"The black lamb of the black sheep": Illegitimacy in the English working class, 1850-1939

Journal of Social History

Volumn 37, Issue 2, 2003, Pages

  Frost, Ginger ^a,b  

^a SAMFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b Department of History ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0347594397     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh.2003.0178     Document Type: Review

References (145)

1. Wilkie Collins, No Name (London, 1994) [First published 1862], 110.
2. See, e.g., Anna Davin, Growing Up Poor: Home, School and Street in London, 1870-1914 (London, 1996); Pamela Horn, The Victorian Town Child (Stroud, Gloucestershire, 1997); Lionel Rose, The Erosion of Childhood: Child Oppression in Britain, 1860-1918 (London, 1991); Eric Hopkins, Childhood Transformed: Working-Class Children in Nineteenth-Century England (Manchester, 1994); Thomas E. Jordan, Victorian Childhood: Themes and Variations (Albany, NY, 1987); and George Behlmer, Child Abuse and Moral Reform in England, 1870-1908 (Stanford, 1982).
3. See, e.g., Anna Davin, Growing Up Poor: Home, School and Street in London, 1870-1914 (London, 1996); Pamela Horn, The Victorian Town Child (Stroud, Gloucestershire, 1997); Lionel Rose, The Erosion of Childhood: Child Oppression in Britain, 1860-1918 (London, 1991); Eric Hopkins, Childhood Transformed: Working-Class Children in Nineteenth-Century England (Manchester, 1994); Thomas E. Jordan, Victorian Childhood: Themes and Variations (Albany, NY, 1987); and George Behlmer, Child Abuse and Moral Reform in England, 1870-1908 (Stanford, 1982).
4. See, e.g., Anna Davin, Growing Up Poor: Home, School and Street in London, 1870-1914 (London, 1996); Pamela Horn, The Victorian Town Child (Stroud, Gloucestershire, 1997); Lionel Rose, The Erosion of Childhood: Child Oppression in Britain, 1860-1918 (London, 1991); Eric Hopkins, Childhood Transformed: Working-Class Children in Nineteenth-Century England (Manchester, 1994); Thomas E. Jordan, Victorian Childhood: Themes and Variations (Albany, NY, 1987); and George Behlmer, Child Abuse and Moral Reform in England, 1870-1908 (Stanford, 1982).
5. See, e.g., Anna Davin, Growing Up Poor: Home, School and Street in London, 1870-1914 (London, 1996); Pamela Horn, The Victorian Town Child (Stroud, Gloucestershire, 1997); Lionel Rose, The Erosion of Childhood: Child Oppression in Britain, 1860-1918 (London, 1991); Eric Hopkins, Childhood Transformed: Working-Class Children in Nineteenth-Century England (Manchester, 1994); Thomas E. Jordan, Victorian Childhood: Themes and Variations (Albany, NY, 1987); and George Behlmer, Child Abuse and Moral Reform in England, 1870-1908 (Stanford, 1982).
6. See, e.g., Anna Davin, Growing Up Poor: Home, School and Street in London, 1870-1914 (London, 1996); Pamela Horn, The Victorian Town Child (Stroud, Gloucestershire, 1997); Lionel Rose, The Erosion of Childhood: Child Oppression in Britain, 1860-1918 (London, 1991); Eric Hopkins, Childhood Transformed: Working-Class Children in Nineteenth-Century England (Manchester, 1994); Thomas E. Jordan, Victorian Childhood: Themes and Variations (Albany, NY, 1987); and George Behlmer, Child Abuse and Moral Reform in England, 1870-1908 (Stanford, 1982).
7. See, e.g., Anna Davin, Growing Up Poor: Home, School and Street in London, 1870-1914 (London, 1996); Pamela Horn, The Victorian Town Child (Stroud, Gloucestershire, 1997); Lionel Rose, The Erosion of Childhood: Child Oppression in Britain, 1860-1918 (London, 1991); Eric Hopkins, Childhood Transformed: Working-Class Children in Nineteenth-Century England (Manchester, 1994); Thomas E. Jordan, Victorian Childhood: Themes and Variations (Albany, NY, 1987); and George Behlmer, Child Abuse and Moral Reform in England, 1870-1908 (Stanford, 1982).
