The Professional Responsibilities of Professional Schools

Journal of Legal Education

Volumn 49, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 24-39

  Rhode, Deborah L ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0347178741     PISSN: 00222208     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (117)

1. William G. McAdoo, Crowded Years, 388-89 (Boston, 1931).
2. Monroe Freedman, A Brief "Professional History," Legal Times, Dec. 17, 1990, at 22.
3. Marc Galanter, Lawyers in the Mist: The Golden Age of Legal Nostalgia, 100 Dick. L. Rev. 549 (1996).
4. Claude T. Bissel, quoted in Helen Bullock, U of T Marks 150 Years, Toronto Star, Mar. 16, 1977, at A4.
5. Gary A. Hengstler, Vox Populi: The Public Perception of Lawyers: ABA Poll, A.B.A. J., Sept. 1993, at 60, 62.
6. Id. at 63; see also Robin Pogrebin, The Observer Poll: Lawyers Overpaid, Not So Honest, N.Y. Observer, Mar. 18, 1991, at 1.
7. Hengstler, supra note 5, at 62; Randall Samborn, Anti-lawyer Attitude Up, Nat'l L.J., Aug. 9, 1993, at 1, 20; Paula L. Hannaford, What Complainants Really Expect of Lawyer Disciplinary Agencies, Prof. Law., Spring 1996, at 1, 3-4; Deborah R. Hensler & Marisa E. Reddy, California Lawyers View the Future: A Report to the Commission on the Future of the Legal Profession and the State Bar (Santa Monica, 1994).
8. Hengstler, supra note 5, at 62; Randall Samborn, Anti-lawyer Attitude Up, Nat'l L.J., Aug. 9, 1993, at 1, 20; Paula L. Hannaford, What Complainants Really Expect of Lawyer Disciplinary Agencies, Prof. Law., Spring 1996, at 1, 3-4; Deborah R. Hensler & Marisa E. Reddy, California Lawyers View the Future: A Report to the Commission on the Future of the Legal Profession and the State Bar (Santa Monica, 1994).
9. Hengstler, supra note 5, at 62; Randall Samborn, Anti-lawyer Attitude Up, Nat'l L.J., Aug. 9, 1993, at 1, 20; Paula L. Hannaford, What Complainants Really Expect of Lawyer Disciplinary Agencies, Prof. Law., Spring 1996, at 1, 3-4; Deborah R. Hensler & Marisa E. Reddy, California Lawyers View the Future: A Report to the Commission on the Future of the Legal Profession and the State Bar (Santa Monica, 1994).
10. Hengstler, supra note 5, at 62; Randall Samborn, Anti-lawyer Attitude Up, Nat'l L.J., Aug. 9, 1993, at 1, 20; Paula L. Hannaford, What Complainants Really Expect of Lawyer Disciplinary Agencies, Prof. Law., Spring 1996, at 1, 3-4; Deborah R. Hensler & Marisa E. Reddy, California Lawyers View the Future: A Report to the Commission on the Future of the Legal Profession and the State Bar (Santa Monica, 1994).
11. Leslie McAneny & David W. Moore, Annual Honesty and Ethics Poll: Congress and Media Sink in Public Esteem, Gallup Poll Monthly, Oct. 1994, at 2, 2; see also David S. Casey Jr., What Has Become of Lawyers? San Fran. Daily J., Oct. 23, 1997, at 4.
12. Leslie McAneny & David W. Moore, Annual Honesty and Ethics Poll: Congress and Media Sink in Public Esteem, Gallup Poll Monthly, Oct. 1994, at 2, 2; see also David S. Casey Jr., What Has Become of Lawyers? San Fran. Daily J., Oct. 23, 1997, at 4.
