Multivocal Prejudices and Homo Equality

Indiana Law Journal

Volumn 74, Issue 4, 1999, Pages

  Eskridge Jr , William N ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0347174841     PISSN: 00196665     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (243)

1. See WILLIAM N. ESKRIDGE, JR., GAYLAW: CHALLENGING THE APARTHEID OF THE CLOSET apps. 2A, 2E (forthcoming 1999).
2. For cases discriminating against gay parents in custody disputes, see, for example, S. v. S., 608 S.W.2d 64 (Ky. Ct. App. 1980); G.A. v. D.A., 745 S.W.2d 726 (Mo. Ct. App. 1987); and Roe v. Roe, 324 S.E.2d 691 (Va. 1985). For bans against adoption by gay people, see FLA. STAT. ANN. § 63.042(3) (West 1997), and In re Appeal ofPima County Juvenile Action B-10489, 727 P.2d 830 (Ariz. Ct. App. 1986). The armed forces exclusion is 10 U.S.C. § 654 (1994). These antigay exclusions are analyzed in WILLIAM N. ESKRIDGE, JR. & NAN D. HUNTER, SEXUALITY, GENDER, AND THE LAW 388-407 (1997).
3. See, e.g., Defense of Marriage Act, 28 U.S.C. § 17376 (Supp. II 1996).
4. For cases excluding sexual orientation discrimination from Title VII, see, for example, Dillon v. Frank, No. 90-2290, 1992 WL 5436 (6th Cir. Jan. 15, 1992) (gay man harassed by coworkers); Ulane v. Eastern Airlines, 742 F.2d 1081 (7th Cir. 1984) (transsexual); De Santis v. Pacific Telephone & Telephone Co., 608 F.2d 327 (9th Cir. 1979) (discrimination and/or harassment claims by effeminate man, lesbian couple, and other gay people); and Katharine M. Franke, What's Wrong with Sexual Harassment?, 49 STAN. L. REV. 691 (1997) (exhaustive survey of cases). See also 29 U.S.C.A. § 705(20)(F)(i) (West 1999) (excluding transvestites and transsexuals from previous protection under Rehabilitation Act); 42 U.S.C. § 12208 (1994) (excluding transsexualism, transvestism, and homosexuality from "disabilities" covered under the Americans with Disabilities Act).
5. For cases excluding sexual orientation discrimination from Title VII, see, for example, Dillon v. Frank, No. 90-2290, 1992 WL 5436 (6th Cir. Jan. 15, 1992) (gay man harassed by coworkers); Ulane v. Eastern Airlines, 742 F.2d 1081 (7th Cir. 1984) (transsexual); De Santis v. Pacific Telephone & Telephone Co., 608 F.2d 327 (9th Cir. 1979) (discrimination and/or harassment claims by effeminate man, lesbian couple, and other gay people); and Katharine M. Franke, What's Wrong with Sexual Harassment?, 49 STAN. L. REV. 691 (1997) (exhaustive survey of cases). See also 29 U.S.C.A. § 705(20)(F)(i) (West 1999) (excluding transvestites and transsexuals from previous protection under Rehabilitation Act); 42 U.S.C. § 12208 (1994) (excluding transsexualism, transvestism, and homosexuality from "disabilities" covered under the Americans with Disabilities Act).
6. For cases excluding sexual orientation discrimination from Title VII, see, for example, Dillon v. Frank, No. 90-2290, 1992 WL 5436 (6th Cir. Jan. 15, 1992) (gay man harassed by coworkers); Ulane v. Eastern Airlines, 742 F.2d 1081 (7th Cir. 1984) (transsexual); De Santis v. Pacific Telephone & Telephone Co., 608 F.2d 327 (9th Cir. 1979) (discrimination and/or harassment claims by effeminate man, lesbian couple, and other gay people); and Katharine M. Franke, What's Wrong with Sexual Harassment?, 49 STAN. L. REV. 691 (1997) (exhaustive survey of cases). See also 29 U.S.C.A. § 705(20)(F)(i) (West 1999) (excluding transvestites and transsexuals from previous protection under Rehabilitation Act); 42 U.S.C. § 12208 (1994) (excluding transsexualism, transvestism, and homosexuality from "disabilities" covered under the Americans with Disabilities Act).
7. For cases excluding sexual orientation discrimination from Title VII, see, for example, Dillon v. Frank, No. 90-2290, 1992 WL 5436 (6th Cir. Jan. 15, 1992) (gay man harassed by coworkers); Ulane v. Eastern Airlines, 742 F.2d 1081 (7th Cir. 1984) (transsexual); De Santis v. Pacific Telephone & Telephone Co., 608 F.2d 327 (9th Cir. 1979) (discrimination and/or harassment claims by effeminate man, lesbian couple, and other gay people); and Katharine M. Franke, What's Wrong with Sexual Harassment?, 49 STAN. L. REV. 691 (1997) (exhaustive survey of cases). See also 29 U.S.C.A. § 705(20)(F)(i) (West 1999) (excluding transvestites and transsexuals from previous protection under Rehabilitation Act); 42 U.S.C. § 12208 (1994) (excluding transsexualism, transvestism, and homosexuality from "disabilities" covered under the Americans with Disabilities Act).
8. For cases excluding sexual orientation discrimination from Title VII, see, for example, Dillon v. Frank, No. 90-2290, 1992 WL 5436 (6th Cir. Jan. 15, 1992) (gay man harassed by coworkers); Ulane v. Eastern Airlines, 742 F.2d 1081 (7th Cir. 1984) (transsexual); De Santis v. Pacific Telephone & Telephone Co., 608 F.2d 327 (9th Cir. 1979) (discrimination and/or harassment claims by effeminate man, lesbian couple, and other gay people); and Katharine M. Franke, What's Wrong with Sexual Harassment?, 49 STAN. L. REV. 691 (1997) (exhaustive survey of cases). See also 29 U.S.C.A. § 705(20)(F)(i) (West 1999) (excluding transvestites and transsexuals from previous protection under Rehabilitation Act); 42 U.S.C. § 12208 (1994) (excluding transsexualism, transvestism, and homosexuality from "disabilities" covered under the Americans with Disabilities Act).
9. For cases excluding sexual orientation discrimination from Title VII, see, for example, Dillon v. Frank, No. 90-2290, 1992 WL 5436 (6th Cir. Jan. 15, 1992) (gay man harassed by coworkers); Ulane v. Eastern Airlines, 742 F.2d 1081 (7th Cir. 1984) (transsexual); De Santis v. Pacific Telephone & Telephone Co., 608 F.2d 327 (9th Cir. 1979) (discrimination and/or harassment claims by effeminate man, lesbian couple, and other gay people); and Katharine M. Franke, What's Wrong with Sexual Harassment?, 49 STAN. L. REV. 691 (1997) (exhaustive survey of cases). See also 29 U.S.C.A. § 705(20)(F)(i) (West 1999) (excluding transvestites and transsexuals from previous protection under Rehabilitation Act); 42 U.S.C. § 12208 (1994) (excluding transsexualism, transvestism, and homosexuality from "disabilities" covered under the Americans with Disabilities Act).
10. 478 U.S. 186 (1986).
11. 517 U.S. 620 (1996).
12. 852 P.2d 44 (Haw. 1993), on remand sub nom. Baehr v. Miike, CIV. No. 91-1394, 1996 WL 694235 (Haw. Cir. Ct. Dec. 3, 1996) (on appeal as of May 1, 1999).
13. See WILLIAM E. NELSON, THE FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT (1988); Melissa L. Saunders, Equal Protection, Class Legislation, and Color-Blindness, 96 MICH. L. REV. 245 (1997); Joseph Tussman & Jacobus tenBroek, The Equal Protection of the Laws, 37 CAL. L. REV. 341 (1949).
14. See WILLIAM E. NELSON, THE FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT (1988); Melissa L. Saunders, Equal Protection, Class Legislation, and Color-Blindness, 96 MICH. L. REV. 245 (1997); Joseph Tussman & Jacobus tenBroek, The Equal Protection of the Laws, 37 CAL. L. REV. 341 (1949).
15. See WILLIAM E. NELSON, THE FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT (1988); Melissa L. Saunders, Equal Protection, Class Legislation, and Color-Blindness, 96 MICH. L. REV. 245 (1997); Joseph Tussman & Jacobus tenBroek, The Equal Protection of the Laws, 37 CAL. L. REV. 341 (1949).
16. 163 U.S. 537 (1896).
17. See David M. Bixby, The Roosevelt Court, Democratic Ideology, and Minority Rights: Another Look at United States v. Classic, 90 YALE L.J. 741, 753-65 (1981).
18. 304 U.S. 144, 152 n.4 (1938); see Louis Lusky, Minority Rights and the Public Interest, 52 YALE L.J. 1, 20-21 (1942) (articulating a "representation-reinforcing" theory of judicial review based on footnote 4); see also JOHN HART ELY, DEMOCRACY AND DISTRUST 75-77 (1980) (discussing Carolene Products footnote 4).
19. 304 U.S. 144, 152 n.4 (1938); see Louis Lusky, Minority Rights and the Public Interest, 52 YALE L.J. 1, 20-21 (1942) (articulating a "representation-reinforcing" theory of judicial review based on footnote 4); see also JOHN HART ELY, DEMOCRACY AND DISTRUST 75-77 (1980) (discussing Carolene Products footnote 4).
20. 304 U.S. 144, 152 n.4 (1938); see Louis Lusky, Minority Rights and the Public Interest, 52 YALE L.J. 1, 20-21 (1942) (articulating a "representation-reinforcing" theory of judicial review based on footnote 4); see also JOHN HART ELY, DEMOCRACY AND DISTRUST 75-77 (1980) (discussing Carolene Products footnote 4).
21. 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
22. 388 U.S. 1 (1967).
23. See Washington v. Davis, 426 U.S. 229, 239-40 (1976); Keyes v. School Dist. No. 1, 413 U.S. 189, 208 (1973).
24. See Washington v. Davis, 426 U.S. 229, 239-40 (1976); Keyes v. School Dist. No. 1, 413 U.S. 189, 208 (1973).
25. See Davis, 426 U.S. at 239; Keyes, 413 U.S. at 208.
26. See Davis, 426 U.S. at 239; Keyes, 413 U.S. at 208.
27. The Court has been skeptical of such policies since Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, 438 U.S. 265, 290 (1978), and has deepened that skepticism in City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co., 488 U.S. 469 (1989), and Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Pena, 515 U.S. 200 (1995).
28. See Gerald Gunther, The Supreme Court, 1971 Term - Foreword: In Search of Evolving Doctrine on a Changing Court: A Model for a Newer Equal Protection, 86 HARV. L. REV. 1, 37 (1972).
29. These are comprehensively excerpted and analyzed in BARBARA ALLEN BABCOCK ET AL., SEX DISCRIMINATION AND THE LAW: HISTORY, PRACTICE, AND THEORY ch. 1 (1996).
30. 429 U.S. 190, 198 (1976).
