Balancing Autonomy and Dependence for Community and Nongovernmental Organizations

Social Service Review

Volumn 72, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 47-69

  Silberberg, Mina ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0347597973     PISSN: 00377961     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/515745     Document Type: Article

References (80)

1. David K. Leonard, "Analyzing the Organizational Requirements for Serving the Rural Poor," in Institutions of Rural Development for the Poor: Decentralization and Organizational Linkages, ed. David K. Leonard and Dale Rogers Marshall, Institute of International Studies Research Series no. 49 (Berkeley: Regents of the University of California, 1982), p. 6.
2. Angela Kilian, "Conscientisation: An Empowering, Nonformal Education Approach for Community Health Workers," Community Development Journal 23, no. 2 (April 1, 1988): 117-23; Ricardo Ramírez, "The Application of Adult Education to Community Development," Community Development Journal 25, no. 2 (April 1, 1990): 131-38; Orlando Fals-Borda, "Social Movements and Political Power in Latin America," in The Making of Social Movements in Latin America: Identity, Strategy, and Democracy, ed. Arturo Escobar and Sonia E. Alvarez (Boulder, Colo.: Westview), pp. 303-16.
3. Angela Kilian, "Conscientisation: An Empowering, Nonformal Education Approach for Community Health Workers," Community Development Journal 23, no. 2 (April 1, 1988): 117-23; Ricardo Ramírez, "The Application of Adult Education to Community Development," Community Development Journal 25, no. 2 (April 1, 1990): 131-38; Orlando Fals-Borda, "Social Movements and Political Power in Latin America," in The Making of Social Movements in Latin America: Identity, Strategy, and Democracy, ed. Arturo Escobar and Sonia E. Alvarez (Boulder, Colo.: Westview), pp. 303-16.
4. Angela Kilian, "Conscientisation: An Empowering, Nonformal Education Approach for Community Health Workers," Community Development Journal 23, no. 2 (April 1, 1988): 117-23; Ricardo Ramírez, "The Application of Adult Education to Community Development," Community Development Journal 25, no. 2 (April 1, 1990): 131-38; Orlando Fals-Borda, "Social Movements and Political Power in Latin America," in The Making of Social Movements in Latin America: Identity, Strategy, and Democracy, ed. Arturo Escobar and Sonia E. Alvarez (Boulder, Colo.: Westview), pp. 303-16.
5. Milton J. Esman and Norman T. Uphoff, Local Organizations: Intermediaries in Rural Development (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1984), p. 77.
6. Barney G. Glaser and Anselm Strauss, The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research (Chicago: Aldine, 1967).
7. Magaly Sanchez, "Movilización vecinal" (paper presented for professional advancement, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, n.d.).
8. Michael Coppedge, "Parties and Society in Mexico and Venezuela: Why Competition Matters" (paper presented at the sixteenth International Congress of Latin American Studies Association, Washington, D.C., April 4-6, 1991); David J. Myers, "The Venezuelan Party System: Regime Maintenance under Stress," and David J. Myers and John D. Martz, "Venezuelan Democracy: Performance and Prospects," both in Venezuela: The Democratic Experience, ed. John D. Martz and David J. Myers, rev. ed. (New York: Praeger, 1986), pp. 109-47, 437-68; Daniel H. Levine, "Venezuela since 1958: The Consilidation of Democratic Politics," in The Breakdown of Democracy: Latin America, ed. Juan Linz and Alfred Stepan (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), pp. 82-107; Terry Karl, "Petroleum and Political Pacts: The Transition to Democracy in Venezuela," in Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Latin America, ed. Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 196-237; Talton F. Ray, The Politics of the Barrios of Venezuela (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969).
9. Michael Coppedge, "Parties and Society in Mexico and Venezuela: Why Competition Matters" (paper presented at the sixteenth International Congress of Latin American Studies Association, Washington, D.C., April 4-6, 1991); David J. Myers, "The Venezuelan Party System: Regime Maintenance under Stress," and David J. Myers and John D. Martz, "Venezuelan Democracy: Performance and Prospects," both in Venezuela: The Democratic Experience, ed. John D. Martz and David J. Myers, rev. ed. (New York: Praeger, 1986), pp. 109-47, 437-68; Daniel H. Levine, "Venezuela since 1958: The Consilidation of Democratic Politics," in The Breakdown of Democracy: Latin America, ed. Juan Linz and Alfred Stepan (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), pp. 82-107; Terry Karl, "Petroleum and Political Pacts: The Transition to Democracy in Venezuela," in Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Latin America, ed. Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 196-237; Talton F. Ray, The Politics of the Barrios of Venezuela (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969).