13. Mary Ann Glendon, A Nation Under Lawyers: How the Crisis in the Legal Profession Is Transforming American Society 85 (New York, 1994); Nancy McCarthy, Pessimism for the Future, Cal. B.J., Nov. 1994, at 1, 1; Samborn, supra note 7, at 20; For discussion of the perceived crisis of professionalism, see Anthony T. Kronman, The Lost Lawyer: Failing Ideals of the Legal Profession (Cambridge, Mass., 1993) and sources cited in Deborah L. Rhode, The Professionalism Problem, 39 Wm. & Mary L. Rev. 283 (1998).
14. Mary Ann Glendon, A Nation Under Lawyers: How the Crisis in the Legal Profession Is Transforming American Society 85 (New York, 1994); Nancy McCarthy, Pessimism for the Future, Cal. B.J., Nov. 1994, at 1, 1; Samborn, supra note 7, at 20; For discussion of the perceived crisis of professionalism, see Anthony T. Kronman, The Lost Lawyer: Failing Ideals of the Legal Profession (Cambridge, Mass., 1993) and sources cited in Deborah L. Rhode, The Professionalism Problem, 39 Wm. & Mary L. Rev. 283 (1998).
15. Mary Ann Glendon, A Nation Under Lawyers: How the Crisis in the Legal Profession Is Transforming American Society 85 (New York, 1994); Nancy McCarthy, Pessimism for the Future, Cal. B.J., Nov. 1994, at 1, 1; Samborn, supra note 7, at 20; For discussion of the perceived crisis of professionalism, see Anthony T. Kronman, The Lost Lawyer: Failing Ideals of the Legal Profession (Cambridge, Mass., 1993) and sources cited in Deborah L. Rhode, The Professionalism Problem, 39 Wm. & Mary L. Rev. 283 (1998).
16. Mary Ann Glendon, A Nation Under Lawyers: How the Crisis in the Legal Profession Is Transforming American Society 85 (New York, 1994); Nancy McCarthy, Pessimism for the Future, Cal. B.J., Nov. 1994, at 1, 1; Samborn, supra note 7, at 20; For discussion of the perceived crisis of professionalism, see Anthony T. Kronman, The Lost Lawyer: Failing Ideals of the Legal Profession (Cambridge, Mass., 1993) and sources cited in Deborah L. Rhode, The Professionalism Problem, 39 Wm. & Mary L. Rev. 283 (1998).
17. Mary Ann Glendon, A Nation Under Lawyers: How the Crisis in the Legal Profession Is Transforming American Society 85 (New York, 1994); Nancy McCarthy, Pessimism for the Future, Cal. B.J., Nov. 1994, at 1, 1; Samborn, supra note 7, at 20; For discussion of the perceived crisis of professionalism, see Anthony T. Kronman, The Lost Lawyer: Failing Ideals of the Legal Profession (Cambridge, Mass., 1993) and sources cited in Deborah L. Rhode, The Professionalism Problem, 39 Wm. & Mary L. Rev. 283 (1998).
18. See sources cited in Office of Legal Services, State Bar of California, And Justice for All: Fulfilling the Promise of Access to Civil Justice in California 23-27 (San Francisco, 1996) [hereinafter And Justice for All]; Albert H. Cantril, Agenda for Access: The American People and Civil Justice; Final Report on the Implications of the Comprehensive Legal Needs Study 166-271 (Chicago, 1996); Deborah L. Rhode, Too Much Law, Too Little Justice: Too Much Rhetoric, Too Little Reform, 11 Geo. J. Legal Ethics 989, 997-98 (1998).
19. See sources cited in Office of Legal Services, State Bar of California, And Justice for All: Fulfilling the Promise of Access to Civil Justice in California 23-27 (San Francisco, 1996) [hereinafter And Justice for All]; Albert H. Cantril, Agenda for Access: The American People and Civil Justice; Final Report on the Implications of the Comprehensive Legal Needs Study 166-271 (Chicago, 1996); Deborah L. Rhode, Too Much Law, Too Little Justice: Too Much Rhetoric, Too Little Reform, 11 Geo. J. Legal Ethics 989, 997-98 (1998).