8. Francoise Barret-Ducrocq, Love in the Time of Victoria: Sexuality, Class and Gender in Nineteenth-Century London (London, 1991); Ann Rowell Higginbotham, "'Sin of the Age': Infanticide and Illegitimacy in Victorian London, " Victorian Studies 32 (1989): 319-37; and "The Unmarried Mother and Her Child in Victorian London, 1834-1914," Unpublished Dissertation, Indiana University, 1985. See also Lisa Forman Cody, "The Politics of Illegitimacy in an Age of Reform: Women, Reproduction, and Political Economy in England's New Poor Law of 1834," Journal of Women's History 11 (2000): 131-56; J. D. Marshall, "Out of Wedlock: Perceptions of a Cumbrian Social Problem in the Victorian Context," Northern History 31 (1995): 194-207; N.F.R. Crafts, "Illegitimacy in England and Wales in 1911," Population Studies 36 (1982): 327-31; and Barry Reay, "Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century England: The Social Context of Illegitimacy in Rural Kent," Rural History 1 (1990): 219-47 and Microhistories: Demography, Society, and Culture in Rural England, 1800-1930 (Cambridge, 1996), 184-212.
9. Francoise Barret-Ducrocq, Love in the Time of Victoria: Sexuality, Class and Gender in Nineteenth-Century London (London, 1991); Ann Rowell Higginbotham, "'Sin of the Age': Infanticide and Illegitimacy in Victorian London, " Victorian Studies 32 (1989): 319-37; and "The Unmarried Mother and Her Child in Victorian London, 1834-1914," Unpublished Dissertation, Indiana University, 1985. See also Lisa Forman Cody, "The Politics of Illegitimacy in an Age of Reform: Women, Reproduction, and Political Economy in England's New Poor Law of 1834," Journal of Women's History 11 (2000): 131-56; J. D. Marshall, "Out of Wedlock: Perceptions of a Cumbrian Social Problem in the Victorian Context," Northern History 31 (1995): 194-207; N.F.R. Crafts, "Illegitimacy in England and Wales in 1911," Population Studies 36 (1982): 327-31; and Barry Reay, "Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century England: The Social Context of Illegitimacy in Rural Kent," Rural History 1 (1990): 219-47 and Microhistories: Demography, Society, and Culture in Rural England, 1800-1930 (Cambridge, 1996), 184-212.
10. Francoise Barret-Ducrocq, Love in the Time of Victoria: Sexuality, Class and Gender in Nineteenth-Century London (London, 1991); Ann Rowell Higginbotham, "'Sin of the Age': Infanticide and Illegitimacy in Victorian London, " Victorian Studies 32 (1989): 319-37; and "The Unmarried Mother and Her Child in Victorian London, 1834-1914," Unpublished Dissertation, Indiana University, 1985. See also Lisa Forman Cody, "The Politics of Illegitimacy in an Age of Reform: Women, Reproduction, and Political Economy in England's New Poor Law of 1834," Journal of Women's History 11 (2000): 131-56; J. D. Marshall, "Out of Wedlock: Perceptions of a Cumbrian Social Problem in the Victorian Context," Northern History 31 (1995): 194-207; N.F.R. Crafts, "Illegitimacy in England and Wales in 1911," Population Studies 36 (1982): 327-31; and Barry Reay, "Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century England: The Social Context of Illegitimacy in Rural Kent," Rural History 1 (1990): 219-47 and Microhistories: Demography, Society, and Culture in Rural England, 1800-1930 (Cambridge, 1996), 184-212.
11. Francoise Barret-Ducrocq, Love in the Time of Victoria: Sexuality, Class and Gender in Nineteenth-Century London (London, 1991); Ann Rowell Higginbotham, "'Sin of the Age': Infanticide and Illegitimacy in Victorian London, " Victorian Studies 32 (1989): 319-37; and "The Unmarried Mother and Her Child in Victorian London, 1834-1914," Unpublished Dissertation, Indiana University, 1985. See also Lisa Forman Cody, "The Politics of Illegitimacy in an Age of Reform: Women, Reproduction, and Political Economy in England's New Poor Law of 1834," Journal of Women's History 11 (2000): 131-56; J. D. Marshall, "Out of Wedlock: Perceptions of a Cumbrian Social Problem in the Victorian Context," Northern History 31 (1995): 194-207; N.F.R. Crafts, "Illegitimacy in England and Wales in 1911," Population Studies 36 (1982): 327-31; and Barry Reay, "Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century England: The Social Context of Illegitimacy in Rural Kent," Rural History 1 (1990): 219-47 and Microhistories: Demography, Society, and Culture in Rural England, 1800-1930 (Cambridge, 1996), 184-212.