10. Michael Coppedge, "Parties and Society in Mexico and Venezuela: Why Competition Matters" (paper presented at the sixteenth International Congress of Latin American Studies Association, Washington, D.C., April 4-6, 1991); David J. Myers, "The Venezuelan Party System: Regime Maintenance under Stress," and David J. Myers and John D. Martz, "Venezuelan Democracy: Performance and Prospects," both in Venezuela: The Democratic Experience, ed. John D. Martz and David J. Myers, rev. ed. (New York: Praeger, 1986), pp. 109-47, 437-68; Daniel H. Levine, "Venezuela since 1958: The Consilidation of Democratic Politics," in The Breakdown of Democracy: Latin America, ed. Juan Linz and Alfred Stepan (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), pp. 82-107; Terry Karl, "Petroleum and Political Pacts: The Transition to Democracy in Venezuela," in Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Latin America, ed. Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 196-237; Talton F. Ray, The Politics of the Barrios of Venezuela (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969).
11. Michael Coppedge, "Parties and Society in Mexico and Venezuela: Why Competition Matters" (paper presented at the sixteenth International Congress of Latin American Studies Association, Washington, D.C., April 4-6, 1991); David J. Myers, "The Venezuelan Party System: Regime Maintenance under Stress," and David J. Myers and John D. Martz, "Venezuelan Democracy: Performance and Prospects," both in Venezuela: The Democratic Experience, ed. John D. Martz and David J. Myers, rev. ed. (New York: Praeger, 1986), pp. 109-47, 437-68; Daniel H. Levine, "Venezuela since 1958: The Consilidation of Democratic Politics," in The Breakdown of Democracy: Latin America, ed. Juan Linz and Alfred Stepan (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), pp. 82-107; Terry Karl, "Petroleum and Political Pacts: The Transition to Democracy in Venezuela," in Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Latin America, ed. Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 196-237; Talton F. Ray, The Politics of the Barrios of Venezuela (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969).
12. Michael Coppedge, "Parties and Society in Mexico and Venezuela: Why Competition Matters" (paper presented at the sixteenth International Congress of Latin American Studies Association, Washington, D.C., April 4-6, 1991); David J. Myers, "The Venezuelan Party System: Regime Maintenance under Stress," and David J. Myers and John D. Martz, "Venezuelan Democracy: Performance and Prospects," both in Venezuela: The Democratic Experience, ed. John D. Martz and David J. Myers, rev. ed. (New York: Praeger, 1986), pp. 109-47, 437-68; Daniel H. Levine, "Venezuela since 1958: The Consilidation of Democratic Politics," in The Breakdown of Democracy: Latin America, ed. Juan Linz and Alfred Stepan (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), pp. 82-107; Terry Karl, "Petroleum and Political Pacts: The Transition to Democracy in Venezuela," in Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Latin America, ed. Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 196-237; Talton F. Ray, The Politics of the Barrios of Venezuela (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969).
13. Michael Coppedge, "Parties and Society in Mexico and Venezuela: Why Competition Matters" (paper presented at the sixteenth International Congress of Latin American Studies Association, Washington, D.C., April 4-6, 1991); David J. Myers, "The Venezuelan Party System: Regime Maintenance under Stress," and David J. Myers and John D. Martz, "Venezuelan Democracy: Performance and Prospects," both in Venezuela: The Democratic Experience, ed. John D. Martz and David J. Myers, rev. ed. (New York: Praeger, 1986), pp. 109-47, 437-68; Daniel H. Levine, "Venezuela since 1958: The Consilidation of Democratic Politics," in The Breakdown of Democracy: Latin America, ed. Juan Linz and Alfred Stepan (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), pp. 82-107; Terry Karl, "Petroleum and Political Pacts: The Transition to Democracy in Venezuela," in Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Latin America, ed. Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 196-237; Talton F. Ray, The Politics of the Barrios of Venezuela (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969).
14. The description of the origins of the alternative organizations and popular movement is based primarily on interviews of activists, organizers, NGO staff, and others, as well as on the following secondary sources: Nelson Barrios Gonzalez, "El movimiento vecinal: Un movimiento de nuevo tipo?" (Caracas: Instituto Latinoamericano de Investigaciones Sociales, 1987); Luisa Bethencourt G., "Alternatives de expresión popular: Las nuevas organizaciones culturales populares y la politica cultural del estado, 1970-1983" (masters essay, Universidad Central de Venezuela - Centro de Estudios de Desarrollo/Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, February 1986); E. Henry, "The Peruvian State and Regional Crises," in New Social Movements and the State in Latin America, ed. David Slater, Latin American Studies no. 29 (Amsterdam: CEDLA, 1985), pp. 127-46; Juan Carlos Rey, "Perspectivas de la democracia" (paper presented at a conference on the Venezuelan political system, Caracas, February 1981); Daniel H. Levine, "Urbanization, Migrants, and Politics in Venezuela," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 17, no. 3 (August 1975): 358-72; Juan Carlos Navarro M., "Contestación en la iglesia venezolana (1966-1972): Contribución al estudio de los movimientos sociales" (thesis presented to the Universidad Catolica Andres Bello Faculty of Social Sciences, Caracas, 1981).