20. See sources cited in Office of Legal Services, State Bar of California, And Justice for All: Fulfilling the Promise of Access to Civil Justice in California 23-27 (San Francisco, 1996) [hereinafter And Justice for All]; Albert H. Cantril, Agenda for Access: The American People and Civil Justice; Final Report on the Implications of the Comprehensive Legal Needs Study 166-271 (Chicago, 1996); Deborah L. Rhode, Too Much Law, Too Little Justice: Too Much Rhetoric, Too Little Reform, 11 Geo. J. Legal Ethics 989, 997-98 (1998).
21. See sources cited in Office of Legal Services, State Bar of California, And Justice for All: Fulfilling the Promise of Access to Civil Justice in California 23-27 (San Francisco, 1996) [hereinafter And Justice for All]; Albert H. Cantril, Agenda for Access: The American People and Civil Justice; Final Report on the Implications of the Comprehensive Legal Needs Study 166-271 (Chicago, 1996); Deborah L. Rhode, Too Much Law, Too Little Justice: Too Much Rhetoric, Too Little Reform, 11 Geo. J. Legal Ethics 989, 997-98 (1998).
22. See sources cited in Office of Legal Services, State Bar of California, And Justice for All: Fulfilling the Promise of Access to Civil Justice in California 23-27 (San Francisco, 1996) [hereinafter And Justice for All]; Albert H. Cantril, Agenda for Access: The American People and Civil Justice; Final Report on the Implications of the Comprehensive Legal Needs Study 166-271 (Chicago, 1996); Deborah L. Rhode, Too Much Law, Too Little Justice: Too Much Rhetoric, Too Little Reform, 11 Geo. J. Legal Ethics 989, 997-98 (1998).
23. George P. Costigen Jr., The Teaching of Legal Ethics, 4 Am. L. Sch. Rev. 290, 295 (1917). For an overview, see Deborah L. Rhode, Ethics by the Pervasive Method, 42 J. Legal Educ. 31 (1992).
24. George P. Costigen Jr., The Teaching of Legal Ethics, 4 Am. L. Sch. Rev. 290, 295 (1917). For an overview, see Deborah L. Rhode, Ethics by the Pervasive Method, 42 J. Legal Educ. 31 (1992).
25. Supreme Court Pronouncements on the Conduct of Lawyers, 1 J. Inst. for Study Legal Ethics 1 (1996).
26. The Trouble with Legal Ethics, 41 J. Legal Educ. 65, 66 (1991).
27. See Deborah L. Rhode, Professionalism in Perspective: Alternative Approaches to NonLawyer Practice, 22 N.Y.U. Rev. L. & Soc. Change, 701 (1996).
28. See Rhode, supra note 9, at 314-15.
29. American Bar Association, Young Lawyers Division, Career Satisfaction 11 (Chicago, 1995).
30. See Deborah L. Rhode, Into the Valley of Ethics: Professional Responsibility and Educational Reform, Law & Contemp. Probs., Autumn 1995, at 139. For efforts to promote curriculum integration, see Thomas B. Metzloff & David B. Wilkins, Teaching Legal Ethics, 58-AUT Law & Contemp. Probs. 1 (1995).
31. See Deborah L. Rhode, Into the Valley of Ethics: Professional Responsibility and Educational Reform, Law & Contemp. Probs., Autumn 1995, at 139. For efforts to promote curriculum integration, see Thomas B. Metzloff & David B. Wilkins, Teaching Legal Ethics, 58-AUT Law & Contemp. Probs. 1 (1995).
32. In the early 1990s, my survey of the casebooks by the three leading publishers found that, on the average, less than 2 percent of coverage involved issues of professional responsibility. Rhode, supra note 11, at 41. My less systematic review of current leading texts suggests only minor improvement.
33. Deborah L. Rhode, Annotated Bibliography of Educational Materials on Legal Ethics, Law & Contemp. Probs., Autumn 1995, at 361.