12. Francoise Barret-Ducrocq, Love in the Time of Victoria: Sexuality, Class and Gender in Nineteenth-Century London (London, 1991); Ann Rowell Higginbotham, "'Sin of the Age': Infanticide and Illegitimacy in Victorian London, " Victorian Studies 32 (1989): 319-37; and "The Unmarried Mother and Her Child in Victorian London, 1834-1914," Unpublished Dissertation, Indiana University, 1985. See also Lisa Forman Cody, "The Politics of Illegitimacy in an Age of Reform: Women, Reproduction, and Political Economy in England's New Poor Law of 1834," Journal of Women's History 11 (2000): 131-56; J. D. Marshall, "Out of Wedlock: Perceptions of a Cumbrian Social Problem in the Victorian Context," Northern History 31 (1995): 194-207; N.F.R. Crafts, "Illegitimacy in England and Wales in 1911," Population Studies 36 (1982): 327-31; and Barry Reay, "Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century England: The Social Context of Illegitimacy in Rural Kent," Rural History 1 (1990): 219-47 and Microhistories: Demography, Society, and Culture in Rural England, 1800-1930 (Cambridge, 1996), 184-212.
13. Francoise Barret-Ducrocq, Love in the Time of Victoria: Sexuality, Class and Gender in Nineteenth-Century London (London, 1991); Ann Rowell Higginbotham, "'Sin of the Age': Infanticide and Illegitimacy in Victorian London, " Victorian Studies 32 (1989): 319-37; and "The Unmarried Mother and Her Child in Victorian London, 1834-1914," Unpublished Dissertation, Indiana University, 1985. See also Lisa Forman Cody, "The Politics of Illegitimacy in an Age of Reform: Women, Reproduction, and Political Economy in England's New Poor Law of 1834," Journal of Women's History 11 (2000): 131-56; J. D. Marshall, "Out of Wedlock: Perceptions of a Cumbrian Social Problem in the Victorian Context," Northern History 31 (1995): 194-207; N.F.R. Crafts, "Illegitimacy in England and Wales in 1911," Population Studies 36 (1982): 327-31; and Barry Reay, "Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century England: The Social Context of Illegitimacy in Rural Kent," Rural History 1 (1990): 219-47 and Microhistories: Demography, Society, and Culture in Rural England, 1800-1930 (Cambridge, 1996), 184-212.
14. Francoise Barret-Ducrocq, Love in the Time of Victoria: Sexuality, Class and Gender in Nineteenth-Century London (London, 1991); Ann Rowell Higginbotham, "'Sin of the Age': Infanticide and Illegitimacy in Victorian London, " Victorian Studies 32 (1989): 319-37; and "The Unmarried Mother and Her Child in Victorian London, 1834-1914," Unpublished Dissertation, Indiana University, 1985. See also Lisa Forman Cody, "The Politics of Illegitimacy in an Age of Reform: Women, Reproduction, and Political Economy in England's New Poor Law of 1834," Journal of Women's History 11 (2000): 131-56; J. D. Marshall, "Out of Wedlock: Perceptions of a Cumbrian Social Problem in the Victorian Context," Northern History 31 (1995): 194-207; N.F.R. Crafts, "Illegitimacy in England and Wales in 1911," Population Studies 36 (1982): 327-31; and Barry Reay, "Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century England: The Social Context of Illegitimacy in Rural Kent," Rural History 1 (1990): 219-47 and Microhistories: Demography, Society, and Culture in Rural England, 1800-1930 (Cambridge, 1996), 184-212.
15. Carolyn Steedman, Landscape for a Good Woman: A Story of Two Lives (New Brunswick, NJ, 1986), 65.
16. I compiled the sample for London by reading the police, Old Bailey, and assize reports in The Times for February-March and August-September in irregular years, including 1850, 1857, 1863, 1867, 1872, 1878, 1882, 1888, 1892, and 1899. The Lancaster cases came from reading all issues of the Lancaster Guardian, a weekly, at five-year intervals, from 1850 to 1910.
17. For more on the NCOPF, see Sue Graham-Dixon, Never Darken my Door: Working for Single Parents and their Children, 1918-1978 (London, 1981).
18. Lionel Rose, Massacre of the Innocents: Infanticide in Great Britain, 1800-1939 (London, 1986), 23, 173-74. See also John Gillis, For Better, For Worse: British Marriages 1600 to the Present (Oxford, 1985), 231-59.