15. The description of the origins of the alternative organizations and popular movement is based primarily on interviews of activists, organizers, NGO staff, and others, as well as on the following secondary sources: Nelson Barrios Gonzalez, "El movimiento vecinal: Un movimiento de nuevo tipo?" (Caracas: Instituto Latinoamericano de Investigaciones Sociales, 1987); Luisa Bethencourt G., "Alternatives de expresión popular: Las nuevas organizaciones culturales populares y la politica cultural del estado, 1970-1983" (masters essay, Universidad Central de Venezuela - Centro de Estudios de Desarrollo/Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, February 1986); E. Henry, "The Peruvian State and Regional Crises," in New Social Movements and the State in Latin America, ed. David Slater, Latin American Studies no. 29 (Amsterdam: CEDLA, 1985), pp. 127-46; Juan Carlos Rey, "Perspectivas de la democracia" (paper presented at a conference on the Venezuelan political system, Caracas, February 1981); Daniel H. Levine, "Urbanization, Migrants, and Politics in Venezuela," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 17, no. 3 (August 1975): 358-72; Juan Carlos Navarro M., "Contestación en la iglesia venezolana (1966-1972): Contribución al estudio de los movimientos sociales" (thesis presented to the Universidad Catolica Andres Bello Faculty of Social Sciences, Caracas, 1981).
16. The description of the origins of the alternative organizations and popular movement is based primarily on interviews of activists, organizers, NGO staff, and others, as well as on the following secondary sources: Nelson Barrios Gonzalez, "El movimiento vecinal: Un movimiento de nuevo tipo?" (Caracas: Instituto Latinoamericano de Investigaciones Sociales, 1987); Luisa Bethencourt G., "Alternatives de expresión popular: Las nuevas organizaciones culturales populares y la politica cultural del estado, 1970-1983" (masters essay, Universidad Central de Venezuela - Centro de Estudios de Desarrollo/Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, February 1986); E. Henry, "The Peruvian State and Regional Crises," in New Social Movements and the State in Latin America, ed. David Slater, Latin American Studies no. 29 (Amsterdam: CEDLA, 1985), pp. 127-46; Juan Carlos Rey, "Perspectivas de la democracia" (paper presented at a conference on the Venezuelan political system, Caracas, February 1981); Daniel H. Levine, "Urbanization, Migrants, and Politics in Venezuela," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 17, no. 3 (August 1975): 358-72; Juan Carlos Navarro M., "Contestación en la iglesia venezolana (1966-1972): Contribución al estudio de los movimientos sociales" (thesis presented to the Universidad Catolica Andres Bello Faculty of Social Sciences, Caracas, 1981).
17. The description of the origins of the alternative organizations and popular movement is based primarily on interviews of activists, organizers, NGO staff, and others, as well as on the following secondary sources: Nelson Barrios Gonzalez, "El movimiento vecinal: Un movimiento de nuevo tipo?" (Caracas: Instituto Latinoamericano de Investigaciones Sociales, 1987); Luisa Bethencourt G., "Alternatives de expresión popular: Las nuevas organizaciones culturales populares y la politica cultural del estado, 1970-1983" (masters essay, Universidad Central de Venezuela - Centro de Estudios de Desarrollo/Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, February 1986); E. Henry, "The Peruvian State and Regional Crises," in New Social Movements and the State in Latin America, ed. David Slater, Latin American Studies no. 29 (Amsterdam: CEDLA, 1985), pp. 127-46; Juan Carlos Rey, "Perspectivas de la democracia" (paper presented at a conference on the Venezuelan political system, Caracas, February 1981); Daniel H. Levine, "Urbanization, Migrants, and Politics in Venezuela," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 17, no. 3 (August 1975): 358-72; Juan Carlos Navarro M., "Contestación en la iglesia venezolana (1966-1972): Contribución al estudio de los movimientos sociales" (thesis presented to the Universidad Catolica Andres Bello Faculty of Social Sciences, Caracas, 1981).
18. The description of the origins of the alternative organizations and popular movement is based primarily on interviews of activists, organizers, NGO staff, and others, as well as on the following secondary sources: Nelson Barrios Gonzalez, "El movimiento vecinal: Un movimiento de nuevo tipo?" (Caracas: Instituto Latinoamericano de Investigaciones Sociales, 1987); Luisa Bethencourt G., "Alternatives de expresión popular: Las nuevas organizaciones culturales populares y la politica cultural del estado, 1970-1983" (masters essay, Universidad Central de Venezuela - Centro de Estudios de Desarrollo/Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, February 1986); E. Henry, "The Peruvian State and Regional Crises," in New Social Movements and the State in Latin America, ed. David Slater, Latin American Studies no. 29 (Amsterdam: CEDLA, 1985), pp. 127-46; Juan Carlos Rey, "Perspectivas de la democracia" (paper presented at a conference on the Venezuelan political system, Caracas, February 1981); Daniel H. Levine, "Urbanization, Migrants, and Politics in Venezuela," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 17, no. 3 (August 1975): 358-72; Juan Carlos Navarro M., "Contestación en la iglesia venezolana (1966-1972): Contribución al estudio de los movimientos sociales" (thesis presented to the Universidad Catolica Andres Bello Faculty of Social Sciences, Caracas, 1981).