31. This theme had been sounded in earlier cases. See Frontiero v. Richardson, 411 U.S. 677 (1973) (plurality opinion) (holding a male spouse of an Air Force officer a dependent by the same standards as a female spouse); Stanton v. Stanton, 421 U.S. 7 (1975) (holding a divorcee mother liable for child support); Weinberger v. Weisenfeld, 420 U.S. 636 (1975) (holding differences in social security survivor's benefits based on gender unconstitutional). The theme provided a basis for upholding discriminations in, for example, Schlesinger v. Ballard, 419 U.S. 498 (1975) (upholding differences between male and female Naval officers' mandatory retirement provisions).
32. But compare Schlesinger, 419 U.S. at 507, and Kahn v. Shevin, 416 U.S. 351, 355 (1974), both of which upheld sex discriminations, in part because they were adopted for the permissible purpose of remedying disadvantages suffered by women.
33. See Reed v. Reed, 404 U.S. 71, 76 (1971).
34. See, e.g., Craig, 429 U.S. at 197; Califano v. Goldfarb, 430 U.S. 199, 210-11 (1977) (social security survivor's benefits); Orr v. Orr, 440 U.S. 268, 279 (1979) (alimony payments by wife for husband).
35. See, e.g., Craig, 429 U.S. at 197; Califano v. Goldfarb, 430 U.S. 199, 210-11 (1977) Califano v. Goldfarb,(social security survivor's benefits); Orr v. Orr, 440 U.S. 268, 279 (1979) (alimony payments by wife for husband).
36. See, e.g., Craig, 429 U.S. at 197; Califano v. Goldfarb, 430 U.S. 199, 210-11 (1977) Califano v. Goldfarb,(social security survivor's benefits); Orr v. Orr, 440 U.S. 268, 279 (1979) (alimony payments by wife for husband).
37. See Michael M. v. Superior Court, 450 U.S. 464 (1981) (statutory rape law); Rostker v. Goldberg, 453 U.S. 57 (1981) (Selective Service Act).
38. See Michael M. v. Superior Court, 450 U.S. 464 (1981) (statutory rape law); Rostker v. Goldberg, 453 U.S. 57 (1981) (Selective Service Act).
39. Almost all of the early gay equality cases were brought under the Due Process Clause. See William N. Eskridge, Jr., Challenging the Apartheid of the Closet: Establishing Conditions for Lesbian and Gay Intimacy, Nomos, and Citizenship, 1961-1981, 25 HOFSTRA L. REV. 817 (1997). However, cases in the last decade have emphasized equal protection arguments. See ESKRIDGE & HUNTER, supra note 2, at 92-124, 301-04, 374-404, 638-39, 807-13, 913-37.
40. Almost all of the early gay equality cases were brought under the Due Process Clause. See William N. Eskridge, Jr., Challenging the Apartheid of the Closet: Establishing Conditions for Lesbian and Gay Intimacy, Nomos, and Citizenship, 1961-1981, 25 HOFSTRA L. REV. 817 (1997). However, cases in the last decade have emphasized equal protection arguments. See ESKRIDGE & HUNTER, supra note 2, at 92-124, 301-04, 374-404, 638-39, 807-13, 913-37.
41. 517 U.S. 620 (1996). Commentary on this decision has already proliferated. Those that have most influenced my thinking are Akhil Reed Amar, Attainder and Amendment 2: Romer's Pightness, 95 MICH. L. REV. 203 (1997); Daniel Farber & Suzanna Sherry, The Pariah Principle, 13 CONST. COMMENTARY 257 (1996); Toni Massaro, Gay Rights, Thick and Thin, 49 STAN. L. REV. 45 (1996); Jane S. Schacter, Romer v. Evans and Democracy's Domain, 50 VAND. L. REV. 361 (1997); and Louis Michael Seidman, Romer's Radicalism: The Unexpected Revival of Warren Court Activism, 1996 SUP. CT. REV. 67. The best pre-Evans debate is between Kenneth L. Karst, LAW'S PROMISE, LAW'S EXPRESSION: VISIONS OF POWER IN THE POLITICS OF RACE, GENDER, AND RELIGION 182-86 (1993), and Richard F. Duncan & Gary L. Young, Homosexual Rights and Citizen Initiatives: Is Constitutionalism Unconstitutional?, 9 NOTRE DAME J.L. ETHICS & PUB. POL'Y 93-135 (1995).
42. 517 U.S. 620 (1996). Commentary on this decision has already proliferated. Those that have most influenced my thinking are Akhil Reed Amar, Attainder and Amendment 2: Romer's Pightness, 95 MICH. L. REV. 203 (1997); Daniel Farber & Suzanna Sherry, The Pariah Principle, 13 CONST. COMMENTARY 257 (1996); Toni Massaro, Gay Rights, Thick and Thin, 49 STAN. L. REV. 45 (1996); Jane S. Schacter, Romer v. Evans and Democracy's Domain, 50 VAND. L. REV. 361 (1997); and Louis Michael Seidman, Romer's Radicalism: The Unexpected Revival of Warren Court Activism, 1996 SUP. CT. REV. 67. The best pre-Evans debate is between Kenneth L. Karst, LAW'S PROMISE, LAW'S EXPRESSION: VISIONS OF POWER IN THE POLITICS OF RACE, GENDER, AND RELIGION 182-86 (1993), and Richard F. Duncan & Gary L. Young, Homosexual Rights and Citizen Initiatives: Is Constitutionalism Unconstitutional?, 9 NOTRE DAME J.L. ETHICS & PUB. POL'Y 93-135 (1995).
43. 517 U.S. 620 (1996). Commentary on this decision has already proliferated. Those that have most influenced my thinking are Akhil Reed Amar, Attainder and Amendment 2: Romer's Pightness, 95 MICH. L. REV. 203 (1997); Daniel Farber & Suzanna Sherry, The Pariah Principle, 13 CONST. COMMENTARY 257 (1996); Toni Massaro, Gay Rights, Thick and Thin, 49 STAN. L. REV. 45 (1996); Jane S. Schacter, Romer v. Evans and Democracy's Domain, 50 VAND. L. REV. 361 (1997); and Louis Michael Seidman, Romer's Radicalism: The Unexpected Revival of Warren Court Activism, 1996 SUP. CT. REV. 67. The best pre-Evans debate is between Kenneth L. Karst, LAW'S PROMISE, LAW'S EXPRESSION: VISIONS OF POWER IN THE POLITICS OF RACE, GENDER, AND RELIGION 182-86 (1993), and Richard F. Duncan & Gary L. Young, Homosexual Rights and Citizen Initiatives: Is Constitutionalism Unconstitutional?, 9 NOTRE DAME J.L. ETHICS & PUB. POL'Y 93-135 (1995).
44. 517 U.S. 620 (1996). Commentary on this decision has already proliferated. Those that have most influenced my thinking are Akhil Reed Amar, Attainder and Amendment 2: Romer's Pightness, 95 MICH. L. REV. 203 (1997); Daniel Farber & Suzanna Sherry, The Pariah Principle, 13 CONST. COMMENTARY 257 (1996); Toni Massaro, Gay Rights, Thick and Thin, 49 STAN. L. REV. 45 (1996); Jane S. Schacter, Romer v. Evans and Democracy's Domain, 50 VAND. L. REV. 361 (1997); and Louis Michael Seidman, Romer's Radicalism: The Unexpected Revival of Warren Court Activism, 1996 SUP. CT. REV. 67. The best pre-Evans debate is between Kenneth L. Karst, LAW'S PROMISE, LAW'S EXPRESSION: VISIONS OF POWER IN THE POLITICS OF RACE, GENDER, AND RELIGION 182-86 (1993), and Richard F. Duncan & Gary L. Young, Homosexual Rights and Citizen Initiatives: Is Constitutionalism Unconstitutional?, 9 NOTRE DAME J.L. ETHICS & PUB. POL'Y 93-135 (1995).
45. 517 U.S. 620 (1996). Commentary on this decision has already proliferated. Those that have most influenced my thinking are Akhil Reed Amar, Attainder and Amendment 2: Romer's Pightness, 95 MICH. L. REV. 203 (1997); Daniel Farber & Suzanna Sherry, The Pariah Principle, 13 CONST. COMMENTARY 257 (1996); Toni Massaro, Gay Rights, Thick and Thin, 49 STAN. L. REV. 45 (1996); Jane S. Schacter, Romer v. Evans and Democracy's Domain, 50 VAND. L. REV. 361 (1997); and Louis Michael Seidman, Romer's Radicalism: The Unexpected Revival of Warren Court Activism, 1996 SUP. CT. REV. 67. The best pre-Evans debate is between Kenneth L. Karst, LAW'S PROMISE, LAW'S EXPRESSION: VISIONS OF POWER IN THE POLITICS OF RACE, GENDER, AND RELIGION 182-86 (1993), and Richard F. Duncan & Gary L. Young, Homosexual Rights and Citizen Initiatives: Is Constitutionalism Unconstitutional?, 9 NOTRE DAME J.L. ETHICS & PUB. POL'Y 93-135 (1995).
46. 517 U.S. 620 (1996). Commentary on this decision has already proliferated. Those that have most influenced my thinking are Akhil Reed Amar, Attainder and Amendment 2: Romer's Pightness, 95 MICH. L. REV. 203 (1997); Daniel Farber & Suzanna Sherry, The Pariah Principle, 13 CONST. COMMENTARY 257 (1996); Toni Massaro, Gay Rights, Thick and Thin, 49 STAN. L. REV. 45 (1996); Jane S. Schacter, Romer v. Evans and Democracy's Domain, 50 VAND. L. REV. 361 (1997); and Louis Michael Seidman, Romer's Radicalism: The Unexpected Revival of Warren Court Activism, 1996 SUP. CT. REV. 67. The best pre-Evans debate is between Kenneth L. Karst, LAW'S PROMISE, LAW'S EXPRESSION: VISIONS OF POWER IN THE POLITICS OF RACE, GENDER, AND RELIGION 182-86 (1993), and Richard F. Duncan & Gary L. Young, Homosexual Rights and Citizen Initiatives: Is Constitutionalism Unconstitutional?, 9 NOTRE DAME J.L. ETHICS & PUB. POL'Y 93-135 (1995).
47. 517 U.S. 620 (1996). Commentary on this decision has already proliferated. Those that have most influenced my thinking are Akhil Reed Amar, Attainder and Amendment 2: Romer's Pightness, 95 MICH. L. REV. 203 (1997); Daniel Farber & Suzanna Sherry, The Pariah Principle, 13 CONST. COMMENTARY 257 (1996); Toni Massaro, Gay Rights, Thick and Thin, 49 STAN. L. REV. 45 (1996); Jane S. Schacter, Romer v. Evans and Democracy's Domain, 50 VAND. L. REV. 361 (1997); and Louis Michael Seidman, Romer's Radicalism: The Unexpected Revival of Warren Court Activism, 1996 SUP. CT. REV. 67. The best pre-Evans debate is between Kenneth L. Karst, LAW'S PROMISE, LAW'S EXPRESSION: VISIONS OF POWER IN THE POLITICS OF RACE, GENDER, AND RELIGION 182-86 (1993), and Richard F. Duncan & Gary L. Young, Homosexual Rights and Citizen Initiatives: Is Constitutionalism Unconstitutional?, 9 NOTRE DAME J.L. ETHICS & PUB. POL'Y 93-135 (1995).