19. Lionel Rose, Massacre of the Innocents: Infanticide in Great Britain, 1800-1939 (London, 1986), 23, 173-74. See also John Gillis, For Better, For Worse: British Marriages 1600 to the Present (Oxford, 1985), 231-59.
20. Centre for Northwest Regional Studies, Lancaster University (hereafter CNRS), Elizabeth Roberts Collection, 1890-1940, Interview with Mr. T3P (born 1886), 38; for grandparents rearing illegitimate children, see also Mrs. S5P (born 1898), 32-33; Mrs. B1P (born 1900), 50; and Mr. and Mrs. P1L, (born 1894, 1898), 95. For Phoebe Aldren, see Lancaster Guardian Supplement, 9 November 1895, 1.
21. See, e.g., Ellen Ross, Love and Toil: Motherhood in Outcast London, 1870-1918 (Oxford, 1993), 133-35; Ron Barnes, Coronation Cups and Jam Jars: Portrait of an East End Family Through Three Generations (London, 1976), 37-39; 47.
22. See, e.g., Ellen Ross, Love and Toil: Motherhood in Outcast London, 1870-1918 (Oxford, 1993), 133-35; Ron Barnes, Coronation Cups and Jam Jars: Portrait of an East End Family Through Three Generations (London, 1976), 37-39; 47.
23. See Anna Davin, Growing Up Poor, and Ross, Love and Toil for examples of wretched poverty.
24. Quoted in Joan Perkin, Women and Marriage in Nineteenth-Century England (Chicago, 1989), 159; for violence against wives and cohabitees, see Ellen Ross, Love and Toil and Shani D'Cruze, Crimes of Outrage: Sex, Violence and Victorian Working Women (Dekalb, IL, 1998). Neither makes distinctions between married and unmarried couples.
25. Quoted in Joan Perkin, Women and Marriage in Nineteenth-Century England (Chicago, 1989), 159; for violence against wives and cohabitees, see Ellen Ross, Love and Toil and Shani D'Cruze, Crimes of Outrage: Sex, Violence and Victorian Working Women (Dekalb, IL, 1998). Neither makes distinctions between married and unmarried couples.
26. Henry Mayhew, London Labour and the London Poor (London, 1861), I:43-46; Charles Booth, Labour and Life of the People of London, First series (London, 1891), II:51-71.
27. Henry Mayhew, London Labour and the London Poor (London, 1861), I:43-46; Charles Booth, Labour and Life of the People of London, First series (London, 1891), II:51-71.
28. James Yeames, Life in London Alleys, With Reminiscences of Mary McCarthy and Her Work (London, n.d.), 78-79; first quote from 78, second from 79.
29. Rose, Massacre of the Innocents, 60.
30. See, e.g., Carolyn Conley, The Unwritten Law: Criminal Justice in Victorian Kent (Oxford, 1991), 110-117; and Judith Knelman, Twisting in the Wind: The Murderess and the English Press (Toronto, 1998), 145-80.
31. See, e.g., Carolyn Conley, The Unwritten Law: Criminal Justice in Victorian Kent (Oxford, 1991), 110-117; and Judith Knelman, Twisting in the Wind: The Murderess and the English Press (Toronto, 1998), 145-80.
32. "Burying a Child Alive," Lancaster Guardian, 16 June 1860, 8.
33. "Horrible Child Murder," Lancaster Guardian, 27 March 1875, 2.
34. Conley, The Unwritten Law, 121-22. See also Louise Jackson, Child Sexual Abuse in Victorian England (London, 2000), 36-50.
35. Conley, The Unwritten Law, 121-22. See also Louise Jackson, Child Sexual Abuse in Victorian England (London, 2000), 36-50.
36. Conley, The Unwritten Law, 109.
37. "Death of a Child from Starvation and Ill-Treatment," Lancaster Guardian, 14 April 1860, 2; "Heartless Treatment of an Illegitimate Child," Lancaster Guardian, 30 September 1865, 5.
38. "Death of a Child from Starvation and Ill-Treatment," Lancaster Guardian, 14 April 1860, 2; "Heartless Treatment of an Illegitimate Child," Lancaster Guardian, 30 September 1865, 5.
39. Cecil Chapman, The Poor Man's Court of Justice: Twenty-Five Years as a Metropolitan Magistrate (London, 1925), 79.
40. "Shameful Ill-Treatment of a Girl," Lancaster Guardian, 24 April 1880, 3.
