Science and Social Reform in the Early Twentieth Century (Pittsburgh, 1996).
5. For other contemporary criticisms, see Arthur B. Reeve, "Our Industrial Juggernaut," Everybody's Magazine 16 (February 1907): 147-57; and William Hard, "Making Steel and Killing Men," Everybody's Magazine XVII (November 1907): 579-93. For an excellent overview of intellectuals' concerns about industrialization, see James B. Gilbert, Work Without Salvation: America's Intellectuals and Industrial Alienation, 1880-1910 (Baltimore, 1977). The best scholarly work on the Pittsburgh Survey is Maurine W. Greenwald and Margo Anderson, eds., Pittsburgh Surveyed: Social Science and Social Reform in the Early Twentieth Century (Pittsburgh, 1996).
6. For other contemporary criticisms, see Arthur B. Reeve, "Our Industrial Juggernaut," Everybody's Magazine 16 (February 1907): 147-57; and William Hard, "Making Steel and Killing Men," Everybody's Magazine XVII (November 1907): 579-93. For an excellent overview of intellectuals' concerns about industrialization, see James B. Gilbert, Work Without Salvation: America's Intellectuals and Industrial Alienation, 1880-1910 (Baltimore, 1977). The best scholarly work on the Pittsburgh Survey is Maurine W. Greenwald and Margo Anderson, eds., Pittsburgh Surveyed: Social Science and Social Reform in the Early Twentieth Century (Pittsburgh, 1996).
7. On the ways in which local civic leaders sculpted images of the city, see Anthony N. Penna, "Changing Images of Twentieth-Century Pittsburgh," Pennsylvania History 43 (January 1976): 48-63.
8. S. J. Kleinberg, The Shadow of the Mills: Working-Class Families in Pittsburgh, 18701907 (Pittsburgh, 1989), 28, 31. Hamlin Garland's 1894 article on Homestead steel-making was one of the first national chronicles of local industrial hazards. See Hamlin Garland, "Homestead and its Perilous Trades," McClure's Magazine 3 (June 1894): 2-20.
9. S. J. Kleinberg, The Shadow of the Mills: Working-Class Families in Pittsburgh, 18701907 (Pittsburgh, 1989), 28, 31. Hamlin Garland's 1894 article on Homestead steel-making was one of the first national chronicles of local industrial hazards. See Hamlin Garland, "Homestead and its Perilous Trades," McClure's Magazine 3 (June 1894): 2-20.
10. Figures are based on an analysis of the Annual Report of the Factory Inspector of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (Harrisburg, 1895-1903).
11. Allegheny County, Office of the Coroner, "Record of Inquests Held," 1899-1915, in Pennsylvania State Archives, Harrisburg.
12. This analysis of steel industry accidents is based on First Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor and Industry, 1913-14, Part II (Harrisburg, 1915), 15. The commissioner's report examined 18, 931 accidents reported in 1914.
13. Workers' key to mill safety, according to the General Safety Committee of the Carnegie Steel Company, was to avoid "cylinder heads, belts, gears, shears, scrap drops, saws, flying shears, and any kind of moving machinery" unless necessitated by the nature of their occupation." Few jobs inside or outside Pittsburgh steel mills afforded workers the opportunity to keep away from such hazards, yet the spirit of comprehensive vigilance remained on the top of safety engineers' list of effective practices. See Carnegie Steel Company, "General Instructions to Employees to Avoid Accidents, March 1917," William J. Gaughan collection. Archives of Industrial Society, Archives Service Center, University of Pittsburgh.
14. Annual Report of the Factory Inspector of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (Harrisburg, 1893), 291-2. During the 1910s, the socialist weekly Justice published such brief descriptions of deaths in Pittsburgh workplaces as a standard feature or its call for industrial reforms.
15. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Coal-Mine Fatalities in the United States, 1870-1914, by Albert H. Fay, Bulletin 115 (Washington, D.C., 1916), 8. These figures represent only those accidents that were reported officially to the state's mine inspectors; thus, they probably underreport deaths in mines during these thirty-four years. The inspectors themselves were skeptical about the accuracy of their statistics, noting that they were dependent upon the honesty of coal companies. See Annual Report of the Factory Inspector of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (Harrisburg, 1905), 4.
16. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Coal-Mine Fatalities in the United States, 1870-1914, by Albert H. Fay, Bulletin 115 (Washington, D.C., 1916), 8. These figures represent only those accidents that were reported officially to the state's mine inspectors; thus, they probably underreport deaths in mines during these thirty-four years. The inspectors themselves were skeptical about the accuracy of their statistics, noting that they were dependent upon the honesty of coal companies. See Annual Report of the Factory Inspector of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (Harrisburg, 1905), 4.
17. Muriel Sheppard, Cloud by Day: The Story of Coal and Coke and People (Chapel Hill, 1947), 154.
18. Annual Report of the Secretary of Internal Affairs of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (Harrisburg, 1880), 289.
19. Frederick L. Hoffman, "Accidents in Bituminous (Pennsylvania) Mines," Coal Age 27 (27 July 1912): 120-1.
20. Ibid., 120-1.
21. William Gibbons, Those Block Diamond Men: A Tale of the Anthrax Valley (New York, 1902), 141.
22. Robert Watchorn, "The Cost of Coal in Human Life," Outlook 92 (22 May 1909): 176.
23. Interview with Ignacy Mendyk, Series 2, Tape 13, Pittsburgh Oral History Project, Library and Archives Division, Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania, Pittsburgh.
24. Amalgamated Journal, 20 October 1910.
25. On the double logic of prostheses, see Mark Seltzer, Bodies and Machines (New York, 1992), 60.
26. Cities of Pittsburgh and Allegheny: Leading Merchants and Manufacturers (New York, 1886), 193; Directory of Pittsburgh and Allegheny Cities (Pittsburgh, 1900); Pittsburgh Directory (Pittsburgh, 1910). In 1909, the Pittsburgh Sun listed two other sources for artificial limbs - Forster Artificial Limb Company and Pittsburgh Physicians Supply Company. Neither was listed a year later in the city directory. Of the companies located in Pittsburgh, J. F. Rowley had the widest national reach; apart from its Chicago headquarters and Pittsburgh office, Rowley also had branch offices in St. Louis, Kansas City, Omaha, Indianapolis, Cincinnati, and Detroit.
27. Cities of Pittsburgh and Allegheny: Leading Merchants and Manufacturers (New York, 1886), 193; Directory of Pittsburgh and Allegheny Cities (Pittsburgh, 1900); Pittsburgh Directory (Pittsburgh, 1910). In 1909, the Pittsburgh Sun listed two other sources for artificial limbs - Forster Artificial Limb Company and Pittsburgh Physicians Supply Company. Neither was listed a year later in the city directory. Of the companies located in Pittsburgh, J. F. Rowley had the widest national reach; apart from its Chicago headquarters and Pittsburgh office, Rowley also had branch offices in St. Louis, Kansas City, Omaha, Indianapolis, Cincinnati, and Detroit.
28. Cities of Pittsburgh and Allegheny: Leading Merchants and Manufacturers (New York, 1886), 193; Directory of Pittsburgh and Allegheny Cities (Pittsburgh, 1900); Pittsburgh Directory (Pittsburgh, 1910). In 1909, the Pittsburgh Sun listed two other sources for artificial limbs - Forster Artificial Limb Company and Pittsburgh Physicians Supply Company. Neither was listed a year later in the city directory. Of the companies located in Pittsburgh, J. F. Rowley had the widest national reach; apart from its Chicago headquarters and Pittsburgh office, Rowley also had branch offices in St. Louis, Kansas City, Omaha, Indianapolis, Cincinnati, and Detroit.
29. A particularly consistent and lengthy run of ALMC advertisements can be found in the Commoner and Labor Herald in the summer and autumn of 1887. For representative advertisements from other manufacturers, see Pittsburgh Sun, 14 December 1909; Justice, 11 October 1913; Iron City Trades Journal, 21 May 1909, 4 June 1909.
30. A particularly consistent and lengthy run of ALMC advertisements can be found in the Commoner and Labor Herald in the summer and autumn of 1887. For representative advertisements from other manufacturers, see Pittsburgh Sun, 14 December 1909; Justice, 11 October 1913; Iron City Trades Journal, 21 May 1909, 4 June 1909.
31. A particularly consistent and lengthy run of ALMC advertisements can be found in the Commoner and Labor Herald in the summer and autumn of 1887. For representative advertisements from other manufacturers, see Pittsburgh Sun, 14 December 1909; Justice, 11 October 1913; Iron City Trades Journal, 21 May 1909, 4 June 1909.