34. A second edition is forthcoming in the Georgetown Journal of Legal Ethics.
35. The Myth of Legal Ethics, A.B.A. J., Feb. 1978, at 202, 205.
36. A vast array of research documents how moral conduct is influenced by authority, stress, competition, peer influence, financial incentives, time constraints, and similar pressures. See the studies summarized in Rhode, supra note 11, at 45-46.
37. Peter Coles, On the Teaching of Ethics in a Pluralist Society, Hastings Center Rep., Oct. 1978, at 32.
38. See James R. Rest, Can Ethics Be Taught in Professional Schools? The Psychological Research, Ethics: Easier Said Than Done, Winter 1988, at 22, 23-24; James S. Leming, Curricular Effectiveness in Moral/Values Education: A Review of Research, 10 J. Moral Educ. 147 (1981).
39. See James R. Rest, Can Ethics Be Taught in Professional Schools? The Psychological Research, Ethics: Easier Said Than Done, Winter 1988, at 22, 23-24; James S. Leming, Curricular Effectiveness in Moral/Values Education: A Review of Research, 10 J. Moral Educ. 147 (1981).
40. Walter Mischel & Harriet N. Mischel, A Cognitive Social-Learning Approach to Morality and Self-Regulation, in Moral Development and Behavior: Theory, Research, and Social Issues, ed. Thomas Lickona, 84, 101-07 (NewYork, 1976); Albert Bandura, Social Cognitive Theory of Moral Thought and Action, in 1 Handbook of Moral Behavior and Development, eds. William M. Kurtines & Jacob L. Gewirtz, 45, 53 (Hillsdale, 1991).
41. Walter Mischel & Harriet N. Mischel, A Cognitive Social-Learning Approach to Morality and Self-Regulation, in Moral Development and Behavior: Theory, Research, and Social Issues, ed. Thomas Lickona, 84, 101-07 (NewYork, 1976); Albert Bandura, Social Cognitive Theory of Moral Thought and Action, in 1 Handbook of Moral Behavior and Development, eds. William M. Kurtines & Jacob L. Gewirtz, 45, 53 (Hillsdale, 1991).
42. Frances Kahn Zemans & Victor G. Rosenblum, The Making of a Public Profession 176-77 (Chicago, 1981).
43. American Bar Association, Section of Legal Education and Admission to the Bar, Standards for Approval of Law Schools and Interpretations, Standards 302 (e), Aug. 1996, at 31.
44. William B. Powers, Report on Law School Pro Bono Activities 2, 5 (Chicago, 1994).
45. The lowest minimum required appears to be eight hours. Id. at 3.
46. Id.; Association of American Law Schools, Commission on Pro Bono and Public Service Opportunities in Law Schools, Learning to Serve: A Summary of the Findings and Recommendations of the AALS Commission on Pro Bono and Public Service Opportunities 4 (forthcoming, 1999) [hereinafter Learning to Serve] and Id., Focus Group Interviews, June 1998 [hereinafter Focus Group Interviews].
47. Id.; Association of American Law Schools, Commission on Pro Bono and Public Service Opportunities in Law Schools, Learning to Serve: A Summary of the Findings and Recommendations of the AALS Commission on Pro Bono and Public Service Opportunities 4 (forthcoming, 1999) [hereinafter Learning to Serve] and Id., Focus Group Interviews, June 1998 [hereinafter Focus Group Interviews].
48. Id.; Association of American Law Schools, Commission on Pro Bono and Public Service Opportunities in Law Schools, Learning to Serve: A Summary of the Findings and Recommendations of the AALS Commission on Pro Bono and Public Service Opportunities 4 (forthcoming, 1999) [hereinafter Learning to Serve] and Id., Focus Group Interviews, June 1998 [hereinafter Focus Group Interviews].
49. American Bar Association, Model Rules of Professional Conduct, Rule 6.1.
50. See Tigran W. Eldred & Thomas Schoenherr, The Lawyer's Duty of Public Service: More than Charity? 96 W. Va. L. Rev. 367, 389-90 n.96 (1993-94); Rhode, supra note 9, at 291.