48. 517 U.S. 620 (1996). Commentary on this decision has already proliferated. Those that have most influenced my thinking are Akhil Reed Amar, Attainder and Amendment 2: Romer's Pightness, 95 MICH. L. REV. 203 (1997); Daniel Farber & Suzanna Sherry, The Pariah Principle, 13 CONST. COMMENTARY 257 (1996); Toni Massaro, Gay Rights, Thick and Thin, 49 STAN. L. REV. 45 (1996); Jane S. Schacter, Romer v. Evans and Democracy's Domain, 50 VAND. L. REV. 361 (1997); and Louis Michael Seidman, Romer's Radicalism: The Unexpected Revival of Warren Court Activism, 1996 SUP. CT. REV. 67. The best pre-Evans debate is between Kenneth L. Karst, LAW'S PROMISE, LAW'S EXPRESSION: VISIONS OF POWER IN THE POLITICS OF RACE, GENDER, AND RELIGION 182-86 (1993), and Richard F. Duncan & Gary L. Young, Homosexual Rights and Citizen Initiatives: Is Constitutionalism Unconstitutional?, 9 NOTRE DAME J.L. ETHICS & PUB. POL'Y 93-135 (1995).
49. Bowers v. Hardwick, 478 U.S. 186, 188 & n.2 (1986).
50. The first state to make only same-sex, and not different-sex, consensual sodomy a crime was Kansas. See 1969 KAN. SESS. LAWS § 21-3505. For a history of sodomy laws, which traditionally did not apply to woman-woman intercourse but did apply to man-woman and man-man intercourse,see William N. Eskridge, Jr.Hardwick and Historiography, 1999 U.Ill. L. Rev.(fourthcoming).
51. The first state to make only same-sex, and not different-sex, consensual sodomy a crime was Kansas. See 1969 KAN. SESS. LAWS § 21-3505. For a history of sodomy laws, which traditionally did not apply to woman-woman intercourse but did apply to man-woman and man-man intercourse,see William N. Eskridge, Jr.Hardwick and Historiography, 1999 U.Ill. L. Rev.(fourthcoming).
52. Revulsion against oral or anal sex per se would not support the Hardwick distinction. If it is okay for Bill and Monica to enjoy oral sex but not for Monica and Linda, the reason cannot be revulsion at oral sex per se. Instead, it must be either a reaction to Monica's violating her gender role in the latter case, or the suggestion that the act reflects an illegitimate desire of Monica for a woman rather than a man.
53. The venereal disease argument is made in, for example, LAWRENCE BURTOFT, SETTING THE RECORD STRAIGHT: WHAT RESEARCH REALLY SAYS ABOUT THE SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES OF HOMOSEXUALITY 32-35 (1995), and in amicus briefs filed by antigay traditionalists in some sodomy cases, including Hardwick. Public health professionals in sodomy-challenge cases have disavowed such arguments, for reasons discussed approvingly in Gryczan v. State, 942 P.2d 112, 123-24 (Mont. 1997); Campbell v. Sundquist, 926 S.W.2d 250, 263-64 (Tenn. Ct. App. 1996); and TOMAS J. PHILIPSON & RICHARD A. POSNER, PRIVATE CHOICES AND PUBLIC HEALTH: THE AIDS EPIDEMIC IN AN ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE (1993).
54. The venereal disease argument is made in, for example, LAWRENCE BURTOFT, SETTING THE RECORD STRAIGHT: WHAT RESEARCH REALLY SAYS ABOUT THE SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES OF HOMOSEXUALITY 32-35 (1995), and in amicus briefs filed by antigay traditionalists in some sodomy cases, including Hardwick. Public health professionals in sodomy-challenge cases have disavowed such arguments, for reasons discussed approvingly in Gryczan v. State, 942 P.2d 112, 123-24 (Mont. 1997); Campbell v. Sundquist, 926 S.W.2d 250, 263-64 (Tenn. Ct. App. 1996); and TOMAS J. PHILIPSON & RICHARD A. POSNER, PRIVATE CHOICES AND PUBLIC HEALTH: THE AIDS EPIDEMIC IN AN ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE (1993).
55. The venereal disease argument is made in, for example, LAWRENCE BURTOFT, SETTING THE RECORD STRAIGHT: WHAT RESEARCH REALLY SAYS ABOUT THE SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES OF HOMOSEXUALITY 32-35 (1995), and in amicus briefs filed by antigay traditionalists in some sodomy cases, including Hardwick. Public health professionals in sodomy-challenge cases have disavowed such arguments, for reasons discussed approvingly in Gryczan v. State, 942 P.2d 112, 123-24 (Mont. 1997); Campbell v. Sundquist, 926 S.W.2d 250, 263-64 (Tenn. Ct. App. 1996); and TOMAS J. PHILIPSON & RICHARD A. POSNER, PRIVATE CHOICES AND PUBLIC HEALTH: THE AIDS EPIDEMIC IN AN ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE (1993).
56. The venereal disease argument is made in, for example, LAWRENCE BURTOFT, SETTING THE RECORD STRAIGHT: WHAT RESEARCH REALLY SAYS ABOUT THE SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES OF HOMOSEXUALITY 32-35 (1995), and in amicus briefs filed by antigay traditionalists in some sodomy cases, including Hardwick. Public health professionals in sodomy-challenge cases have disavowed such arguments, for reasons discussed approvingly in Gryczan v. State, 942 P.2d 112, 123-24 (Mont. 1997); Campbell v. Sundquist, 926 S.W.2d 250, 263-64 (Tenn. Ct. App. 1996); and TOMAS J. PHILIPSON & RICHARD A. POSNER, PRIVATE CHOICES AND PUBLIC HEALTH: THE AIDS EPIDEMIC IN AN ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE (1993).
57. The Supreme Court ruled that Georgia's criminalization of homosexual sodomy was rationally related to its popular disapproval of homosexuality. See Hardwick, 478 U.S. at 196. But if the Georgia law were applied as it is written, to make different-sex as well as same-sex sodomy a felony, it might not be able to rest upon that basis. As the large majority of heterosexuals commit oral sex, the crime for which Hardwick was arrested, the Georgia law might no longer be supported by popular sentiment.
58. The Court's silence about Hardwick is striking in light of the dissent's insistence that Hardwick foreclosed the Court's result. See Romer v. Evans, 517 U.S. 620, 640-43 (Scalia, J., dissenting).
59. See Andrew Koppelman, Romer v. Evans and Invidious Intent, 6 WM. & MARY BILL OF RIGHTS J. 89, 89-90, 138-46 (1997).
60. For a response, see Richard Duncan, The Narrow and Shallow Bite of Romer and the Eminent Rationality of Dual-Gender Marriage: A (Partial) Response to Professor Koppelman, 6 WM. & MARY BILL OF RIGHTS J. 147 (1997).
61. See Janet E. Halley, Reasoning About Sodomy: Act and Identity in and After Bowers v. Hardwick, 79 VA. L. REV. 1721 (1993).
62. ELISABETH YOUNG-BRUEHL, THE ANATOMY OF PREJUDICES (1996); see also Gregory M. Herek, Psychological Heterosexism and Anti-Gay Violence: The Social Psychology of Bigotry and Bashing, in HATE CRIMES: CONFRONTING VIOLENCE AGAINST LESBIANS AND GAY MEN 149 (Gregory M. Herek & Kevin T. Berrill eds., 1992).
63. ELISABETH YOUNG-BRUEHL, THE ANATOMY OF PREJUDICES (1996); see also Gregory M. Herek, Psychological Heterosexism and Anti-Gay Violence: The Social Psychology of Bigotry and Bashing, in HATE CRIMES: CONFRONTING VIOLENCE AGAINST LESBIANS AND GAY MEN 149 (Gregory M. Herek & Kevin T. Berrill eds., 1992).
64. See YOUNG-BRUEHL, supra note 35, at 32-34.
65. See id.; see also ADRIENNE RICH, Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence, in BLOOD, BREAD, AND POETRY: SELECTED PROSE, 1979-1985 (1986) (stating that compulsory heterosexuality is the way men enforce subordinate status on all women, not just lesbians).
66. The documents used by Colorado for Family Values are reprinted in Robert F. Nagel, Playing Defense, 6 WM. & MARY BILL OF RIGHTS J. 167, 191-99 (1997), and in ESKRIDGE & HUNTER, supra note 2. See also STEPHEN BRANFORD, GAY POLITICS VS. COLORADO AND AMERICA: THE INSIDE STORY OF AMENDMENT 2 (1994).
67. The documents used by Colorado for Family Values are reprinted in Robert F. Nagel, Playing Defense, 6 WM. & MARY BILL OF RIGHTS J. 167, 191-99 (1997), and in ESKRIDGE & HUNTER, supra note 2. See also STEPHEN BRANFORD, GAY POLITICS VS. COLORADO AND AMERICA: THE INSIDE STORY OF AMENDMENT 2 (1994).
68. The documents used by Colorado for Family Values are reprinted in Robert F. Nagel, Playing Defense, 6 WM. & MARY BILL OF RIGHTS J. 167, 191-99 (1997), and in ESKRIDGE & HUNTER, supra note 2. See also STEPHEN BRANFORD, GAY POLITICS VS. COLORADO AND AMERICA: THE INSIDE STORY OF AMENDMENT 2 (1994).
69. Consistent with the hysterical qualities of homophobia, many of the most antigay people harbor strong feelings of attraction to people of their same sex.
70. For just a few of the cogent critiques of Hardwick, see generally CHARLES FRIED, ORDER AND LAW 81-84 (1991); RICHARD A. POSNER, SEX AND REASON 341-50 (1992); LAURENCE H. TRIBE, AMERICAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 1421-35 (2d ed. 1988); Eskridge, supra note 28; Anne B. Goldstein, History, Homosexuality, and Political Values: Searching for the Hidden Determinants of Bowers v. Hardwick, 97 YALE L.J. 1073 (1988); Sylvia A. Law, Homosexuality and the Social Meaning of Gender, 1988 WIS. L. REV. 187; Frank Michelman, Law's Republic, 97 YALE L.J. 1493 (1988); and Jed Rubenfeld, The Right of Privacy, 102 HARV. L. REV. 737 (1989).
71. For just a few of the cogent critiques of Hardwick, see generally CHARLES FRIED, ORDER AND LAW 81-84 (1991); RICHARD A. POSNER, SEX AND REASON 341-50 (1992); LAURENCE H. TRIBE, AMERICAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 1421-35 (2d ed. 1988); Eskridge, supra note 28; Anne B. Goldstein, History, Homosexuality, and Political Values: Searching for the Hidden Determinants of Bowers v. Hardwick, 97 YALE L.J. 1073 (1988); Sylvia A. Law, Homosexuality and the Social Meaning of Gender, 1988 WIS. L. REV. 187; Frank Michelman, Law's Republic, 97 YALE L.J. 1493 (1988); and Jed Rubenfeld, The Right of Privacy, 102 HARV. L. REV. 737 (1989).