41. Knelman, Twisting in the Wind, 132-33; see also Conley, The Unwritten Law, 108-09.
42. Knelman, Twisting in the Wind, 132-33; see also Conley, The Unwritten Law, 108-09.
43. "Horrible Murder of Two Children by Their Mother," Lancaster Guardian, 8 December 1855, 2; Times, 1 December 1855, 9; 10 January 1856, 9; Lanigan's case in Knelman, Twisting in the Wind, 155.
44. "Horrible Murder of Two Children by Their Mother," Lancaster Guardian, 8 December 1855, 2; Times, 1 December 1855, 9; 10 January 1856, 9; Lanigan's case in Knelman, Twisting in the Wind, 155.
45. "Horrible Murder of Two Children by Their Mother," Lancaster Guardian, 8 December 1855, 2; Times, 1 December 1855, 9; 10 January 1856, 9; Lanigan's case in Knelman, Twisting in the Wind, 155.
46. Times, 24 March 1854, 11.
47. Bernd Weisbrod, "How to Become a Good Foundling in Early Victorian London," Social History 10 (1985): 193-209; and Barret-Ducrocq, Love in the Time of Victoria, 39-43.
48. Bernd Weisbrod, "How to Become a Good Foundling in Early Victorian London," Social History 10 (1985): 193-209; and Barret-Ducrocq, Love in the Time of Victoria, 39-43.
49. Mayhew, London Labour and the London Poor, III: 415-16; first quote 415, second quote 416.
50. Sir John Kirk, "The Creche and the Ragged School Union," Progress: Civic, Social, Industrial: The Organ of the British Institute of Social Services 2 (1907): 184; Davin, Growing Up Poor, 93.
51. Sir John Kirk, "The Creche and the Ragged School Union," Progress: Civic, Social, Industrial: The Organ of the British Institute of Social Services 2 (1907): 184; Davin, Growing Up Poor, 93.
52. Jackson, Child Sexual Abuse, 51-70.
53. Deborah Derrick, ed., Illegitimate: The Experience of People Born Outside Marriage (London, 1986), 19.
54. Joanne M. Hill, "Workhouse Girls: What They Are, and How to Help Them," MacMillan's Magazine 28 (June 1873): 137; entire article on 132-39; Florence Atherton quoted in Thea Thompson, Edwardian Childhoods (London, 1981), 116.
55. Joanne M. Hill, "Workhouse Girls: What They Are, and How to Help Them," MacMillan's Magazine 28 (June 1873): 137; entire article on 132-39; Florence Atherton quoted in Thea Thompson, Edwardian Childhoods (London, 1981), 116.
56. Derrick, Illegitimate, 19.
57. Dorothy Hatcher, The Workhouse and the Weald (Rainham, Kent, 1988), 7-27; quote from page 27.
58. "Custody of Illegitimate Children," Englishwoman's Review 14 (15 March 1883): 125-26, quotes from 125.
59. Henrietta Barnett, "The Young Women in our Workhouses," MacMillan's Magazine 40 (June 1879): 136; entire article on 133-39.
60. Derrick, Illegitimate, 19.
61. George Behlmer, Friends of the Family: The English Home and Its Guardians, 1850-1940 (Stanford, 1998), 293-97; first quote from 294, second from 297. See also Jackson, Child Sexual Abuse in Victorian England, 132-51.
62. George Behlmer, Friends of the Family: The English Home and Its Guardians, 1850-1940 (Stanford, 1998), 293-97; first quote from 294, second from 297. See also Jackson, Child Sexual Abuse in Victorian England, 132-51.
63. Rudolf Rocker, The London Years (London, 1956), 98.
64. The story of the Chaplins based on Charles Chaplin, My Autobiography (New York, 1964), 20, 35-40, 59, 87; David Robinson, Chaplin: His Life and Art (London, 1985), 10-36; and Kenneth S. Lynn, Charlie Chaplin and His Times (New York, 1997), 19-50. Lynn is particularly good at analyzing the unreliability of Chaplin's autobiography, 13-31.
65. The story of the Chaplins based on Charles Chaplin, My Autobiography (New York, 1964), 20, 35-40, 59, 87; David Robinson, Chaplin: His Life and Art (London, 1985), 10-36; and Kenneth S. Lynn, Charlie Chaplin and His Times (New York, 1997), 19-50. Lynn is particularly good at analyzing the unreliability of Chaplin's autobiography, 13-31.