51. See Tigran W. Eldred & Thomas Schoenherr, The Lawyer's Duty of Public Service: More than Charity? 96 W. Va. L. Rev. 367, 389-90 n.96 (1993-94); Rhode, supra note 9, at 291.
52. Learning to Serve, supra note 29; Deborah L. Rhode, Cultures of Commitment: Pro Bono for Lawyers and Law Schools, 67 Fordham L. Rev. 901 (1999).
53. Learning to Serve, supra note 29; Deborah L. Rhode, Cultures of Commitment: Pro Bono for Lawyers and Law Schools, 67 Fordham L. Rev. 901 (1999).
54. David Luban, Lawyers and Justice: An Ethical Study 257-66 (Princeton, 1988); Frank I. Michelman, The Supreme Court and Litigation Access Fees: The Right to Protect One's Rights - Part I, 1973 Duke L.J. 1153, 1197.
55. David Luban, Lawyers and Justice: An Ethical Study 257-66 (Princeton, 1988); Frank I. Michelman, The Supreme Court and Litigation Access Fees: The Right to Protect One's Rights - Part I, 1973 Duke L.J. 1153, 1197.
56. Committee to Improve the Availability of Legal Services: Final Report to the Chief Judge of the State of New York, reprinted in 19 Hofstra L. Rev. 755, 773 (1991) [hereinafter New York Report]; And Justice for All, supra note 10, at 33-34.
57. Committee to Improve the Availability of Legal Services: Final Report to the Chief Judge of the State of New York, reprinted in 19 Hofstra L. Rev. 755, 773 (1991) [hereinafter New York Report]; And Justice for All, supra note 10, at 33-34.
58. Committee to Improve the Availability of Legal Services: Final Report to the Chief Judge of the State of New York, reprinted in 19 Hofstra L. Rev. 755, 773 (1991) [hereinafter New York Report]; And Justice for All, supra note 10, at 33-34.
59. Marvin E. Frankel, Proposal: A National Legal Service, 45 S.C. L. Rev. 887, 890 (1994); New York Report, supra note 34, at 782.
60. Marvin E. Frankel, Proposal: A National Legal Service, 45 S.C. L. Rev. 887, 890 (1994); New York Report, supra note 34, at 782.
61. Rhode, supra note 14.
62. Lisa Finnegan, A Brave New World, Wash. Law., May/June 1999, at 25.
63. Henstler, supra note 5, at 61.
64. Learning to Serve, supra note 29.
65. Law Schools and the Delivery of Legal Services: First, Do No Harm, in Civil Justice: An Agenda for the 1990s, ed. Esther F. Lardent, 47, 57 (Chicago, 1991).
66. Learning to Serve, supra note 29.
67. Mandatory Pro Bono at Tulane Law School, National Association for Public Interest Law, Connection Closeup Newsletter, Sept. 30, 1991, at 1-2; Committee on Legal Assistance, Mandatory Law School Pro Bono Programs: Preparing Students to Meet Their Ethical Obligations, 50 Record 170, 176 (1995); Focus Group Interviews, supra note 29.
68. Mandatory Pro Bono at Tulane Law School, National Association for Public Interest Law, Connection Closeup Newsletter, Sept. 30, 1991, at 1-2; Committee on Legal Assistance, Mandatory Law School Pro Bono Programs: Preparing Students to Meet Their Ethical Obligations, 50 Record 170, 176 (1995); Focus Group Interviews, supra note 29.
69. Mandatory Pro Bono at Tulane Law School, National Association for Public Interest Law, Connection Closeup Newsletter, Sept. 30, 1991, at 1-2; Committee on Legal Assistance, Mandatory Law School Pro Bono Programs: Preparing Students to Meet Their Ethical Obligations, 50 Record 170, 176 (1995); Focus Group Interviews, supra note 29.
70. Virginia A. Hodgkinson et al., Giving and Volunteering in the United States: Findings from a National Survey, 12-13, 87-88 (Washington, 1996); E. Gil Clary & Jude Miller, Socialization and Situational Influences on Sustained Altruism, 57 Child Dev. 1358, 1365-66 (1986).