72. For just a few of the cogent critiques of Hardwick, see generally CHARLES FRIED, ORDER AND LAW 81-84 (1991); RICHARD A. POSNER, SEX AND REASON 341-50 (1992); LAURENCE H. TRIBE, AMERICAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 1421-35 (2d ed. 1988); Eskridge, supra note 28; Anne B. Goldstein, History, Homosexuality, and Political Values: Searching for the Hidden Determinants of Bowers v. Hardwick, 97 YALE L.J. 1073 (1988); Sylvia A. Law, Homosexuality and the Social Meaning of Gender, 1988 WIS. L. REV. 187; Frank Michelman, Law's Republic, 97 YALE L.J. 1493 (1988); and Jed Rubenfeld, The Right of Privacy, 102 HARV. L. REV. 737 (1989).
73. For just a few of the cogent critiques of Hardwick, see generally CHARLES FRIED, ORDER AND LAW 81-84 (1991); RICHARD A. POSNER, SEX AND REASON 341-50 (1992); LAURENCE H. TRIBE, AMERICAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 1421-35 (2d ed. 1988); Eskridge, supra note 28; Anne B. Goldstein, History, Homosexuality, and Political Values: Searching for the Hidden Determinants of Bowers v. Hardwick, 97 YALE L.J. 1073 (1988); Sylvia A. Law, Homosexuality and the Social Meaning of Gender, 1988 WIS. L. REV. 187; Frank Michelman, Law's Republic, 97 YALE L.J. 1493 (1988); and Jed Rubenfeld, The Right of Privacy, 102 HARV. L. REV. 737 (1989).
74. For just a few of the cogent critiques of Hardwick, see generally CHARLES FRIED, ORDER AND LAW 81-84 (1991); RICHARD A. POSNER, SEX AND REASON 341-50 (1992); LAURENCE H. TRIBE, AMERICAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 1421-35 (2d ed. 1988); Eskridge, supra note 28; Anne B. Goldstein, History, Homosexuality, and Political Values: Searching for the Hidden Determinants of Bowers v. Hardwick, 97 YALE L.J. 1073 (1988); Sylvia A. Law, Homosexuality and the Social Meaning of Gender, 1988 WIS. L. REV. 187; Frank Michelman, Law's Republic, 97 YALE L.J. 1493 (1988); and Jed Rubenfeld, The Right of Privacy, 102 HARV. L. REV. 737 (1989).
75. For just a few of the cogent critiques of Hardwick, see generally CHARLES FRIED, ORDER AND LAW 81-84 (1991); RICHARD A. POSNER, SEX AND REASON 341-50 (1992); LAURENCE H. TRIBE, AMERICAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 1421-35 (2d ed. 1988); Eskridge, supra note 28; Anne B. Goldstein, History, Homosexuality, and Political Values: Searching for the Hidden Determinants of Bowers v. Hardwick, 97 YALE L.J. 1073 (1988); Sylvia A. Law, Homosexuality and the Social Meaning of Gender, 1988 WIS. L. REV. 187; Frank Michelman, Law's Republic, 97 YALE L.J. 1493 (1988); and Jed Rubenfeld, The Right of Privacy, 102 HARV. L. REV. 737 (1989).
76. For just a few of the cogent critiques of Hardwick, see generally CHARLES FRIED, ORDER AND LAW 81-84 (1991); RICHARD A. POSNER, SEX AND REASON 341-50 (1992); LAURENCE H. TRIBE, AMERICAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 1421-35 (2d ed. 1988); Eskridge, supra note 28; Anne B. Goldstein, History, Homosexuality, and Political Values: Searching for the Hidden Determinants of Bowers v. Hardwick, 97 YALE L.J. 1073 (1988); Sylvia A. Law, Homosexuality and the Social Meaning of Gender, 1988 WIS. L. REV. 187; Frank Michelman, Law's Republic, 97 YALE L.J. 1493 (1988); and Jed Rubenfeld, The Right of Privacy, 102 HARV. L. REV. 737 (1989).
77. For just a few of the cogent critiques of Hardwick, see generally CHARLES FRIED, ORDER AND LAW 81-84 (1991); RICHARD A. POSNER, SEX AND REASON 341-50 (1992); LAURENCE H. TRIBE, AMERICAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 1421-35 (2d ed. 1988); Eskridge, supra note 28; Anne B. Goldstein, History, Homosexuality, and Political Values: Searching for the Hidden Determinants of Bowers v. Hardwick, 97 YALE L.J. 1073 (1988); Sylvia A. Law, Homosexuality and the Social Meaning of Gender, 1988 WIS. L. REV. 187; Frank Michelman, Law's Republic, 97 YALE L.J. 1493 (1988); and Jed Rubenfeld, The Right of Privacy, 102 HARV. L. REV. 737 (1989).
78. See Heller v. Doe, 509 U.S. 312 (1993) (upholding a law disadvantaging the mentally disabled but insisting on objective reason); City of Clebume v. Cleburne Living Ctr., Inc., 473 U.S. 432 (1985) (striking down a zoning ordinance which disadvantaged the mentally disabled because there was no reason for the law but negative attitudes toward, and fear of the mentally retarded). But cf. Williamson v. Lee Optical, 348 U.S. 483 (1955) (accepting assumed health concerns as a basis for rent-seeking regulation); Railway Express Agency v. New York, 336 U.S. 106 (1949) (allowing a state leeway to regulate piecemeal to achieve speculative goal).
79. Romer v. Evans, 517 U.S. 620, 624 (1996) (quoting COLO. CONST. art. II, § 30b).
80. See Petitioners' Brief at 13, Romer v. Evans, 517 U.S. 620 (1996) (No. 94-1039).
81. Evans, 517 U.S. at 631.
82. Id at 634 (quoting United States Dep't of Agric. v. Moreno, 413 U.S. 528, 534 (1973) (emphasis omitted)).
83. Id. at 631.
84. See Gabriel J. Chin, The Plessy Myth: Justice Harlan and the Chinese Cases, 82 IOWA L. REV. 151 (1996).
85. See William N. Eskridge, Jr., Privacy Jurisprudence and the Apartheid of the Closet, 1946-1961, 24 FLA. ST. U. L. REV. 703 (1997) [hereinafter Eskridge, Privacy Jurisprudence]; William N. Eskridge, Jr., Law and the Construction of the Closet: American Regulation of Same- Sex Intimacy, 1880-1946, 82 IOWA L. REV. 1007 (1997) [hereinafter Eskridge, American Regulation].
86. See William N. Eskridge, Jr., Privacy Jurisprudence and the Apartheid of the Closet, 1946-1961, 24 FLA. ST. U. L. REV. 703 (1997) [hereinafter Eskridge, Privacy Jurisprudence]; William N. Eskridge, Jr., Law and the Construction of the Closet: American Regulation of Same-Sex Intimacy, 1880-1946, 82 IOWA L. REV. 1007 (1997) [hereinafter Eskridge, American Regulation].
87. See supra text accompanying note 2.
88. Compare Whaley v. Whaley, 399 N.E.2d 1270 (Ohio Ct. App. 1978) (holding that adultery does not disqualify a parent from custody that is otherwise in the best interest of the child), with Conkel v. Conkel, 509 N.E.2d 983 (Ohio Ct. App. 1987) (holding that the same applies to homosexuality, except that the gay father could not visit the children accompanied by another man).
89. See Ward v. Ward, No. 95-4184, 1996 WL 491692, at *3 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. Aug. 30, 1996). The mother died soon thereafter, and the court's order was vacated, presumably so that it would not stand as precedent in Florida.
90. See, e.g., Immerman v. Immerman, 176 Cal. App. 2d 122, 127 (Cal. Ct. App. 1959); Bennett v. Clemens, 196 S.E.2d 842, 843 (Ga. 1973); Commonwealth v. Bradley, 91 A.2d 379, 381-82 (Pa. Super. Ct. 1952); Bottoms v. Bottoms, 457 S.E.2d 102, 108-09 (Va. 1995).
91. Romer v. Evans, 517 U.S. 620, 633 (1996).
92. Compare Lynn D. Wardle, The Potential Impact of Homosexual Parenting on Children, 1997 U. ILL. L. REV. 833 (surveying the heterogeneous case law and proposing an omnibus presumption against gay custody, visitation, and adoption), with Carlos A. Ball & Janice Farrell Pea, Warring with Wardle: Morality, Social Science, and Gay and Lesbian Parents, 1998 U. ILL. L. REV. 253 (responding point-by-point to Wardle).
93. Compare Lynn D. Wardle, The Potential Impact of Homosexual Parenting on Children, 1997 U. ILL. L. REV. 833 (surveying the heterogeneous case law and proposing an omnibus presumption against gay custody, visitation, and adoption), with Carlos A. Ball & Janice Farrell Pea, Warring with Wardle: Morality, Social Science, and Gay and Lesbian Parents, 1998 U. ILL. L. REV. 253 (responding point-by-point to Wardle).
94. Leading studies include Patricia J. Falk, Lesbian Mothers: Psychosocial Assumptions in Famify Law, 44 AM. PsYCHOLOGIST 941 (1989); Susan Golombok et al., Children in Lesbian and Single Parent Households: Psychosexual and Psychiatric Appraisal, 24 J. CHILD PSYCHOL. & PSYCHIATRY 551 (1983); Mary E. Hotvedt & Jane B. Mandel, Children of Lesbian Mothers, in HOMOSEXUALITY: SOCIAL, PSYCHOLOGICAL, AND BIOLOGICAL ISSUES 275, 282 (William Paul et al. eds., 1982)
95. Leading studies include Patricia J. Falk, Lesbian Mothers: Psychosocial Assumptions in Famify Law, 44 AM. PsYCHOLOGIST 941 (1989); Susan Golombok et al., Children in Lesbian and Single Parent Households: Psychosexual and Psychiatric Appraisal, 24 J. CHILD PSYCHOL. & PSYCHIATRY 551 (1983); Mary E. Hotvedt & Jane B. Mandel, Children of Lesbian Mothers, in HOMOSEXUALITY: SOCIAL, PSYCHOLOGICAL, AND BIOLOGICAL ISSUES 275, 282 (William Paul et al. eds., 1982)
96. Leading studies include Patricia J. Falk, Lesbian Mothers: Psychosocial Assumptions in Famify Law, 44 AM. PsYCHOLOGIST 941 (1989); Susan Golombok et al., Children in Lesbian and Single Parent Households: Psychosexual and Psychiatric Appraisal, 24 J. CHILD PSYCHOL. & PSYCHIATRY 551 (1983); Mary E. Hotvedt & Jane B. Mandel, Children of Lesbian Mothers, in HOMOSEXUALITY: SOCIAL, PSYCHOLOGICAL, AND BIOLOGICAL ISSUES 275, 282 (William Paul et al. eds., 1982)
97. [hereinafter HOMOSEXUALITY ISSUES]; and David J. Kleber et al., The Impact of Parental Homosexuality in Child Custody Cases: A Review of the Literature, 14 BULL. AM. ACAD. PSYCHIATRY & L. 81 (1986). Competing reviews of the empirical literature are contained in Wardle, supra note 54, and Ball & Pea, supra note 54.