66. The story of the Chaplins based on Charles Chaplin, My Autobiography (New York, 1964), 20, 35-40, 59, 87; David Robinson, Chaplin: His Life and Art (London, 1985), 10-36; and Kenneth S. Lynn, Charlie Chaplin and His Times (New York, 1997), 19-50. Lynn is particularly good at analyzing the unreliability of Chaplin's autobiography, 13-31.
67. Catherine Cookson, Our Kate (London, 1969), 48-49; 135; 193-94; Kathleen Jones, Catherine Cookson: The Biography (London, 1999), 23-31, 80-81, 149-52; Louie Stride, Memoirs of a Street Urchin (Bath, 1984), 17.
68. Catherine Cookson, Our Kate (London, 1969), 48-49; 135; 193-94; Kathleen Jones, Catherine Cookson: The Biography (London, 1999), 23-31, 80-81, 149-52; Louie Stride, Memoirs of a Street Urchin (Bath, 1984), 17.
69. Catherine Cookson, Our Kate (London, 1969), 48-49; 135; 193-94; Kathleen Jones, Catherine Cookson: The Biography (London, 1999), 23-31, 80-81, 149-52; Louie Stride, Memoirs of a Street Urchin (Bath, 1984), 17.
70. Stride, Memoirs of a Street Urchin, 17; Andrews in John Burnett, Destiny Obscure: Autobiographies of Childhood, Education, and Family from the 1820s to the 1920s (London, 1982), 122-23.
71. Stride, Memoirs of a Street Urchin, 17; Andrews in John Burnett, Destiny Obscure: Autobiographies of Childhood, Education, and Family from the 1820s to the 1920s (London, 1982), 122-23.
72. Derrick, Illegitimate, 31.
73. CNRS, Elizabeth Roberts's Collection, Interview with Mr. B7P (born 1904), 35.
74. Cookson, Our Kate, 110-12, quote from 112.
75. Hatcher, From the Workhouse to the Weald, 24.
76. Derrick, Illegitimate, 31-32; Hatcher, From the Workhouse to the Weald, 24-25; quotes from 25.
77. Derrick, Illegitimate, 31-32; Hatcher, From the Workhouse to the Weald, 24-25; quotes from 25.
78. Henry Morton Stanley, The Autobiography of Sir Henry Morton Stanley (London, 1909), 1-164. For a correction of the falsehoods, see John Bierman, Dark Safari: The Life Behind the Legend of Henry Morton Stanley (Dunton Green, 1992), 3-45; and Emr Wyn Jones, Sir Henry M. Stanley: The Enigma (Denbigh, 1989).
79. Henry Morton Stanley, The Autobiography of Sir Henry Morton Stanley (London, 1909), 1-164. For a correction of the falsehoods, see John Bierman, Dark Safari: The Life Behind the Legend of Henry Morton Stanley (Dunton Green, 1992), 3-45; and Emr Wyn Jones, Sir Henry M. Stanley: The Enigma (Denbigh, 1989).
80. Henry Morton Stanley, The Autobiography of Sir Henry Morton Stanley (London, 1909), 1-164. For a correction of the falsehoods, see John Bierman, Dark Safari: The Life Behind the Legend of Henry Morton Stanley (Dunton Green, 1992), 3-45; and Emr Wyn Jones, Sir Henry M. Stanley: The Enigma (Denbigh, 1989).
81. Jones, Sir Henry M. Stanley, 194; Bierman, Dark Safari, 356-57; quote from 356.
82. Jones, Sir Henry M. Stanley, 194; Bierman, Dark Safari, 356-57; quote from 356.
83. Carl Chinn, The Worked All Their Lives: Women of the Urban Poor in England, 1850-1939 (Manchester, 1988).
84. Derrick, Illegitimate, 19.
85. Ibid., 23.
86. Cookson, Our Kate, 16-17; CNRS, Elizabeth Roberts's Collection, Interview with Mrs. W1B, 78-79.
87. Lancaster Guardian Supplement, 9 November 1895, 1.
88. Cookson, Our Kate, 29.
89. Jones, Catherine Cookson, 49-52; Cookson's remarks quoted from 52.
90. CNRS, Elizabeth Roberts's Collection, Interview with Mrs. C3P (born 1897), 17, 35.
91. Ibid., Interview with Mrs. W1B, 78, 52.
92. Ibid., Interview with Mr. T1P, 9, 13.
93. Ibid., Interview with Mrs. W4P, 44.
94. Cookson, Our Kate, 50-52; 112-14; Hatcher, Workhouse and the Weald, 17-18.
95. Cookson, Our Kate, 50-52; 112-14; Hatcher, Workhouse and the Weald, 17-18.
96. Leonore Davidoff, et. al., The Family Story: Blood, Contract and Intimacy, 1830-1960 (London, 1999), 244-65.
97. John Gillis, A World of Their Own Making: Myth, Ritual, and the Quest for Family Values (New York, 1996), 7. The precise wording is "We must be careful not to confuse the family past we live by with the families that previous generations actually lived with."