71. Virginia A. Hodgkinson et al., Giving and Volunteering in the United States: Findings from a National Survey, 12-13, 87-88 (Washington, 1996); E. Gil Clary & Jude Miller, Socialization and Situational Influences on Sustained Altruism, 57 Child Dev. 1358, 1365-66 (1986).
72. Learning to Serve, supra note 29.
73. Focus Group Interviews, supra note 29; Mark S. Sobus, Mandating Community Service: Psychological Implications of Requiring Community Service, 19 Law & Psych. Rev. 153, 164, 170.
74. Focus Group Interviews, supra note 29; Mark S. Sobus, Mandating Community Service: Psychological Implications of Requiring Community Service, 19 Law & Psych. Rev. 153, 164, 170.
75. Alfie Kohn, The Brighter Side of Human Nature 91 (New York, 1990); James H. Bryan et al., Words and Deeds About Altruism and the Subsequent Reinforcement Power of the Model, 42 Child Dev. 1501, 1505-07 (1971); Joan E. Grusec, The Socialization of Altruism, in Prosocial Behavior, ed. Margaret S. Clark, 9, 13 (Newbury Park, 1991).
76. Alfie Kohn, The Brighter Side of Human Nature 91 (New York, 1990); James H. Bryan et al., Words and Deeds About Altruism and the Subsequent Reinforcement Power of the Model, 42 Child Dev. 1501, 1505-07 (1971); Joan E. Grusec, The Socialization of Altruism, in Prosocial Behavior, ed. Margaret S. Clark, 9, 13 (Newbury Park, 1991).
77. Alfie Kohn, The Brighter Side of Human Nature 91 (New York, 1990); James H. Bryan et al., Words and Deeds About Altruism and the Subsequent Reinforcement Power of the Model, 42 Child Dev. 1501, 1505-07 (1971); Joan E. Grusec, The Socialization of Altruism, in Prosocial Behavior, ed. Margaret S. Clark, 9, 13 (Newbury Park, 1991).
78. Learning to Serve, supra note 29.
79. Stewart Macaulay, Law Schools and the World Outside Their Doors II: Some Notes on Two Studies of the Chicago Bar, 32 J. Legal Educ. 506, 524 (1982). See also Jay Feinman & Marc Feldman, Pedagogy and Politics, 73 Geo. L.J. 875, 878 (1985). For the erosion of public interest commitments generally, see Robert V. Stover, Making It and Breaking It: The Fate of Public Interest Commitment During Law School (Urbana, 1989); Robert Granfield, Making Elite Lawyers: Visions of Law at Harvard and Beyond (New York, 1992).
80. Stewart Macaulay, Law Schools and the World Outside Their Doors II: Some Notes on Two Studies of the Chicago Bar, 32 J. Legal Educ. 506, 524 (1982). See also Jay Feinman & Marc Feldman, Pedagogy and Politics, 73 Geo. L.J. 875, 878 (1985). For the erosion of public interest commitments generally, see Robert V. Stover, Making It and Breaking It: The Fate of Public Interest Commitment During Law School (Urbana, 1989); Robert Granfield, Making Elite Lawyers: Visions of Law at Harvard and Beyond (New York, 1992).
81. Stewart Macaulay, Law Schools and the World Outside Their Doors II: Some Notes on Two Studies of the Chicago Bar, 32 J. Legal Educ. 506, 524 (1982). See also Jay Feinman & Marc Feldman, Pedagogy and Politics, 73 Geo. L.J. 875, 878 (1985). For the erosion of public interest commitments generally, see Robert V. Stover, Making It and Breaking It: The Fate of Public Interest Commitment During Law School (Urbana, 1989); Robert Granfield, Making Elite Lawyers: Visions of Law at Harvard and Beyond (New York, 1992).