98. See, e.g., Susan Golombok & Fiona Tasker, Do Parents Influence the Sexual Orientation of Their Children? Findings from a Longitudinal Study of Lesbian Families, 32 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOL. 3, 8 (1996) (indicating the impossibility of recruiting a random sample of gay parents because of the closetry of most); Charlotte J. Patterson, Children of Lesbian and Gay Parents, 63 CHILD DEV. 1025, 1036-39 (1992) (surveying the studies, including those of the author). Compare Philip A. Belcastro et al., A Review of Data Based Studies Addressing the Affects of Homosexual Parenting on Children's Sexual and Social Functioning, 20 J. DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE 105 (1993) (harsher survey of the studies), with Mike Allen & Nancy Burrell, Comparing the Impact of Homosexual and Heterosexual Parents on Children: Meta-Analysis of Existing Research, 32 J. HOMOSEXUALITY 19 (1996) (correcting for some of the methodological limits of previous studies).
99. See, e.g., Susan Golombok & Fiona Tasker, Do Parents Influence the Sexual Orientation of Their Children? Findings from a Longitudinal Study of Lesbian Families, 32 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOL. 3, 8 (1996) (indicating the impossibility of recruiting a random sample of gay parents because of the closetry of most); Charlotte J. Patterson, Children of Lesbian and Gay Parents, 63 CHILD DEV. 1025, 1036-39 (1992) (surveying the studies, including those of the author). Compare Philip A. Belcastro et al., A Review of Data Based Studies Addressing the Affects of Homosexual Parenting on Children's Sexual and Social Functioning, 20 J. DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE 105 (1993) (harsher survey of the studies), with Mike Allen & Nancy Burrell, Comparing the Impact of Homosexual and Heterosexual Parents on Children: Meta-Analysis of Existing Research, 32 J. HOMOSEXUALITY 19 (1996) (correcting for some of the methodological limits of previous studies).
100. See, e.g., Susan Golombok & Fiona Tasker, Do Parents Influence the Sexual Orientation of Their Children? Findings from a Longitudinal Study of Lesbian Families, 32 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOL. 3, 8 (1996) (indicating the impossibility of recruiting a random sample of gay parents because of the closetry of most); Charlotte J. Patterson, Children of Lesbian and Gay Parents, 63 CHILD DEV. 1025, 1036-39 (1992) (surveying the studies, including those of the author). Compare Philip A. Belcastro et al., A Review of Data Based Studies Addressing the Affects of Homosexual Parenting on Children's Sexual and Social Functioning, 20 J. DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE 105 (1993) (harsher survey of the studies), with Mike Allen & Nancy Burrell, Comparing the Impact of Homosexual and Heterosexual Parents on Children: Meta-Analysis of Existing Research, 32 J. HOMOSEXUALITY 19 (1996) (correcting for some of the methodological limits of previous studies).
101. See, e.g., Susan Golombok & Fiona Tasker, Do Parents Influence the Sexual Orientation of Their Children? Findings from a Longitudinal Study of Lesbian Families, 32 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOL. 3, 8 (1996) (indicating the impossibility of recruiting a random sample of gay parents because of the closetry of most); Charlotte J. Patterson, Children of Lesbian and Gay Parents, 63 CHILD DEV. 1025, 1036-39 (1992) (surveying the studies, including those of the author). Compare Philip A. Belcastro et al., A Review of Data Based Studies Addressing the Affects of Homosexual Parenting on Children's Sexual and Social Functioning, 20 J. DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE 105 (1993) (harsher survey of the studies), with Mike Allen & Nancy Burrell, Comparing the Impact of Homosexual and Heterosexual Parents on Children: Meta-Analysis of Existing Research, 32 J. HOMOSEXUALITY 19 (1996) (correcting for some of the methodological limits of previous studies).
102. Allen & Burrell, supra note 56, at 28-30.
103. See Richard Green et al., Lesbian Mothers and Their Children: A Comparison with Solo Parent Heterosexual Mothers and Their Children, 15 ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 167 (1986); Golombok et al., supra note 55, at 562-67; Rhonda R. Rivera, Legal Issues in Gay and Lesbian Parenting, in GAY AND LESBIAN PARENTS, 199, 226 n.79 (Frederick W. Bozett ed., 1987) (reporting an unpublished study comparing children in households having two lesbian parents, with those in households having a single female parent, whether straight or lesbian).
104. See Richard Green et al., Lesbian Mothers and Their Children: A Comparison with Solo Parent Heterosexual Mothers and Their Children, 15 ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 167 (1986); Golombok et al., supra note 55, at 562-67; Rhonda R. Rivera, Legal Issues in Gay and Lesbian Parenting, in GAY AND LESBIAN PARENTS, 199, 226 n.79 (Frederick W. Bozett ed., 1987) (reporting an unpublished study comparing children in households having two lesbian parents, with those in households having a single female parent, whether straight or lesbian).
105. See Richard Green et al., Lesbian Mothers and Their Children: A Comparison with Solo Parent Heterosexual Mothers and Their Children, 15 ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 167 (1986); Golombok et al., supra note 55, at 562-67; Rhonda R. Rivera, Legal Issues in Gay and Lesbian Parenting, in GAY AND LESBIAN PARENTS, 199, 226 n.79 (Frederick W. Bozett ed., 1987) (reporting an unpublished study comparing children in households having two lesbian parents, with those in households having a single female parent, whether straight or lesbian).
106. Wardle, supra note 54, at 852-57, 865-66.
107. Ball & Pea, supra note 54.
108. See, e.g., Carole Jenny et al., Are Children at Risk for Sexual Abuse by Homosexuals?, 94 PEDIATRICS 41 (1994).
109. SEE EDWARD O. LAUMANN ET AL., THE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF SEXUALITY: SEXUAL PRACTICES IN THE UNITED STATES 98-99 (1994).
110. ARIZ. REV. STAT. ANN. § 15-716(C)(1)-(2) (West Supp. 1998). For other policies to similar effect, see NATIONAL ABORTION AND REPRODUCTIVE RIGHTS ACTION LEAGUE, SEXUALITY EDUCATION IN AMERICA: A STATE-BY-STATE REVIEW (1995).
111. See Paul Gibson, Gay and Lesbian Youth Suicide, in U.S. DEP'T HEALTH & HUMAN SERVS., REPORT ON THE SECRETARY'S TASK FORCE ON SUICIDE 110 (1989); Donna I. Dennis & Ruth E. Harlow, Gay Youth and the Right to Education, 4 YALE L. & POL'Y REV. 446, 448-52 (1986);
112. See Paul Gibson, Gay and Lesbian Youth Suicide, in U.S. DEP'T HEALTH & HUMAN SERVS., REPORT ON THE SECRETARY'S TASK FORCE ON SUICIDE 110 (1989); Donna I. Dennis & Ruth E. Harlow, Gay Youth and the Right to Education, 4 YALE L. & POL'Y REV. 446, 448-52 (1986);
113. see also Nabozny v. Podlesny, 92 F.3d 446 (7th Cir. 1996) (school refused to protect gay students from antigay violence, despite repeated pleas).
114. Bethel Sch. Dist. No. 403 v. Fraser, 478 U.S. 675, 681 (1986). Schools have authority to "teach by example the shared values of a civilized social order," including broad prohibitions of "lewd, indecent, or offensive speech." Id. at 683. 66. See 28 U.S.C.A. § 1738C (West Supp. 1998). 67. See, e.g., 142 CONG. REC. S10065-01 (1996) (statement of Sen. Boxer); id. at H6400-01 (1996) (statement of Rep. Schroeder); id. at H1147-03 (1996) (statement of Rep. Frank).
115. See, e.g., id. at H7441-03 (1996) (statement of Rep. Barr); id. at H7480-05 (statement of Rep. Buyer).
116. Id. at H7480-05 (1996) (statement of Rep. Canady). The most eloquent articulation of this idea was by Representative Henry Hyde. See id. at H7480-05.
117. Id. at H10114 (1996).
118. See Watkins v. United States Army, 847 F.2d 1329 (9th Cir. 1988), withdrawn en banc, 875 F.2d 699 (9th Cir. 1989).
119. See Frontiero v. Richardson, 411 U.S. 677, 685-86 (1973) (plurality opinion). For the Court's similar methodology when evaluating other classifications, see City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center, Inc., 473 U.S. 432 (1985) (disabilities); Plyler v. Doe, 457 U.S. 202, 216-17 n.14 (1982) (children of noncitizens); Mathews v. Lucas, 427 U.S. 495, 505 (1976) (nonmarital birth); and Massachusetts Board of Retirement v. Murgia, 427 U.S. 307 (per curiam) (1976) (age).
120. See, e.g., ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN MALE (1948); ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN FEMALE (1953); Evelyn Hooker, Male Homosexuality in the Rorschach, 22 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 33 (1958); Evelyn Hooker, The Adjustment of the Male Overt Homosexual, 21 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 18 (1957); Sigmund Freud, Letter to an American Mother (1935) (quoted in ESKRIDGE & HUNTER, supra note 2, at 143-44) . Modern authorities are collected in HOMOSEXUALITY: RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC POLICY (John C. Gonsiorek & James D. Weinrich eds., 1991), and HOMOSEXUALITY ISSUES, supra note 55. For accounts from disciplines traditionally hostile to homosexuality, see KENNETH LEWES, THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF MALE HOMOSEXUALITY (1988), and MICHAEL RUSE, HOMOSEXUALITY: A PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY (1988). For accounts from different perspectives of sexual and gender variation across time and cultures, see CLELLAN S. FORD & FRANK A. BEACH, PATTERNS OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (1951); POSNER, supra note 40, at 291-323; THE MANY FACES OF HOMOSEXUALITY: ANTROPOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO HOMOSEXUAL BEHAVIOR (Evelyn Blackwood ed., 1986); and RITUALIZED HOMOSEXUALITY IN MELANESIA (Gilbert H. Herdt ed., 1984).