98. Davidoff, et. al., The Family Story, 253-54.
99. Chinn, The Worked all Their Lives, 31.
100. J.E. Bowman, When Every Day was Summer: Boyhood and Youth in a Rural Community, 1920-1939 (Wigan, 1989), 21-26; Derrick, Illegitimate, 46.
101. J.E. Bowman, When Every Day was Summer: Boyhood and Youth in a Rural Community, 1920-1939 (Wigan, 1989), 21-26; Derrick, Illegitimate, 46.
102. Thomas Burke, A Son of London (London, 1946), 61.
103. Derrick, Illegitimate, 46.
104. I b i d.
105. CNRS, Elizabeth Roberts's Collection, Interview with Mrs. C3P, 17.
106. Cookson, Our Kate, 31-32.
107. Derrick, Illegitimate, 20.
108. Bowman, When Every Day was Summer, 21-26; quotes from 26, 25, 26.
109. Steedman, Landscape for a Good Woman, 16-17; quote from 17.
110. Derrick, Illegitimate, 20; Cookson, Our Kate, 169-70; 192-94; Jones, Catherine Cookson, 95-116; 149-54; Hatcher, Workhouse and the Weald, 69.
111. Derrick, Illegitimate, 20; Cookson, Our Kate, 169-70; 192-94; Jones, Catherine Cookson, 95-116; 149-54; Hatcher, Workhouse and the Weald, 69.
112. Derrick, Illegitimate, 20; Cookson, Our Kate, 169-70; 192-94; Jones, Catherine Cookson, 95-116; 149-54; Hatcher, Workhouse and the Weald, 69.
113. Derrick, Illegitimate, 20; Cookson, Our Kate, 169-70; 192-94; Jones, Catherine Cookson, 95-116; 149-54; Hatcher, Workhouse and the Weald, 69.
114. Kathleen Dayus, Where There is Life (London, 1985), 135-140; CNRS, Elizabeth Roberts Collection, Mrs. T5P (born 1905), 16-17; first quote from 16, second from 17. For other courtships, see Mrs. W2L, (born 1910), 235-36; Mrs. W1B (born 1900), 89-90; Mrs. S5P (born 1898), 32-33; Mrs. H7P (born 1916), 25-26; and Burnett, Destiny Obscure, 239-40.
115. Kathleen Dayus, Where There is Life (London, 1985), 135-140; CNRS, Elizabeth Roberts Collection, Mrs. T5P (born 1905), 16-17; first quote from 16, second from 17. For other courtships, see Mrs. W2L, (born 1910), 235-36; Mrs. W1B (born 1900), 89-90; Mrs. S5P (born 1898), 32-33; Mrs. H7P (born 1916), 25-26; and Burnett, Destiny Obscure, 239-40.
116. Alice Foley, A Bolton Childhood (Manchester, 1973), 9-10; Burrows in Burnett, Destiny Obscure, 235.
117. Alice Foley, A Bolton Childhood (Manchester, 1973), 9-10; Burrows in Burnett, Destiny Obscure, 235.
118. Mayhew, London Labor and the London Poor, III:391; II:226.
119. Booth, Labor and Life of the People of London, I:42-44.
120. Bowman, When Every Day was Summer, 25.
121. Chinn, They Worked All Their Lives, 146-47; quote from 146.
122. CNRS, Elizabeth Roberts's Collection, Interview with Mrs. C3P, 1-35, quotes from 1, 2, 3, 9, 33.
123. Ibid., 4-35; quote from 4.
124. Steedman, Landscape for a Good Woman, 110.
125. Cookson, Our Kate, 144-45; Jones, Catherine Cookson, 82.
126. Cookson, Our Kate, 144-45; Jones, Catherine Cookson, 82.
127. See, e.g., Ross, Love and Toil, 100; Burnett, Destiny Obscure, 262-68; Anon., Narrow Waters: The First Volume of the Life and Thoughts of a Common Man (London, 1935), 83-84; Cecile de Banke, Hand over Hand (London, 1957), 192-94; Walter Southgate, That's the Way it Was: A Working-Class Autobiography, 1890-1950 (Oxted, Surrey, 1982), 77; Dayus, Where There's Life, 95-102.