82. Stewart Macaulay, Law Schools and the World Outside Their Doors II: Some Notes on Two Studies of the Chicago Bar, 32 J. Legal Educ. 506, 524 (1982). See also Jay Feinman & Marc Feldman, Pedagogy and Politics, 73 Geo. L.J. 875, 878 (1985). For the erosion of public interest commitments generally, see Robert V. Stover, Making It and Breaking It: The Fate of Public Interest Commitment During Law School (Urbana, 1989); Robert Granfield, Making Elite Lawyers: Visions of Law at Harvard and Beyond (New York, 1992).
83. Although recent data are unavailable, the best available estimates suggest that the number of full-time public interest lawyers is less than one attorney for every 240,000 Americans. Deborah L. Rhode & David Luban, Legal Ethics 749-50 (New York, 1995).
84. Deborah L. Rhode, The Delivery of Legal Services by Nonlawyers, 4 Geo. J. Legal Ethics 209 (1990).
85. Id.
86. Linda F. Wightman, The Threat to Diversity in Legal Education: An Empirical Analysis of the Consequences of Abandoning Race as a Factor in Law School Admission Decisions, 72 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 1, 15-16 (1997).
87. Richard A. White, Summary from the Directory of Law Teachers, Unpublished Memoranda 1998; American Bar Association, Commission on Women in the Profession, Elusive Equality: The Experiences of Women in Legal Education (Chicago, 1996).
88. Richard A. White, Summary from the Directory of Law Teachers, Unpublished Memoranda 1998; American Bar Association, Commission on Women in the Profession, Elusive Equality: The Experiences of Women in Legal Education (Chicago, 1996).
89. Linda F. Wightman, Law School Admission Council Research Report series, Women in Legal Education: A Comparison of the Law School Performance and Law School Experiences of Women and Men 25 (Newtown, 1996); Deborah L. Rhode, Whistling Vivaldi: Legal Education and the Politics of Progress, 23 N.Y.U. Rev. L. & Soc. Change 217 (1997).
90. Linda F. Wightman, Law School Admission Council Research Report series, Women in Legal Education: A Comparison of the Law School Performance and Law School Experiences of Women and Men 25 (Newtown, 1996); Deborah L. Rhode, Whistling Vivaldi: Legal Education and the Politics of Progress, 23 N.Y.U. Rev. L. & Soc. Change 217 (1997).
91. Law School Outreach Project of the Chicago Bar Association Alliance for Women, Women Students' Experience of Gender Bias in Chicago Area Law Schools: A Step Toward Gender Bias Free Jurisprudence 24 (Chicago, 1995) [hereinafter Women Students' Experience].
92. Law School Outreach Project of the Chicago Bar Association Alliance for Women, Women Students' Experience of Gender Bias in Chicago Area Law Schools: A Step Toward Gender Bias Free Jurisprudence 24 (Chicago, 1995) [hereinafter Women Students' Experience].
93. Wightman, supra note 54, at 35-37, 72-74, and table 17; Lani Guinier, Becoming Gentlemen: Women, Law School, and Institutional Change 28-29, 51-62 (Boston, 1997).
94. Wightman, supra note 54, at 35-37, 72-74, and table 17; Lani Guinier, Becoming Gentlemen: Women, Law School, and Institutional Change 28-29, 51-62 (Boston, 1997).
95. 78 F.3d 932 (5th Cir. 1996), cert. den., 518 U.S. 1033 (1996).
96. American Bar Association, Commission on Minorities in the Profession, Miles to Go: Progress of Minorities in the Legal Profession 16-17 (Chicago, 1998) [hereinafter Miles to Go].
97. American Bar Association, Commission on Minorities in the Profession, Miles to Go: Progress of Minorities in the Legal Profession 16-17 (Chicago, 1998) [hereinafter Miles to Go].
98. Association of American Law Schools, Statement on Diversity (Washington, 1998).
99. LSAT scores predict only about 15 percent of the variation in first-year grades, and those scores combined with GPAs account for less than a quarter. Wightman, supra note 54, at 29-34. Yet a one-point difference on the LSAT can make the difference between admission and rejection even though that difference is not statistically significant. Miles to Go, supra note 58, at 18; Kacy Collons Keys, Privileged Classes, Recorder, May 28, 1997, at 4.