32. Catalogues were not clear reflections of the aspirations of the injured, nor were they merely evil manipulations concocted to dupe the gullible. Instead, catalogues can best be characterized as collections of images seen through the distortions of a funhouse mirror, a metaphor used by Roland Marchand to explain American advertising's representational strategies between the World Wars. Marchand argued that American print advertisements skewed social realities, amplifying certain desires and fears while eliding any solutions to consumers' problems that did not involve a purchase. See Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley, 1985), xvi. These kinds of appeal were not new at the turn of the century; as Lisa Herschbach has shown, limb-makers marketed their goods after the Civil War with similar themes of illusion, dignity, and utility. What was new after 1900, however, was the ideal figure upon whom limb-makers staked their claim to mechanical achievement. By the turn of the century, the diligent industrial worker had replaced earlier models of physical ability such as the craftsman, the farmer, and the ship captain as the main protagonist in manufacturers' tales of bodily reconstruction. See Lisa Herschbach, "Fragmentation and Reunion: Medicine, Memory, and Body in the American Civil War," (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1997), 102.
33. Catalogues were not clear reflections of the aspirations of the injured, nor were they merely evil manipulations concocted to dupe the gullible. Instead, catalogues can best be characterized as collections of images seen through the distortions of a funhouse mirror, a metaphor used by Roland Marchand to explain American advertising's representational strategies between the World Wars. Marchand argued that American print advertisements skewed social realities, amplifying certain desires and fears while eliding any solutions to consumers' problems that did not involve a purchase. See Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley, 1985), xvi. These kinds of appeal were not new at the turn of the century; as Lisa Herschbach has shown, limb-makers marketed their goods after the Civil War with similar themes of illusion, dignity, and utility. What was new after 1900, however, was the ideal figure upon whom limb-makers staked their claim to mechanical achievement. By the turn of the century, the diligent industrial worker had replaced earlier models of physical ability such as the craftsman, the farmer, and the ship captain as the main protagonist in manufacturers' tales of bodily reconstruction. See Lisa Herschbach, "Fragmentation and Reunion: Medicine, Memory, and Body in the American Civil War," (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1997), 102.
34. A. A. Marks, 4.
35. David D. Yuan, "Disfigurement and Reconstruction in Oliver Wendell Holmes's 'The Human Wheel, Its Spokes and Felloes,'" in The Body and Physical Difference: Discourses of Disability, ed. David T. Mitchell and Sharon L. Snyder (Ann Arbor, 1997), 72.
36. Rosemarie Garland Thomson, "Seeing the Disabled: Visual Rhetorics of Disability in Popular Photography," in The New Disability History: American Perspectives, ed. Paul K. Longmore and Lauri Umanksi (New York, 2001), 347. Hine's photographs appeared in both Eastman's study and John A. Fitch, The Steel Workers (New York, 1910). For an analysis of Hine's Survey photographs, see Maurine W. Greenwald, "Visualizing Pittsburgh in the 1900s: Art and Photography in the Service of Social Reform," in Greenwald and Anderson, 124-52.
37. Rosemarie Garland Thomson, "Seeing the Disabled: Visual Rhetorics of Disability in Popular Photography," in The New Disability History: American Perspectives, ed. Paul K. Longmore and Lauri Umanksi (New York, 2001), 347. Hine's photographs appeared in both Eastman's study and John A. Fitch, The Steel Workers (New York, 1910). For an analysis of Hine's Survey photographs, see Maurine W. Greenwald, "Visualizing Pittsburgh in the 1900s: Art and Photography in the Service of Social Reform," in Greenwald and Anderson, 124-52.
38. Rosemarie Garland Thomson, "Seeing the Disabled: Visual Rhetorics of Disability in Popular Photography," in The New Disability History: American Perspectives, ed. Paul K. Longmore and Lauri Umanksi (New York, 2001), 347. Hine's photographs appeared in both Eastman's study and John A. Fitch, The Steel Workers (New York, 1910). For an analysis of Hine's Survey photographs, see Maurine W. Greenwald, "Visualizing Pittsburgh in the 1900s: Art and Photography in the Service of Social Reform," in Greenwald and Anderson, 124-52.