19. The description of the origins of the alternative organizations and popular movement is based primarily on interviews of activists, organizers, NGO staff, and others, as well as on the following secondary sources: Nelson Barrios Gonzalez, "El movimiento vecinal: Un movimiento de nuevo tipo?" (Caracas: Instituto Latinoamericano de Investigaciones Sociales, 1987); Luisa Bethencourt G., "Alternatives de expresión popular: Las nuevas organizaciones culturales populares y la politica cultural del estado, 1970-1983" (masters essay, Universidad Central de Venezuela - Centro de Estudios de Desarrollo/Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, February 1986); E. Henry, "The Peruvian State and Regional Crises," in New Social Movements and the State in Latin America, ed. David Slater, Latin American Studies no. 29 (Amsterdam: CEDLA, 1985), pp. 127-46; Juan Carlos Rey, "Perspectivas de la democracia" (paper presented at a conference on the Venezuelan political system, Caracas, February 1981); Daniel H. Levine, "Urbanization, Migrants, and Politics in Venezuela," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 17, no. 3 (August 1975): 358-72; Juan Carlos Navarro M., "Contestación en la iglesia venezolana (1966-1972): Contribución al estudio de los movimientos sociales" (thesis presented to the Universidad Catolica Andres Bello Faculty of Social Sciences, Caracas, 1981).
20. "Popular movement" is a translation of the term "movimiento popular" used in Venezuela and other Spanish-speaking countries. In Spanish, this term connotes authenticity as well as the lower classes. I have not found a suitable substitute, and I use the term strictly descriptively, i.e., without the assumption that the movement represents the true interests of the lower classes.
21. CESAP, "Informe institucional, 1986" (internal document, Caracas, 1986); Unión Venezolana de Centros de Educación Popular (Venezuelan Union of Centers of Popular Education), "Ideas sobre la educación popular" Series: Cuadernos de educación popular (internal document, Caracas, n.d.).
22. CESAP, "Informe institucional, 1986" (internal document, Caracas, 1986); Unión Venezolana de Centros de Educación Popular (Venezuelan Union of Centers of Popular Education), "Ideas sobre la educación popular" Series: Cuadernos de educación popular (internal document, Caracas, n.d.).
23. CESAP, "Breve resumen de los programas nacionales y regionales" (internal document, Caracas, 1987), "Analisís de la realidad" (internal document, Caracas, 1978), "Resumen de algunos planteamientos para la acción y formación" (internal document, Venezuela, 1976).
24. CESAP, "Breve resumen de los programas nacionales y regionales" (internal document, Caracas, 1987), "Analisís de la realidad" (internal document, Caracas, 1978), "Resumen de algunos planteamientos para la acción y formación" (internal document, Venezuela, 1976).
25. CESAP, "Breve resumen de los programas nacionales y regionales" (internal document, Caracas, 1987), "Analisís de la realidad" (internal document, Caracas, 1978), "Resumen de algunos planteamientos para la acción y formación" (internal document, Venezuela, 1976).
26. Gonzalo Tapia Soko et al., "CESAP: Evaluación institucional" (internal document, Caracas, 1987); CESAP, "Breve resumen" (n. 10 above). For purposes of accuracy, the story of CESAP is presented in the past tense, although there is undoubtedly continuity between many of its activities and structures in the 1980s and today.
27. Gonzalo Tapia Soko et al., "CESAP: Evaluación institucional" (internal document, Caracas, 1987); CESAP, "Breve resumen" (n. 10 above). For purposes of accuracy, the story of CESAP is presented in the past tense, although there is undoubtedly continuity between many of its activities and structures in the 1980s and today.
28. As a representative of an international donor agency told me, there is probably no similar organization in South America with CESAP's reach.
29. CESAP, "Breve resumen" (n. 10 above).
30. Maldonado et al. (untitled CESAP internal document, Caracas, n.d.).
31. Federations are umbrella organizations linking constituent community groups in a formal structure for ongoing coordinated action and shared decision making.
32. The one exception was a women's cooperative that had learned from CESAP how to write a grant proposal. This seems to be the exception that proves the rule, given the analysis here, because grant writing is taught by working on an actual grant proposal with a group.
33. Observation of workshop "Markets and Supplies," February 1989, Caracas; observation of workshop "The Municipality," April 1989, Los Teques; observation of CESAP workshop during a group meeting, May 1989, Los Teques, Venezuela.