100. LSAT scores predict only about 15 percent of the variation in first-year grades, and those scores combined with GPAs account for less than a quarter. Wightman, supra note 54, at 29- 34. Yet a one-point difference on the LSAT can make the difference between admission and rejection even though that difference is not statistically significant. Miles to Go, supra note 58, at 18; Kacy Collons Keys, Privileged Classes, Recorder, May 28, 1997, at 4.
101. LSAT scores predict only about 15 percent of the variation in first-year grades, and those scores combined with GPAs account for less than a quarter. Wightman, supra note 54, at 29- 34. Yet a one-point difference on the LSAT can make the difference between admission and rejection even though that difference is not statistically significant. Miles to Go, supra note 58, at 18; Kacy Collons Keys, Privileged Classes, Recorder, May 28, 1997, at 4.
102. Rhode, supra note 54, at 220; Women Students' Experience, supra note 55; Lorraine Dusky, Still Unequal: The Shameful Truth About Women and Justice in America 39 (New York, 1996).
103. Rhode, supra note 54, at 220; Women Students' Experience, supra note 55; Lorraine Dusky, Still Unequal: The Shameful Truth About Women and Justice in America 39 (New York, 1996).
104. Rhode, supra note 54, at 220; Women Students' Experience, supra note 55; Lorraine Dusky, Still Unequal: The Shameful Truth About Women and Justice in America 39 (New York, 1996).
105. Janice L. Austin et al., Results from a Survey: Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Students' Attitudes About Law School, 48 J. Legal Educ. 157 (1998); Wightman, supra note 54. A large-scale study currently underway is Richard Sander et al., Interim Report, National Study of Student Performance in the First Year of Law School (U.C.L.A. unpublished paper, 1998).
106. Janice L. Austin et al., Results from a Survey: Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Students' Attitudes About Law School, 48 J. Legal Educ. 157 (1998); Wightman, supra note 54. A large-scale study currently underway is Richard Sander et al., Interim Report, National Study of Student Performance in the First Year of Law School (U.C.L.A. unpublished paper, 1998).
107. Janice L. Austin et al., Results from a Survey: Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Students' Attitudes About Law School, 48 J. Legal Educ. 157 (1998); Wightman, supra note 54. A large-scale study currently underway is Richard Sander et al., Interim Report, National Study of Student Performance in the First Year of Law School (U.C.L.A. unpublished paper, 1998).
108. Women Students' Experience, supra note 55, at 27; Scott N. Ihrig, Sexual Orientation in Law School: Experiences of Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Law Students, 14 Law & Inequality 555, 568 (1996).
109. Women Students' Experience, supra note 55, at 27; Scott N. Ihrig, Sexual Orientation in Law School: Experiences of Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Law Students, 14 Law & Inequality 555, 568 (1996).
110. Women Students' Experience, supra note 55, at vii, 35; Dusky, supra note 61, at 28; Guinier, supra note 56, at 68.
111. Women Students' Experience, supra note 55, at vii, 35; Dusky, supra note 61, at 28; Guinier, supra note 56, at 68.
112. Women Students' Experience, supra note 55, at vii, 35; Dusky, supra note 61, at 28; Guinier, supra note 56, at 68.
113. Women Students' Experience, supra note 55, at 27.
114. Guinier, supra note 56, at 28-29; Rhode, supra note 54, at 223;
115. Guinier, supra note 56, at 28-29; Rhode, supra note 54, at 223;
116. Women Students' Experience, supra note 55, at 20-22, 31-32.
117. A significant number of institutions have undertaken or participated in such studies, and a 1998 ABA report provides a good overview of information that has been and can be collected. ABA Commission on Women in the Profession, Don't Just Hear It Through the Grapevine: Studying Gender Questions at Your Law School (Chicago, 1998).