39. Yuan, 73-5; Feick Brothers, Illustrated Catalogue and Price List of Swrgical Instruments, third edition (Pittsburgh, 1896), 552.
40. Yuan, 73-5; Feick Brothers, Illustrated Catalogue and Price List of Swrgical Instruments, third edition (Pittsburgh, 1896), 552.
41. A. A. Marks, 183.
42. J. F. Rowley, An Illustrated Treatise on Artificial Legs (Chicago, 1911), 84.
43. A. A. Marks, 248.
44. National Labor Tribune, 11 June 1887.
45. Feick Brothers, 552.
46. A. A. Marks, 18. Marks noted that "kinetoscopic photography affords the most valuable aid to an investigation of the knee and ankle joints when performing their functions." For discussions of chronophotography and its uses in scientific management, see Anson Rabinbach, The Human Motor: Energy, Fatigue, and the Origins of Modernity (New York, 1990); Marta Braun, "Marey and the Organization of Work," in Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830-1904) (Chicago, 1992), 320-48; and John Pultz, The Body and the Lens: Photography 1839 to the Present (New York, 1995), 30.
47. A. A. Marks, 18. Marks noted that "kinetoscopic photography affords the most valuable aid to an investigation of the knee and ankle joints when performing their functions." For discussions of chronophotography and its uses in scientific management, see Anson Rabinbach, The Human Motor: Energy, Fatigue, and the Origins of Modernity (New York, 1990); Marta Braun, "Marey and the Organization of Work," in Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830-1904) (Chicago, 1992), 320-48; and John Pultz, The Body and the Lens: Photography 1839 to the Present (New York, 1995), 30.
48. A. A. Marks, 18. Marks noted that "kinetoscopic photography affords the most valuable aid to an investigation of the knee and ankle joints when performing their functions." For discussions of chronophotography and its uses in scientific management, see Anson Rabinbach, The Human Motor: Energy, Fatigue, and the Origins of Modernity (New York, 1990); Marta Braun, "Marey and the Organization of Work," in Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830-1904) (Chicago, 1992), 320-48; and John Pultz, The Body and the Lens: Photography 1839 to the Present (New York, 1995), 30.
49. A. A. Marks, 18. Marks noted that "kinetoscopic photography affords the most valuable aid to an investigation of the knee and ankle joints when performing their functions." For discussions of chronophotography and its uses in scientific management, see Anson Rabinbach, The Human Motor: Energy, Fatigue, and the Origins of Modernity (New York, 1990); Marta Braun, "Marey and the Organization of Work," in Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830-1904) (Chicago, 1992), 320-48; and John Pultz, The Body and the Lens: Photography 1839 to the Present (New York, 1995), 30.
50. J. F. Rowley, 24.
51. Ibid., 5.
52. Harlan Hahn, "Advertising the Acceptably Employable Image: Disability and Capitalism," in The Disability Studies Reader, ed. Lennard J. Davis (New York, 1997), 178.
53. J. F. Rowley, 94, connected its "seeing is believing" argument to the authority of photography: "The science of photography is simply holding the mirror up to nature and making permanent the reflection therein, and we may as well say here that a photograph cannot be had of a man in any condition unless the man is there identically as represented . . . In order to place this matter before you so there will be no question of your understanding it thoroughly, we secured the services of one of the most expert artists with a camera in America to take photographs (snap shots), of Rowley wearers in action, running, jumping, making pedal mounts on bicycles, etc. These photographs have been made into engravings by the half-tone process and appear on the following pages, and we will pay one hundred dollars in gold to the man who will prove that they are not made from instantaneous photographs (snap shots), or that they are not an exact reproduction of the man in action." Limb-makers' appeals during the transition period before the turn of the century can be seen in "On Marks' Artificial Limbs," Journal of the Franklin Institute 127 (May 1889): 324-36; and "Marks' Improvements on Artificial Limbs,"Journal of the Franklin Institute 136 (July 1893): 70. Both articles focus on the "natural" appearance of the prosthesis. The Marks firm, one of the most renowned manufacturers in the nation, was established in 1853 and by the early twentieth century owned factories and offices in New York City and several mills in Connecticut.