34. Observation of workshop "Markets and Supplies," February 1989, Caracas; observation of workshop "The Municipality," April 1989, Los Teques; observation of CESAP workshop during a group meeting, May 1989, Los Teques, Venezuela.
35. CESAP, "Documento con los resultados de la evaluación interna del trabajo de Cesap en su conjunto" (internal document, Caracas, 1978).
36. CESAP, "Informe institucional, 1986" (n. 9 above). Translation is my own.
37. CESAP, "La participación no se decreta" (internal document, Caracas, 1988).
38. I sat in on many meetings on the PESOC campaign, most of which took place in the winter of 1989. Its principles are laid out in CESAP, "Breve resumen" (n. 10 above) and CESAP, "Informe institucional, 1987" (internal document, Caracas, 1987).
39. I sat in on many meetings on the PESOC campaign, most of which took place in the winter of 1989. Its principles are laid out in CESAP, "Breve resumen" (n. 10 above) and CESAP, "Informe institucional, 1987" (internal document, Caracas, 1987).
40. The initiation of the PESOC campaign coincided with momentous events in Venezuela, and an obvious question is whether these influenced its course or CESAP's subsequent actions reported here. President Carlos Andrés Pérez had implemented austerity measures. Organized protests about resulting increases in transportation costs turned violent on February 27, and the violence turned to looting. The riots continued for several days, made more chaotic by the presence of unidentified snipers, a small group of armed ultraleftists, and a more sizable number of armed drug traffickers concerned with protecting their homes as the police began searching for stolen goods. At the end of the day on February 28, the president imposed a curfew and rescinded constitutional rights, which would not be restored until several days later. The official death toll for the riots was approximately 300, but other estimates put the number of casualties as high as 2,000. Nonetheless, austerity measures continued - with drastic implications for the poor. In 1989 as a whole, inflation was 81 percent. Gross domestic product was down 8.3 percent. By 1990, inflation had dropped, but was still at 36.5 percent. Official unemployment statistics hovered around 10 percent, but union leaders claimed that unemployment in 1989 was 20 percent. Almost 20 percent of the country was now living in poverty (Gloria Majella Bastidas, "Sindrome de la miseria," El diario de Caracas [December 28, 1989], pp. 20-21). The year 1989 witnessed a great deal of union activity in response to these conditions. There was, however, no recurrence of February's events. What did these conditions mean for the fate of the PESOC campaign or CESAP's subsequent evolution? In the short term, the evidence suggests that there was neither a strongly negative nor a strongly positive effect on the alternative groups with which CESAP was working. The groups I studied did not lose members. I observed no increased fear of participation or new disaffection with organized politics or NGOs. At the same time, alternative activists reported increased interest in their groups with little follow-through; consistent with that, I observed neither a rise nor decline in group membership in 1989. Nor did I observe any short-term changes in attitudes toward assisting institutions such as CESAP. The failure of the PESOC can therefore not be explained by the riots. Furthermore, both of the other failed campaigns that I witnessed were launched prior to the riots. I did find in interviews that some CESAP staff, as well as staff of at least one other NGO featured in my study, were disconcerted that the protest had taken the form of spontaneous, unorganized action, leaving the community groups and their assisting institutions out of the picture. Although this may have contributed to CESAP's subsequent shift toward lobbying, it does not fully explain it. As will be seen, other assisting institutions, which experienced the same surprise, did not evolve in the same way that CESAP did.
41. Observation of workshop "Markets and Supplies," February 1989, Caracas; observation of subsequent staff meetings, winter 1989. The failure of these campaigns cannot be attributed to the country context. Although coordinated supralocal action is difficult to initiate and sustain, there have been a number of such campaigns among the alternative organizations.
42. Esman and Uphoff (n. 3 above); Carl Tjerandsen, Education for Citizenship: A Foundation's Experience (Santa Cruz, Calif.: Emil Schwarzhaupt Foundation, 1980), p. 61.
43. The center's stated philosophy has always explicitly denigrated vanguardism (CESAP, "La participación" [n. 20 above], p. 8, "Analisís" [n. 10 above], p. 7).
44. The center's stated philosophy has always explicitly denigrated vanguardism (CESAP, "La participación" [n. 20 above], p. 8, "Analisís" [n. 10 above], p. 7).
45. Observation of a CESAP staff meeting, Venezuela, February 21, 1989.
46. Ibid.
47. CESAP, "Informe institucional, 1987" (n. 21 above).
48. Santiago Martínez, "Sociedad civil y modelos de desarrollo" (paper presented at the seminar "Estado, ambiente y sociedad civil," sponsored by Instituto Latinoamericano de Investigaciones Sociales, Caracas, 1987), p. 26.