128. See, e.g., Ross, Love and Toil, 100; Burnett, Destiny Obscure, 262-68; Anon., Narrow Waters: The First Volume of the Life and Thoughts of a Common Man (London, 1935), 83-84; Cecile de Banke, Hand over Hand (London, 1957), 192-94; Walter Southgate, That's the Way it Was: A Working-Class Autobiography, 1890-1950 (Oxted, Surrey, 1982), 77; Dayus, Where There's Life, 95-102.
129. See, e.g., Ross, Love and Toil, 100; Burnett, Destiny Obscure, 262-68; Anon., Narrow Waters: The First Volume of the Life and Thoughts of a Common Man (London, 1935), 83-84; Cecile de Banke, Hand over Hand (London, 1957), 192-94; Walter Southgate, That's the Way it Was: A Working-Class Autobiography, 1890-1950 (Oxted, Surrey, 1982), 77; Dayus, Where There's Life, 95-102.
130. See, e.g., Ross, Love and Toil, 100; Burnett, Destiny Obscure, 262-68; Anon., Narrow Waters: The First Volume of the Life and Thoughts of a Common Man (London, 1935), 83-84; Cecile de Banke, Hand over Hand (London, 1957), 192-94; Walter Southgate, That's the Way it Was: A Working-Class Autobiography, 1890-1950 (Oxted, Surrey, 1982), 77; Dayus, Where There's Life, 95-102.
131. See, e.g., Ross, Love and Toil, 100; Burnett, Destiny Obscure, 262-68; Anon., Narrow Waters: The First Volume of the Life and Thoughts of a Common Man (London, 1935), 83-84; Cecile de Banke, Hand over Hand (London, 1957), 192-94; Walter Southgate, That's the Way it Was: A Working-Class Autobiography, 1890-1950 (Oxted, Surrey, 1982), 77; Dayus, Where There's Life, 95-102.
132. See, e.g., Ross, Love and Toil, 100; Burnett, Destiny Obscure, 262-68; Anon., Narrow Waters: The First Volume of the Life and Thoughts of a Common Man (London, 1935), 83-84; Cecile de Banke, Hand over Hand (London, 1957), 192-94; Walter Southgate, That's the Way it Was: A Working-Class Autobiography, 1890-1950 (Oxted, Surrey, 1982), 77; Dayus, Where There's Life, 95-102.
133. Burnett, Destiny Obscure, 78-81, quote from 78.
134. Derrick, Illegitimate, 40.
135. Ibid., 33.
136. Frederick Rogers, Labor, Life and Literature (Brighton, Sussex, 1973), 305; Boughton in Burnett, Destiny Obscure, 315.
137. Frederick Rogers, Labor, Life and Literature (Brighton, Sussex, 1973), 305; Boughton in Burnett, Destiny Obscure, 315.
138. Derrick, Illegitimate, 32-36.
139. Hopkins, Childhood Transformed; Davin, Growing Up Poor, 199-217; Behlmer, Child Abuse and Moral Reform in England, 1870-1908; Jackson, Child Sexual Abuse in Victorian England, 51-70.
140. Hopkins, Childhood Transformed; Davin, Growing Up Poor, 199-217; Behlmer, Child Abuse and Moral Reform in England, 1870-1908; Jackson, Child Sexual Abuse in Victorian England, 51-70.
141. Hopkins, Childhood Transformed; Davin, Growing Up Poor, 199-217; Behlmer, Child Abuse and Moral Reform in England, 1870-1908; Jackson, Child Sexual Abuse in Victorian England, 51-70.
142. Hopkins, Childhood Transformed; Davin, Growing Up Poor, 199-217; Behlmer, Child Abuse and Moral Reform in England, 1870-1908; Jackson, Child Sexual Abuse in Victorian England, 51-70.
143. Jackson, Child Sexual Abuse, 132-39; see also Behlmer, Friends of the Family, 293-97.
144. Jackson, Child Sexual Abuse, 132-39; see also Behlmer, Friends of the Family, 293-97.
145. Steedman, Landscape for a Good Woman, 67.