121. See, e.g., ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN MALE (1948); ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN FEMALE (1953); Evelyn Hooker, Male Homosexuality in the Rorschach, 22 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 33 (1958); Evelyn Hooker, The Adjustment of the Male Overt Homosexual, 21 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 18 (1957); Sigmund Freud, Letter to an American Mother (1935) (quoted in ESKRIDGE & HUNTER, supra note 2, at 143-44) . Modern authorities are collected in HOMOSEXUALITY: RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC POLICY (John C. Gonsiorek & James D. Weinrich eds., 1991), and HOMOSEXUALITY ISSUES, supra note 55. For accounts from disciplines traditionally hostile to homosexuality, see KENNETH LEWES, THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF MALE HOMOSEXUALITY (1988), and MICHAEL RUSE, HOMOSEXUALITY: A PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY (1988). For accounts from different perspectives of sexual and gender variation across time and cultures, see CLELLAN S. FORD & FRANK A. BEACH, PATTERNS OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (1951); POSNER, supra note 40, at 291-323; THE MANY FACES OF HOMOSEXUALITY: ANTROPOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO HOMOSEXUAL BEHAVIOR (Evelyn Blackwood ed., 1986); and RITUALIZED HOMOSEXUALITY IN MELANESIA (Gilbert H. Herdt ed., 1984).
122. See, e.g., ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN MALE (1948); ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN FEMALE (1953); Evelyn Hooker, Male Homosexuality in the Rorschach, 22 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 33 (1958); Evelyn Hooker, The Adjustment of the Male Overt Homosexual, 21 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 18 (1957); Sigmund Freud, Letter to an American Mother (1935) (quoted in ESKRIDGE & HUNTER, supra note 2, at 143-44) . Modern authorities are collected in HOMOSEXUALITY: RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC POLICY (John C. Gonsiorek & James D. Weinrich eds., 1991), and HOMOSEXUALITY ISSUES, supra note 55. For accounts from disciplines traditionally hostile to homosexuality, see KENNETH LEWES, THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF MALE HOMOSEXUALITY (1988), and MICHAEL RUSE, HOMOSEXUALITY: A PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY (1988). For accounts from different perspectives of sexual and gender variation across time and cultures, see CLELLAN S. FORD & FRANK A. BEACH, PATTERNS OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (1951); POSNER, supra note 40, at 291-323; THE MANY FACES OF HOMOSEXUALITY: ANTROPOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO HOMOSEXUAL BEHAVIOR (Evelyn Blackwood ed., 1986); and RITUALIZED HOMOSEXUALITY IN MELANESIA (Gilbert H. Herdt ed., 1984).
123. See, e.g., ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN MALE (1948); ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN FEMALE (1953); Evelyn Hooker, Male Homosexuality in the Rorschach, 22 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 33 (1958); Evelyn Hooker, The Adjustment of the Male Overt Homosexual, 21 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 18 (1957); Sigmund Freud, Letter to an American Mother (1935) (quoted in ESKRIDGE & HUNTER, supra note 2, at 143-44) . Modern authorities are collected in HOMOSEXUALITY: RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC POLICY (John C. Gonsiorek & James D. Weinrich eds., 1991), and HOMOSEXUALITY ISSUES, supra note 55. For accounts from disciplines traditionally hostile to homosexuality, see KENNETH LEWES, THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF MALE HOMOSEXUALITY (1988), and MICHAEL RUSE, HOMOSEXUALITY: A PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY (1988). For accounts from different perspectives of sexual and gender variation across time and cultures, see CLELLAN S. FORD & FRANK A. BEACH, PATTERNS OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (1951); POSNER, supra note 40, at 291-323; THE MANY FACES OF HOMOSEXUALITY: ANTROPOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO HOMOSEXUAL BEHAVIOR (Evelyn Blackwood ed., 1986); and RITUALIZED HOMOSEXUALITY IN MELANESIA (Gilbert H. Herdt ed., 1984).
124. See, e.g., ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN MALE (1948); ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN FEMALE (1953); Evelyn Hooker, Male Homosexuality in the Rorschach, 22 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 33 (1958); Evelyn Hooker, The Adjustment of the Male Overt Homosexual, 21 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 18 (1957); Sigmund Freud, Letter to an American Mother (1935) (quoted in ESKRIDGE & HUNTER, supra note 2, at 143-44) . Modern authorities are collected in HOMOSEXUALITY: RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC POLICY (John C. Gonsiorek & James D. Weinrich eds., 1991), and HOMOSEXUALITY ISSUES, supra note 55. For accounts from disciplines traditionally hostile to homosexuality, see KENNETH LEWES, THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF MALE HOMOSEXUALITY (1988), and MICHAEL RUSE, HOMOSEXUALITY: A PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY (1988). For accounts from different perspectives of sexual and gender variation across time and cultures, see CLELLAN S. FORD & FRANK A. BEACH, PATTERNS OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (1951); POSNER, supra note 40, at 291-323; THE MANY FACES OF HOMOSEXUALITY: ANTROPOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO HOMOSEXUAL BEHAVIOR (Evelyn Blackwood ed., 1986); and RITUALIZED HOMOSEXUALITY IN MELANESIA (Gilbert H. Herdt ed., 1984).
125. See, e.g., ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN MALE (1948); ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN FEMALE (1953); Evelyn Hooker, Male Homosexuality in the Rorschach, 22 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 33 (1958); Evelyn Hooker, The Adjustment of the Male Overt Homosexual, 21 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 18 (1957); Sigmund Freud, Letter to an American Mother (1935) (quoted in ESKRIDGE & HUNTER, supra note 2, at 143-44) . Modern authorities are collected in HOMOSEXUALITY: RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC POLICY (John C. Gonsiorek & James D. Weinrich eds., 1991), and HOMOSEXUALITY ISSUES, supra note 55. For accounts from disciplines traditionally hostile to homosexuality, see KENNETH LEWES, THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF MALE HOMOSEXUALITY (1988), and MICHAEL RUSE, HOMOSEXUALITY: A PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY (1988). For accounts from different perspectives of sexual and gender variation across time and cultures, see CLELLAN S. FORD & FRANK A. BEACH, PATTERNS OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (1951); POSNER, supra note 40, at 291-323; THE MANY FACES OF HOMOSEXUALITY: ANTROPOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO HOMOSEXUAL BEHAVIOR (Evelyn Blackwood ed., 1986); and RITUALIZED HOMOSEXUALITY IN MELANESIA (Gilbert H. Herdt ed., 1984).
126. See, e.g., ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN MALE (1948); ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN FEMALE (1953); Evelyn Hooker, Male Homosexuality in the Rorschach, 22 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 33 (1958); Evelyn Hooker, The Adjustment of the Male Overt Homosexual, 21 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 18 (1957); Sigmund Freud, Letter to an American Mother (1935) (quoted in ESKRIDGE & HUNTER, supra note 2, at 143-44) . Modern authorities are collected in HOMOSEXUALITY: RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC POLICY (John C. Gonsiorek & James D. Weinrich eds., 1991), and HOMOSEXUALITY ISSUES, supra note 55. For accounts from disciplines traditionally hostile to homosexuality, see KENNETH LEWES, THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF MALE HOMOSEXUALITY (1988), and MICHAEL RUSE, HOMOSEXUALITY: A PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY (1988). For accounts from different perspectives of sexual and gender variation across time and cultures, see CLELLAN S. FORD & FRANK A. BEACH, PATTERNS OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (1951); POSNER, supra note 40, at 291-323; THE MANY FACES OF HOMOSEXUALITY: ANTROPOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO HOMOSEXUAL BEHAVIOR (Evelyn Blackwood ed., 1986); and RITUALIZED HOMOSEXUALITY IN MELANESIA (Gilbert H. Herdt ed., 1984).
127. See, e.g., ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN MALE (1948); ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN FEMALE (1953); Evelyn Hooker, Male Homosexuality in the Rorschach, 22 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 33 (1958); Evelyn Hooker, The Adjustment of the Male Overt Homosexual, 21 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 18 (1957); Sigmund Freud, Letter to an American Mother (1935) (quoted in ESKRIDGE & HUNTER, supra note 2, at 143-44) . Modern authorities are collected in HOMOSEXUALITY: RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC POLICY (John C. Gonsiorek & James D. Weinrich eds., 1991), and HOMOSEXUALITY ISSUES, supra note 55. For accounts from disciplines traditionally hostile to homosexuality, see KENNETH LEWES, THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF MALE HOMOSEXUALITY (1988), and MICHAEL RUSE, HOMOSEXUALITY: A PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY (1988). For accounts from different perspectives of sexual and gender variation across time and cultures, see CLELLAN S. FORD & FRANK A. BEACH, PATTERNS OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (1951); POSNER, supra note 40, at 291-323; THE MANY FACES OF HOMOSEXUALITY: ANTROPOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO HOMOSEXUAL BEHAVIOR (Evelyn Blackwood ed., 1986); and RITUALIZED HOMOSEXUALITY IN MELANESIA (Gilbert H. Herdt ed., 1984).
128. See, e.g., ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN MALE (1948); ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN FEMALE (1953); Evelyn Hooker, Male Homosexuality in the Rorschach, 22 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 33 (1958); Evelyn Hooker, The Adjustment of the Male Overt Homosexual, 21 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 18 (1957); Sigmund Freud, Letter to an American Mother (1935) (quoted in ESKRIDGE & HUNTER, supra note 2, at 143-44) . Modern authorities are collected in HOMOSEXUALITY: RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC POLICY (John C. Gonsiorek & James D. Weinrich eds., 1991), and HOMOSEXUALITY ISSUES, supra note 55. For accounts from disciplines traditionally hostile to homosexuality, see KENNETH LEWES, THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF MALE HOMOSEXUALITY (1988), and MICHAEL RUSE, HOMOSEXUALITY: A PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY (1988). For accounts from different perspectives of sexual and gender variation across time and cultures, see CLELLAN S. FORD & FRANK A. BEACH, PATTERNS OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (1951); POSNER, supra note 40, at 291-323; THE MANY FACES OF HOMOSEXUALITY: ANTROPOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO HOMOSEXUAL BEHAVIOR (Evelyn Blackwood ed., 1986); and RITUALIZED HOMOSEXUALITY IN MELANESIA (Gilbert H. Herdt ed., 1984).
129. See, e.g., ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN MALE (1948); ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN FEMALE (1953); Evelyn Hooker, Male Homosexuality in the Rorschach, 22 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 33 (1958); Evelyn Hooker, The Adjustment of the Male Overt Homosexual, 21 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 18 (1957); Sigmund Freud, Letter to an American Mother (1935) (quoted in ESKRIDGE & HUNTER, supra note 2, at 143-44) . Modern authorities are collected in HOMOSEXUALITY: RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC POLICY (John C. Gonsiorek & James D. Weinrich eds., 1991), and HOMOSEXUALITY ISSUES, supra note 55. For accounts from disciplines traditionally hostile to homosexuality, see KENNETH LEWES, THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF MALE HOMOSEXUALITY (1988), and MICHAEL RUSE, HOMOSEXUALITY: A PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY (1988). For accounts from different perspectives of sexual and gender variation across time and cultures, see CLELLAN S. FORD & FRANK A. BEACH, PATTERNS OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (1951); POSNER, supra note 40, at 291-323; THE MANY FACES OF HOMOSEXUALITY: ANTROPOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO HOMOSEXUAL BEHAVIOR (Evelyn Blackwood ed., 1986); and RITUALIZED HOMOSEXUALITY IN MELANESIA (Gilbert H. Herdt ed., 1984).