49. Observation of annual staff meeting, Los Teques, Venezuela, May 1989.
50. Observation of workshop "The Municipality," April 1989, Los Teques, Venezuela.
51. Mark Hanna and Buddy Robinson, "Overview of Selected Data from 1990-91 Organizer Training Participant Survey" (report to participating training centers and survey respondents, Department of Social Work Education, California State University-Fresno, 1992), pp. 6-7; Tjerandsen (n. 24 above), pp. 622, 683.
52. Norman Uphoff, Local Institutional Development: An Analytical Sourcebook with Cases (West Hartford, Conn.: Kumarian, 1986), p. 199.
53. Thomas F. Carroll, Intermediary NGOs: The Supporting Link in Grassroots Development (West Hartford, Conn.: Kumarian, 1992). Carroll also found, as I suggest, that the most involved individuals were the best targets of training.
54. Lenore Ralston, James Anderson, and Elizabeth Colson, Voluntary Efforts in Decentralized Management: Opportunities and Constraints in Rural Development, Institute of International Studies Research Series no. 53 (Berkeley: University of California Institute of International Studies, 1983).
55. Jeffrey Avina, "The Evolutionary Life Cycles of Non-governmental Development Organizations," Public Administration and Development 13, no. 5 (December 1, 1993): 453-74; E. A. Narayana, "Bureaucratization of Non-governmental Organizations: An Analysis of Employees' Perceptions and Attitudes," Public Administration and Development 12, no. 2 (May 1, 1992): 123-37.
56. Jeffrey Avina, "The Evolutionary Life Cycles of Non-governmental Development Organizations," Public Administration and Development 13, no. 5 (December 1, 1993): 453-74; E. A. Narayana, "Bureaucratization of Non-governmental Organizations: An Analysis of Employees' Perceptions and Attitudes," Public Administration and Development 12, no. 2 (May 1, 1992): 123-37.
57. Peter M. Clark and James Q. Wilson, "Incentive Systems: A Theory of Organizations," Administrative Science Quarterly 6, no. 2 (September 1, 1961): 129-66, 148-50.
58. Ibid. W. Richard Scott, Organizations: Rational, Natural, and Open Systems (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1981), p. 59; Roberto Michels, Political Parties, trans. Eden Paul and Cedar Paul (1915; translation, Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1949); Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Poor People's Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail (New York: Pantheon, 1977).
59. Ibid. W. Richard Scott, Organizations: Rational, Natural, and Open Systems (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1981), p. 59; Roberto Michels, Political Parties, trans. Eden Paul and Cedar Paul (1915; translation, Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1949); Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Poor People's Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail (New York: Pantheon, 1977).
60. Ibid. W. Richard Scott, Organizations: Rational, Natural, and Open Systems (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1981), p. 59; Roberto Michels, Political Parties, trans. Eden Paul and Cedar Paul (1915; translation, Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1949); Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Poor People's Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail (New York: Pantheon, 1977).
61. Ibid. W. Richard Scott, Organizations: Rational, Natural, and Open Systems (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1981), p. 59; Roberto Michels, Political Parties, trans. Eden Paul and Cedar Paul (1915; translation, Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1949); Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Poor People's Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail (New York: Pantheon, 1977).
62. The issue of NGO evolution is developed more fully in Mina Silberberg, "The Evolution of Assistance to Grassroots Organizations: The Impact of Linkage," Public Productivity and Management Review 20, no. 4 (June 1997): 432-45.
63. John Farrington and Anthony Bebbington, eds., with Kate Wellard and David J. Lewis, Reluctant Partners: Non-governmental Organizations, the State, and Sustainable Agricultural Development (London: Routledge, 1993); John Farrington and Anthony Bebbington, eds., with S. Satish and Aurea Miclat-Teves, Non-governmental Organizations and the State in Asia (London: Routledge, 1993); David Beckman, "Recent Experience and Emerging Trends," in Nongovernmental Organizations and the World Bank: Cooperation for Development, ed. Samuel Paul and Arturo Israel (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1991), pp. 134-54; Avina (n. 36 above), p. 462. Michael Edwards and David Hulme, eds., Beyond the Magic Bullet: NGO Performance and Accountability in the Post-Cold War World (West Hartford, Conn.: Kumarian, 1996). See esp. Mahbubu Karim, "NGOs in Bangladesh: Issues of Legitimacy and Accountability," Rajesh Tandon, "Board Games: Governance and Accountability in NGOs," and Jane G. Covey, "Accountability and Effectiveness in NGO Policy Alliances," all in Edwards and Hulme, eds., pp. 132-41, 153-63, 192-214.