54. J. F. Rowley, 94, connected its "seeing is believing" argument to the authority of photography: "The science of photography is simply holding the mirror up to nature and making permanent the reflection therein, and we may as well say here that a photograph cannot be had of a man in any condition unless the man is there identically as represented . . . In order to place this matter before you so there will be no question of your understanding it thoroughly, we secured the services of one of the most expert artists with a camera in America to take photographs (snap shots), of Rowley wearers in action, running, jumping, making pedal mounts on bicycles, etc. These photographs have been made into engravings by the half-tone process and appear on the following pages, and we will pay one hundred dollars in gold to the man who will prove that they are not made from instantaneous photographs (snap shots), or that they are not an exact reproduction of the man in action." Limb-makers' appeals during the transition period before the turn of the century can be seen in "On Marks' Artificial Limbs," Journal of the Franklin Institute 127 (May 1889): 324-36; and "Marks' Improvements on Artificial Limbs,"Journal of the Franklin Institute 136 (July 1893): 70. Both articles focus on the "natural" appearance of the prosthesis. The Marks firm, one of the most renowned manufacturers in the nation, was established in 1853 and by the early twentieth century owned factories and offices in New York City and several mills in Connecticut.
55. J. F. Rowley, 94, connected its "seeing is believing" argument to the authority of photography: "The science of photography is simply holding the mirror up to nature and making permanent the reflection therein, and we may as well say here that a photograph cannot be had of a man in any condition unless the man is there identically as represented . . . In order to place this matter before you so there will be no question of your understanding it thoroughly, we secured the services of one of the most expert artists with a camera in America to take photographs (snap shots), of Rowley wearers in action, running, jumping, making pedal mounts on bicycles, etc. These photographs have been made into engravings by the half-tone process and appear on the following pages, and we will pay one hundred dollars in gold to the man who will prove that they are not made from instantaneous photographs (snap shots), or that they are not an exact reproduction of the man in action." Limb-makers' appeals during the transition period before the turn of the century can be seen in "On Marks' Artificial Limbs," Journal of the Franklin Institute 127 (May 1889): 324-36; and "Marks' Improvements on Artificial Limbs,"Journal of the Franklin Institute 136 (July 1893): 70. Both articles focus on the "natural" appearance of the prosthesis. The Marks firm, one of the most renowned manufacturers in the nation, was established in 1853 and by the early twentieth century owned factories and offices in New York City and several mills in Connecticut.
56. A. A. Marks, 143.
57. J. F. Rowley, 80.
58. Ibid., 9.
59. Ibid., 86, 123.
60. Erin O'Connor, "'Fractions of Men': Engendering Amputation in Victorian Culture," Comparative Studies in Society and History 39 (October 1997): 744, 761.
61. A. A. Marks, 106. For comparison with European efforts to reconstruct the war wounded, see Seth Koven, "Remembering and Dismemberment: Crippled Children, Wounded Soldiers, and the Great War in Great Britain," American Historical Review 99 (October 1994): 1169; and Roxanne Panchasi, "Reconstructions: Prosthetics and the Rehabilitation of the Male Body in World War I France," Differences 7 (1995): 110-2.
62. A. A. Marks, 106. For comparison with European efforts to reconstruct the war wounded, see Seth Koven, "Remembering and Dismemberment: Crippled Children, Wounded Soldiers, and the Great War in Great Britain," American Historical Review 99 (October 1994): 1169; and Roxanne Panchasi, "Reconstructions: Prosthetics and the Rehabilitation of the Male Body in World War I France," Differences 7 (1995): 110-2.
63. A. A. Marks, 106. For comparison with European efforts to reconstruct the war wounded, see Seth Koven, "Remembering and Dismemberment: Crippled Children, Wounded Soldiers, and the Great War in Great Britain," American Historical Review 99 (October 1994): 1169; and Roxanne Panchasi, "Reconstructions: Prosthetics and the Rehabilitation of the Male Body in World War I France," Differences 7 (1995): 110-2.
64. A. A. Marks, 15.
65. J. F. Rowley, 12, 44. Amputees were frequently used in turn-of-the-century popular culture as a source of amusement and trickery. On the contemporary use of amputees' prosthetic feats as entertainment in the early twentieth century, see Martin F. Norden, The Cinema of Isolation: A History of Physical Disability in the Movies (New Brunswick, 1994), 8-24. Norden notes that motion pictures such as Don't Pull My Leg (1908), The Empty Sleeve (1909), and Story of a Leg (1910) turned amputees into comic characters and their artificial limbs into props. The films managed to normalize the spectacle of amputees in public but also marginalized them as victims or con-artists.