130. See, e.g., ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN MALE (1948); ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN FEMALE (1953); Evelyn Hooker, Male Homosexuality in the Rorschach, 22 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 33 (1958); Evelyn Hooker, The Adjustment of the Male Overt Homosexual, 21 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 18 (1957); Sigmund Freud, Letter to an American Mother (1935) (quoted in ESKRIDGE & HUNTER, supra note 2, at 143-44) . Modern authorities are collected in HOMOSEXUALITY: RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC POLICY (John C. Gonsiorek & James D. Weinrich eds., 1991), and HOMOSEXUALITY ISSUES, supra note 55. For accounts from disciplines traditionally hostile to homosexuality, see KENNETH LEWES, THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF MALE HOMOSEXUALITY (1988), and MICHAEL RUSE, HOMOSEXUALITY: A PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY (1988). For accounts from different perspectives of sexual and gender variation across time and cultures, see CLELLAN S. FORD & FRANK A. BEACH, PATTERNS OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (1951); POSNER, supra note 40, at 291-323; THE MANY FACES OF HOMOSEXUALITY: ANTROPOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO HOMOSEXUAL BEHAVIOR (Evelyn Blackwood ed., 1986); and RITUALIZED HOMOSEXUALITY IN MELANESIA (Gilbert H. Herdt ed., 1984).
131. See, e.g., ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN MALE (1948); ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN FEMALE (1953); Evelyn Hooker, Male Homosexuality in the Rorschach, 22 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 33 (1958); Evelyn Hooker, The Adjustment of the Male Overt Homosexual, 21 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 18 (1957); Sigmund Freud, Letter to an American Mother (1935) (quoted in ESKRIDGE & HUNTER, supra note 2, at 143-44) . Modern authorities are collected in HOMOSEXUALITY: RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC POLICY (John C. Gonsiorek & James D. Weinrich eds., 1991), and HOMOSEXUALITY ISSUES, supra note 55. For accounts from disciplines traditionally hostile to homosexuality, see KENNETH LEWES, THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF MALE HOMOSEXUALITY (1988), and MICHAEL RUSE, HOMOSEXUALITY: A PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY (1988). For accounts from different perspectives of sexual and gender variation across time and cultures, see CLELLAN S. FORD & FRANK A. BEACH, PATTERNS OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (1951); POSNER, supra note 40, at 291-323; THE MANY FACES OF HOMOSEXUALITY: ANTROPOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO HOMOSEXUAL BEHAVIOR (Evelyn Blackwood ed., 1986); and RITUALIZED HOMOSEXUALITY IN MELANESIA (Gilbert H. Herdt ed., 1984).
132. See, e.g., ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN MALE (1948); ALFRED C. KINSEY ET AL., SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN THE HUMAN FEMALE (1953); Evelyn Hooker, Male Homosexuality in the Rorschach, 22 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 33 (1958); Evelyn Hooker, The Adjustment of the Male Overt Homosexual, 21 J. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 18 (1957); Sigmund Freud, Letter to an American Mother (1935) (quoted in ESKRIDGE & HUNTER, supra note 2, at 143-44) . Modern authorities are collected in HOMOSEXUALITY: RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC POLICY (John C. Gonsiorek & James D. Weinrich eds., 1991), and HOMOSEXUALITY ISSUES, supra note 55. For accounts from disciplines traditionally hostile to homosexuality, see KENNETH LEWES, THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF MALE HOMOSEXUALITY (1988), and MICHAEL RUSE, HOMOSEXUALITY: A PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY (1988). For accounts from different perspectives of sexual and gender variation across time and cultures, see CLELLAN S. FORD & FRANK A. BEACH, PATTERNS OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (1951); POSNER, supra note 40, at 291-323; THE MANY FACES OF HOMOSEXUALITY: ANTROPOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO HOMOSEXUAL BEHAVIOR (Evelyn Blackwood ed., 1986); and RITUALIZED HOMOSEXUALITY IN MELANESIA (Gilbert H. Herdt ed., 1984).
133. See Eskridge, supra note 25, at 959-60 (discussing the decline and fall of antigay sodomy and solicitation laws, cross-dressing ordinances, restrictions on assembly and association in bars and college campuses, censorship of literature and erotica, immigration and naturalization policies).
134. The immutability criterion is cogently criticized and rejected for equal protection purposes in Janet Halley, The Politics of the Closet: Towards Equal Protection for Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Identity, 36 UCLA L. REV. 915, 923-32 (1989), and Edward Stein, The Relevance of Scientific Research About Sexual Orientation to Lesbian and Gay Rights, in GAY ETHICS: CONTROVERSIES IN OUTING, CIVIL RIGHTS, AND SEXUAL SCIENCE 269 (Timothy Murphy ed., 1994).
135. The immutability criterion is cogently criticized and rejected for equal protection purposes in Janet Halley, The Politics of the Closet: Towards Equal Protection for Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Identity, 36 UCLA L. REV. 915, 923-32 (1989), and Edward Stein, The Relevance of Scientific Research About Sexual Orientation to Lesbian and Gay Rights, in GAY ETHICS: CONTROVERSIES IN OUTING, CIVIL RIGHTS, AND SEXUAL SCIENCE 269 (Timothy Murphy ed., 1994).
136. Watkins, 847 F.2d at 1347.
137. See ALAN BELL ET AL., SEXUAL PREFERENCE: ITS DEVELOPMENT IN MEN AND WOMEN 186-90 (1981); RICHARD GREEN, THE "SISSY BOY" SYNDROME AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF HOMOSEXUALITY 370-98 (1987); POSNER, supra note 40, at 101-08.
138. See ALAN BELL ET AL., SEXUAL PREFERENCE: ITS DEVELOPMENT IN MEN AND WOMEN 186- 90 (1981); RICHARD GREEN, THE "SISSY BOY" SYNDROME AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF HOMOSEXUALITY 370-98 (1987); POSNER, supra note 40, at 101-08.
139. See ALAN BELL ET AL., SEXUAL PREFERENCE: ITS DEVELOPMENT IN MEN AND WOMEN 186- 90 (1981); RICHARD GREEN, THE "SISSY BOY" SYNDROME AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF HOMOSEXUALITY 370-98 (1987); POSNER, supra note 40, at 101-08.
140. See, e.g., Frontiero v. Richardson, 411 U.S. 677, 685-86 (1973) (plurality opinion).
141. Rich, supra note 37, at 23-75. For other articulations, see SUZANNE PHARR, HOMOPHOBIA: A WEAPON OF SEXISM (1988); TI-GRACE ATKINSON, AMAZON ODYSSEY (1974); Anne Koedt, Lesbianism and Feminism, in RADICAL FEMINISM 246 (Anne Koedt et al. eds., 1973); and Radicalesbians, The Woman Identified Woman, in id. at 240. See also AMAZON EXPEDITION: A LESBIAN FEMINIST ANTHOLOGY (Phyllis Birkby et al. eds., 1973); FOR LESBIANS ONLY: A SEPARATIST ANTHOLOGY (Sarah Lucia-Hoagland & Julia Penelope eds., 1988).
142. 118 CONG. REC. 9315 (1972) (statement of Sen. Ervin) (quoting Prof. Freund).
143. See Note, The Legality of Homosexual Marriage, 82 YALE L.J. 573, 583-84 (1973). Compare 118 CONG. REC. at 9315 (Sen. Ervin, invoking Freund to oppose ERA), with id. at 9320-9321 (Sen. Bayh, disputing Freund's analysis).
144. 522 P.2d 1187 (Wash. Ct. App. 1974).
145. 713 S.W.2d 508 (Mo. 1986).
146. See id. at 510.
147. Id. at 510.
148. Andrew Koppelman, Why Discrimination Against Lesbians and Gay Men Is Sex Discrimination, 69 N.Y.U. L. REV. 197 (1994); Sylvia Law, Homosexuality and the Social Meaning of Gender, 1988 WIS. L. REV. 187; Andrew Koppelman, Note, The Miscegenation Analogy: Sodomy Law as Sex Discrimination, 98 YALE L.J. 145 (1988).
149. Andrew Koppelman, Why Discrimination Against Lesbians and Gay Men Is Sex Discrimination, 69 N.Y.U. L. REV. 197 (1994); Sylvia Law, Homosexuality and the Social Meaning of Gender, 1988 WIS. L. REV. 187; Andrew Koppelman, Note, The Miscegenation Analogy: Sodomy Law as Sex Discrimination, 98 YALE L.J. 145 (1988).
150. Andrew Koppelman, Why Discrimination Against Lesbians and Gay Men Is Sex Discrimination, 69 N.Y.U. L. REV. 197 (1994); Sylvia Law, Homosexuality and the Social Meaning of Gender, 1988 WIS. L. REV. 187; Andrew Koppelman, Note, The Miscegenation Analogy: Sodomy Law as Sex Discrimination, 98 YALE L.J. 145 (1988).
151. 852 P.2d 44, 65 (Haw. 1993), on remand sub nom. Baehr v. Miike, CIV. No. 91-1394, 1996 WL 694235 (Haw. Cir. Ct. Dec. 3, 1996) (on appeal as of May 1, 1999).
152. See Singer v. Hara, 522 P.2d 1187, 1191-92 (Wash. Ct. App. 1974).
153. Samuel Marcosson, Harassment on the Basis of Sexual Orientation: A Claim of Sex Discrimination Under Title VII, 81 GEO. L.J. 1, 6 (1992).
154. Craig v. Boren, 429 U.S. 190, 198-99 (1976) (quoting Stanton v. Stanton, 421 U.S. 7 (1975)).
155. State v. Walsh, 713 S.W.2d 508, 510 (Mo. 1986) (en banc).
156. 106 U.S. 583 (1883).
157. 379 U.S. 184 (1967).
158. See id. at 195.
159. United States v. Virginia, 518 U.S. 515, 541 (1996) (quoting Mississippi Univ. for Women v. Hogan, 458 U.S. 718, 725 (1982)); see Miller v. Albright, 118 S. Ct. 1428, 1445-46 (1998) (O'Connor, J., concurring in the judgment, joined by Kennedy, J.); id. at 1449-55 (Ginsburg, J., dissenting, joined by Breyer and Souter, JJ.).
160. Miller, 118 S. Ct. at 1441 (quoting Califano v. Goldfarb, 430 U.S. 199, 223 (1977) (Stevens, J., concurring in the judgment)).
161. For colonial era documents, see JONATHAN NED KATZ, GAY/LESBIAN ALMANAC 23-133 (1983).
162. For mid-nineteenth century state criminal law relating to sex, see, for example, 2 JOEL PRENTISS BISHOP, COMMENTARIES ON THE CRIMINAL LAW § 1127 (1858); 2 JOSEPH CHITTY, A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON CRIMINAL LAW 48-50 (5th amended ed. 1847); and FRANCIS WHARTON, A TREATISE ON CRIMINAL LAW OF THE UNITED STATES § 2267 (1852).