64. John Farrington and Anthony Bebbington, eds., with Kate Wellard and David J. Lewis, Reluctant Partners: Non-governmental Organizations, the State, and Sustainable Agricultural Development (London: Routledge, 1993); John Farrington and Anthony Bebbington, eds., with S. Satish and Aurea Miclat-Teves, Non-governmental Organizations and the State in Asia (London: Routledge, 1993); David Beckman, "Recent Experience and Emerging Trends," in Nongovernmental Organizations and the World Bank: Cooperation for Development, ed. Samuel Paul and Arturo Israel (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1991), pp. 134-54; Avina (n. 36 above), p. 462. Michael Edwards and David Hulme, eds., Beyond the Magic Bullet: NGO Performance and Accountability in the Post-Cold War World (West Hartford, Conn.: Kumarian, 1996). See esp. Mahbubu Karim, "NGOs in Bangladesh: Issues of Legitimacy and Accountability," Rajesh Tandon, "Board Games: Governance and Accountability in NGOs," and Jane G. Covey, "Accountability and Effectiveness in NGO Policy Alliances," all in Edwards and Hulme, eds., pp. 132-41, 153-63, 192-214.
65. John Farrington and Anthony Bebbington, eds., with Kate Wellard and David J. Lewis, Reluctant Partners: Non-governmental Organizations, the State, and Sustainable Agricultural Development (London: Routledge, 1993); John Farrington and Anthony Bebbington, eds., with S. Satish and Aurea Miclat-Teves, Non-governmental Organizations and the State in Asia (London: Routledge, 1993); David Beckman, "Recent Experience and Emerging Trends," in Nongovernmental Organizations and the World Bank: Cooperation for Development, ed. Samuel Paul and Arturo Israel (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1991), pp. 134-54; Avina (n. 36 above), p. 462. Michael Edwards and David Hulme, eds., Beyond the Magic Bullet: NGO Performance and Accountability in the Post-Cold War World (West Hartford, Conn.: Kumarian, 1996). See esp. Mahbubu Karim, "NGOs in Bangladesh: Issues of Legitimacy and Accountability," Rajesh Tandon, "Board Games: Governance and Accountability in NGOs," and Jane G. Covey, "Accountability and Effectiveness in NGO Policy Alliances," all in Edwards and Hulme, eds., pp. 132-41, 153-63, 192-214.
66. John Farrington and Anthony Bebbington, eds., with Kate Wellard and David J. Lewis, Reluctant Partners: Non-governmental Organizations, the State, and Sustainable Agricultural Development (London: Routledge, 1993); John Farrington and Anthony Bebbington, eds., with S. Satish and Aurea Miclat-Teves, Non-governmental Organizations and the State in Asia (London: Routledge, 1993); David Beckman, "Recent Experience and Emerging Trends," in Nongovernmental Organizations and the World Bank: Cooperation for Development, ed. Samuel Paul and Arturo Israel (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1991), pp. 134-54; Avina (n. 36 above), p. 462. Michael Edwards and David Hulme, eds., Beyond the Magic Bullet: NGO Performance and Accountability in the Post-Cold War World (West Hartford, Conn.: Kumarian, 1996). See esp. Mahbubu Karim, "NGOs in Bangladesh: Issues of Legitimacy and Accountability," Rajesh Tandon, "Board Games: Governance and Accountability in NGOs," and Jane G. Covey, "Accountability and Effectiveness in NGO Policy Alliances," all in Edwards and Hulme, eds., pp. 132-41, 153-63, 192-214.
67. John Farrington and Anthony Bebbington, eds., with Kate Wellard and David J. Lewis, Reluctant Partners: Non-governmental Organizations, the State, and Sustainable Agricultural Development (London: Routledge, 1993); John Farrington and Anthony Bebbington, eds., with S. Satish and Aurea Miclat-Teves, Non-governmental Organizations and the State in Asia (London: Routledge, 1993); David Beckman, "Recent Experience and Emerging Trends," in Nongovernmental Organizations and the World Bank: Cooperation for Development, ed. Samuel Paul and Arturo Israel (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1991), pp. 134-54; Avina (n. 36 above), p. 462. Michael Edwards and David Hulme, eds., Beyond the Magic Bullet: NGO Performance and Accountability in the Post-Cold War World (West Hartford, Conn.: Kumarian, 1996). See esp. Mahbubu Karim, "NGOs in Bangladesh: Issues of Legitimacy and Accountability," Rajesh Tandon, "Board Games: Governance and Accountability in NGOs," and Jane G. Covey, "Accountability and Effectiveness in NGO Policy Alliances," all in Edwards and Hulme, eds., pp. 132-41, 153-63, 192-214.
68. John Farrington and Anthony Bebbington, eds., with Kate Wellard and David J. Lewis, Reluctant Partners: Non-governmental Organizations, the State, and Sustainable Agricultural Development (London: Routledge, 1993); John Farrington and Anthony Bebbington, eds., with S. Satish and Aurea Miclat-Teves, Non-governmental Organizations and the State in Asia (London: Routledge, 1993); David Beckman, "Recent Experience and Emerging Trends," in Nongovernmental Organizations and the World Bank: Cooperation for Development, ed. Samuel Paul and Arturo Israel (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1991), pp. 134-54; Avina (n. 36 above), p. 462. Michael Edwards and David Hulme, eds., Beyond the Magic Bullet: NGO Performance and Accountability in the Post-Cold War World (West Hartford, Conn.: Kumarian, 1996). See esp. Mahbubu Karim, "NGOs in Bangladesh: Issues of Legitimacy and Accountability," Rajesh Tandon, "Board Games: Governance and Accountability in NGOs," and Jane G. Covey, "Accountability and Effectiveness in NGO Policy Alliances," all in Edwards and Hulme, eds., pp. 132-41, 153-63, 192-214.