66. J. F. Rowley, 12, 44. Amputees were frequently used in turn-of-the-century popular culture as a source of amusement and trickery. On the contemporary use of amputees' prosthetic feats as entertainment in the early twentieth century, see Martin F. Norden, The Cinema of Isolation: A History of Physical Disability in the Movies (New Brunswick, 1994), 8-24. Norden notes that motion pictures such as Don't Pull My Leg (1908), The Empty Sleeve (1909), and Story of a Leg (1910) turned amputees into comic characters and their artificial limbs into props. The films managed to normalize the spectacle of amputees in public but also marginalized them as victims or con-artists.
67. Warren Stone Bickham, "Amputations," Surgery: Its Principles and Practice, vol. 5, ed. William Williams Keen (Philadelphia, 1909), 805; E. Muirhead Little, Artificial Limbs and Amputation Stumps: A Practical Handbook (Philadelphia, 1922), 97.
68. Warren Stone Bickham, "Amputations," Surgery: Its Principles and Practice, vol. 5, ed. William Williams Keen (Philadelphia, 1909), 805; E. Muirhead Little, Artificial Limbs and Amputation Stumps: A Practical Handbook (Philadelphia, 1922), 97.
69. William Rideing, "Patched Up Humanity," Appletons' Journal 13 (19 June 1875): 783.
70. Panchasi, 122. The division of artificial limbs in terms of elegance and utility was formalized in the British military distribution system. By the 1910s, England's Ministry of Pensions had divided the artificial arms it provided to accident victims into three categories - heavy workers' arms, light workers' arms, and light dress arms. See Little, 86,122
71. Panchasi, 122. The division of artificial limbs in terms of elegance and utility was formalized in the British military distribution system. By the 1910s, England's Ministry of Pensions had divided the artificial arms it provided to accident victims into three categories - heavy workers' arms, light workers' arms, and light dress arms. See Little, 86,122
72. Feick Brothers, 556; A. A. Marks, 176, 267.
73. Feick Brothers, 556; A. A. Marks, 176, 267.
74. Feick Brothers, 558.
75. A. A. Marks, 224.
76. Herschbach, 92.
77. Rideing, 784.
78. Feick Brothers, 552.
79. A. A. Marks, 257.
80. J. F. Rowley, 123-4.
81. Report of the Commissioner of Labor (Washington, D.C., 1890), 1272-93; J.F.Rowley, 80.
82. Report of the Commissioner of Labor (Washington, D.C., 1890), 1272-93; J.F.Rowley, 80.
83. Eastman, 301-2.
84. Report of the Commissioner of Labor (Washington, D.C., 1909), 518.
85. In a much more indirect way than limb catalogues, the labor press also distributed information on artificial limbs and encouraged a sense of prosthetic affinity. Pittsburgh labor journals tried to foster a grim feeling of camaraderie around the prevalence of amputation and prostheses in working communities. In the autumn of 1913 the Amalgamated Journal, the weekly newspaper of the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers, half-joked that the nation's supply of wood for artificial limbs was running low. "Save your legs!" the editorial board told its readers. The Amalgamated Journal also acted as a cheerleader of sorts, presenting its readers with tales of amputees who had overcome their disabilities to make themselves useful again. The journal told readers of a Long Island artist who, after losing both arms, painted with his mouth. The title of the article, "Works Without Hands," suggested the possibility of social utility even after dismemberment. Like the tightrope walker and the bicycle rider, the armless artist transcended his dismemberment to matter once again. See Amalgamated Journal. 6 October 1904 and 9 October 1913.
86. Eastman, 11-3. In a similar visual strategy, Edwin Bjorkman observed that "the streets of Pittsburgh are crowded with deformed and mutilated human specimens. Rows of crippled beggars crouch near the mill entrances on pay-days." See Edwin Bjorkman, "What Industrial Civilization May Do To Men," World's Work 17 (April 1909): 11494.
87. Eastman, 11-3. In a similar visual strategy, Edwin Bjorkman observed that "the streets of Pittsburgh are crowded with deformed and mutilated human specimens. Rows of crippled beggars crouch near the mill entrances on pay-days." See Edwin Bjorkman, "What Industrial Civilization May Do To Men," World's Work 17 (April 1909): 11494.
88. A. A. Marks, 179.