69. John Farrington and Anthony Bebbington, eds., with Kate Wellard and David J. Lewis, Reluctant Partners: Non-governmental Organizations, the State, and Sustainable Agricultural Development (London: Routledge, 1993); John Farrington and Anthony Bebbington, eds., with S. Satish and Aurea Miclat-Teves, Non-governmental Organizations and the State in Asia (London: Routledge, 1993); David Beckman, "Recent Experience and Emerging Trends," in Nongovernmental Organizations and the World Bank: Cooperation for Development, ed. Samuel Paul and Arturo Israel (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1991), pp. 134-54; Avina (n. 36 above), p. 462. Michael Edwards and David Hulme, eds., Beyond the Magic Bullet: NGO Performance and Accountability in the Post-Cold War World (West Hartford, Conn.: Kumarian, 1996). See esp. Mahbubu Karim, "NGOs in Bangladesh: Issues of Legitimacy and Accountability," Rajesh Tandon, "Board Games: Governance and Accountability in NGOs," and Jane G. Covey, "Accountability and Effectiveness in NGO Policy Alliances," all in Edwards and Hulme, eds., pp. 132-41, 153-63, 192-214.
70. Formal influence or accountability consists of the existence of authoritative mechanisms by which one party is held accountable to another. However, groups or individuals can have opportunities to influence activities that are not formally allocated to them by organization rules, as noted by Carroll (n. 34 above) and Jonathan Fox, "Democratic Rural Development: Leadership Accountability in Regional Peasant Organizations," Development and Changed 23, no. 2 (April 1, 1992): 1-36.
71. Michael Bratton, "Non-governmental Organizations in Africa: Can They Influence Public Policy?" Development and Change 21, no. 1 (January 1, 1990): 87-118.
72. Roger C. Riddell and Mark Robinson, Non-governmental Organizations and Rural Poverty Alleviation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), and Farrington and Bebbington, eds., Reluctant Partners (n. 40 above), note the importance of context in NGO performance. I believe it to be important in NGO evolution as well.
73. Roger C. Riddell and Mark Robinson, Non-governmental Organizations and Rural Poverty Alleviation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), and Farrington and Bebbington, eds., Reluctant Partners (n. 40 above), note the importance of context in NGO performance. I believe it to be important in NGO evolution as well.
74. For comparative information on human rights violations, see Charles Humana, World Human Rights Guide, 3d ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992). Venezuela's political instability in the 1990s has undoubtedly led to an increase in repression.
75. Eduardo Canel, "Democratization and the Decline of Urban Social Movements in Uruguay: A Political-Institutional Account," in Escobar and Alvarez, eds. (n. 2 above), pp. 276-90; Brian Loveman, "NGOs and the Transition to Democracy in Chile," Grassroots Development 15, no. 2 (1991): 8-19.
76. Eduardo Canel, "Democratization and the Decline of Urban Social Movements in Uruguay: A Political-Institutional Account," in Escobar and Alvarez, eds. (n. 2 above), pp. 276-90; Brian Loveman, "NGOs and the Transition to Democracy in Chile," Grassroots Development 15, no. 2 (1991): 8-19.
77. Amnesty International, "Venezuela: Memorandum to the Government" (memorandum submitted to the Venezuelan Government, Caracas, 1988), p. 13.
78. See Tandon (n. 40 above) for a discussion of board alternatives. Such structures would facilitate, but not guarantee accountability. As mentioned, Carroll (n. 34 above) and Fox (n. 41 above) point out that formal mechanisms do not necessarily lead to accountability and that informal channels of influence may be important as well. However, this case suggests that NGOs such as CESAP will be weak in such informal channels. Fox suggests that, for large organizations with linkages to a wide range of groups, formal mechanisms of accountability are particularly useful, although no guarantee. Uphoff has also noted that increasing accountability should be approached with caution because NGOs also have other responsibilities, e.g., financial solvency (Norman Uphoff, "Why NGOs Are Not a Third Sector: A Sectoral Analysis with Some Thoughts on Accountability, Sustainability, and Evaluation," in Edwards and Hulme, eds. [n. 40 above], pp. 23-39).
79. Farrington and Bebbington, eds., Reluctant Partners (n. 40 above).
80. For more on the policy of funding indigenous NGOs, see Samuel Paul, "Nongovernmental Organizations and the World Bank: An Overview," in Paul and Israel, eds. (n. 40 above), pp. 1-19.