163. This process is traced in Reva Siegel, Reasoning from the Body: A Historical Perspective on Abortion Regulation and Questions of Equal Protection, 44 STAN. L. REV. 261 (1992) (anti-abortion legislation, 1850 onward), and Eskridge, supra note 28 (criminalization of oral sex, 1879-1921).
164. For a relatively current survey of the various rules in place, see RICHARD A. POSNER & KATHARTNE B. SILBAUGH, A GUIDE TO AMERICA'S SEX LAWS (1996).
165. United States v. Virginia, 518 U.S. 515, 541 (1996) (quoting Mississippi Univ. for Women v. Hogan, 458 U.S. 718, 725 (1982)).
166. Califano v. Goldfarb, 430 U.S. 199, 223 (1977).
167. Virginia, 518 U.S. at 534 (citing cases).
168. 191 N.W.2d 185 (Minn. 1971).
169. Id. at 186. For cases citing Baker as authority, see Jones v. Hallahan, 501 S.W.2d 588, 589 (Ky. 1973), and Singer v. Hara, 522 P.2d 1187, 1192 (Wash. Ct. App. 1974). As Baker's reference to Genesis reflects, judges rejecting same-sex marriage have also relied upon the nation's religious heritage. See Dean v. District of Columbia, No. 90-13892, 1992 WL 685364 (D.C. Super. Ct., June 2, 1992) (quoting passages from Genesis, Deuteronomy, Matthew, and Ephesians to support its holding that "societal recognition that it takes a man and a woman to form a marital relationship is older . . . than Christianity itself"), aff'd, 653 A.2d 307 (D.C. 1995); Adams v. Howerton, 486 F. Supp. 1119, 1123 (C.D. Cal. 1982), aff'd, 673 F.2d 1036 (9th Cir. 1983).
170. See WILLIAM N. ESKRIDGE, JR., THE CASE FOR SAME-SEX MARRIAGE: FROM SEXUAL LIBERTY TO CIVILIZED COMMITMENT ch. 2 (1996).
171. Virginia, 518 U.S. at 534 (citing cases). Possible exceptions include proof of paternity cases and the full statutory rape case. After VMI and Miller v. Albright, it is not clear that either line of cases retains viability.
172. Stephen Morin & Ellen Garfinkle, Male Homophobia, 34 J. SOC. ISSUES, 29, 31 (1978); see Mary Laner & Roy Laner, Sexual Preference or Personal Style? Why Lesbians Are Disliked, 5 J. HOMOSEXUALITY 339 (1980); Mary Laner & Roy Laner, Personal Style or Sexual Preference? Why Gay Men Are Disliked, 9 INT'L REV. MOD. SOC'Y 215 (1979); see also Koppelman, supra note 86, at 238 & n.157 (citing numerous studies discussing the "correlation between conventional expectations about gender roles and hostility toward homosexuals").
173. Stephen Morin & Ellen Garfinkle, Male Homophobia, 34 J. SOC. ISSUES, 29, 31 (1978); see Mary Laner & Roy Laner, Sexual Preference or Personal Style? Why Lesbians Are Disliked, 5 J. HOMOSEXUALITY 339 (1980); Mary Laner & Roy Laner, Personal Style or Sexual Preference? Why Gay Men Are Disliked, 9 INT'L REV. MOD. SOC'Y 215 (1979); see also Koppelman, supra note 86, at 238 & n.157 (citing numerous studies discussing the "correlation between conventional expectations about gender roles and hostility toward homosexuals").
174. Stephen Morin & Ellen Garfinkle, Male Homophobia, 34 J. SOC. ISSUES, 29, 31 (1978); see Mary Laner & Roy Laner, Sexual Preference or Personal Style? Why Lesbians Are Disliked, 5 J. HOMOSEXUALITY 339 (1980); Mary Laner & Roy Laner, Personal Style or Sexual Preference? Why Gay Men Are Disliked, 9 INT'L REV. MOD. SOC'Y 215 (1979); see also Koppelman, supra note 86, at 238 & n.157 (citing numerous studies discussing the "correlation between conventional expectations about gender roles and hostility toward homosexuals").
175. Stephen Morin & Ellen Garfinkle, Male Homophobia, 34 J. SOC. ISSUES, 29, 31 (1978); see Mary Laner & Roy Laner, Sexual Preference or Personal Style? Why Lesbians Are Disliked, 5 J. HOMOSEXUALITY 339 (1980); Mary Laner & Roy Laner, Personal Style or Sexual Preference? Why Gay Men Are Disliked, 9 INT'L REV. MOD. SOC'Y 215 (1979); see also Koppelman, supra note 86, at 238 & n.157 (citing numerous studies discussing the "correlation between conventional expectations about gender roles and hostility toward homosexuals").
176. A.P. MacDonald & Richard Games, Some Characteristics of Those Who Hold Positive and Negative Attitudes Toward Homosexuals, 1 J. HOMOSEXUALITY 9, 19 (1974); see also Kathryn N. Black & Michael R. Stevenson, The Relationship of Self-Reported Sex-Role Characteristics and Attitudes Toward Homosexuality, in BASHERS, BAITERS AND BIGOTS: HOMOPHOBIA IN AMERICAN SOCIETY 83 (John DeCecco ed., 1985).
177. A.P. MacDonald & Richard Games, Some Characteristics of Those Who Hold Positive and Negative Attitudes Toward Homosexuals, 1 J. HOMOSEXUALITY 9, 19 (1974); see also Kathryn N. Black & Michael R. Stevenson, The Relationship of Self-Reported Sex-Role Characteristics and Attitudes Toward Homosexuality, in BASHERS, BAITERS AND BIGOTS: HOMOPHOBIA IN AMERICAN SOCIETY 83 (John DeCecco ed., 1985).
178. ALBERT D. KLASSEN ET AL., SEX AND MORALITY IN THE U.S.: AN EMPIRICAL ENQUIRY UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE KINSEY INSTITUTE 241 (1989) (quoting A.P. MacDonald, Jr. et al., Attitudes Toward Homosexuality: Preservation of Sex Morality or the Double Standard? 40 J. CONSULTING & CLINICAL PSYCH. 161 (1973)).
179. ALBERT D. KLASSEN ET AL., SEX AND MORALITY IN THE U.S.: AN EMPIRICAL ENQUIRY UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE KINSEY INSTITUTE 241 (1989) (quoting A.P. MacDonald, Jr. et al., Attitudes Toward Homosexuality: Preservation of Sex Morality or the Double Standard? 40 J. CONSULTING & CLINICAL PSYCH. 161 (1973)).
180. The historiography that has most influenced my thinking in what follows is, especially, CARROLL SMITH-ROSENBERG, DISORDERLY CONDUCT: VISIONS OF GENDER IN VICTORIAN AMERICA (1985); John D'Emilio, Capitalism and Gay Identity, in POWERS OF DESIRE: THE POLITICS OF SEXUALITY 100 (Ann Snitow et al. eds., 1983); E. ANTHONY ROTUNDO, AMERICAN MANHOOD: TRANSFORMATIONS IN MASCULINITY FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE MODERN ERA (1993); and LILLIAN FADERMAN, SURPASSING THE LOVE OF MEN: ROMANTIC FRIENDSHIP AND LOVE BETWEEN WOMEN FROM THE RENAISSANCE TO THE PRESENT (1981). For earlier developments along these lines in Europe, see Randolph Trumbach, Gender and the Homosexual Role in Modern Western Culture: The 18th and 19th Centuries Compared, in HOMOSEXUALITY, WHICH HOMOSEXUALITY? 149, 153 (Dennis Altman et al. eds., 1989).
181. The historiography that has most influenced my thinking in what follows is, especially, CARROLL SMITH-ROSENBERG, DISORDERLY CONDUCT: VISIONS OF GENDER IN VICTORIAN AMERICA (1985); John D'Emilio, Capitalism and Gay Identity, in POWERS OF DESIRE: THE POLITICS OF SEXUALITY 100 (Ann Snitow et al. eds., 1983); E. ANTHONY ROTUNDO, AMERICAN MANHOOD: TRANSFORMATIONS IN MASCULINITY FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE MODERN ERA (1993); and LILLIAN FADERMAN, SURPASSING THE LOVE OF MEN: ROMANTIC FRIENDSHIP AND LOVE BETWEEN WOMEN FROM THE RENAISSANCE TO THE PRESENT (1981). For earlier developments along these lines in Europe, see Randolph Trumbach, Gender and the Homosexual Role in Modern Western Culture: The 18th and 19th Centuries Compared, in HOMOSEXUALITY, WHICH HOMOSEXUALITY? 149, 153 (Dennis Altman et al. eds., 1989).
182. The historiography that has most influenced my thinking in what follows is, especially, CARROLL SMITH-ROSENBERG, DISORDERLY CONDUCT: VISIONS OF GENDER IN VICTORIAN AMERICA (1985); John D'Emilio, Capitalism and Gay Identity, in POWERS OF DESIRE: THE POLITICS OF SEXUALITY 100 (Ann Snitow et al. eds., 1983); E. ANTHONY ROTUNDO, AMERICAN MANHOOD: TRANSFORMATIONS IN MASCULINITY FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE MODERN ERA (1993); and LILLIAN FADERMAN, SURPASSING THE LOVE OF MEN: ROMANTIC FRIENDSHIP AND LOVE BETWEEN WOMEN FROM THE RENAISSANCE TO THE PRESENT (1981). For earlier developments along these lines in Europe, see Randolph Trumbach, Gender and the Homosexual Role in Modern Western Culture: The 18th and 19th Centuries Compared, in HOMOSEXUALITY, WHICH HOMOSEXUALITY? 149, 153 (Dennis Altman et al. eds., 1989).
183. The historiography that has most influenced my thinking in what follows is, especially, CARROLL SMITH-ROSENBERG, DISORDERLY CONDUCT: VISIONS OF GENDER IN VICTORIAN AMERICA (1985); John D'Emilio, Capitalism and Gay Identity, in POWERS OF DESIRE: THE POLITICS OF SEXUALITY 100 (Ann Snitow et al. eds., 1983); E. ANTHONY ROTUNDO, AMERICAN MANHOOD: TRANSFORMATIONS IN MASCULINITY FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE MODERN ERA (1993); and LILLIAN FADERMAN, SURPASSING THE LOVE OF MEN: ROMANTIC FRIENDSHIP AND LOVE BETWEEN WOMEN FROM THE RENAISSANCE TO THE PRESENT (1981). For earlier developments along these lines in Europe, see Randolph Trumbach, Gender and the Homosexual Role in Modern Western Culture: The 18th and 19th Centuries Compared, in HOMOSEXUALITY, WHICH HOMOSEXUALITY? 149, 153 (Dennis Altman et al. eds., 1989).
184. The historiography that has most influenced my thinking in what follows is, especially, CARROLL SMITH-ROSENBERG, DISORDERLY CONDUCT: VISIONS OF GENDER IN VICTORIAN AMERICA (1985); John D'Emilio, Capitalism and Gay Identity, in POWERS OF DESIRE: THE POLITICS OF SEXUALITY 100 (Ann Snitow et al. eds., 1983); E. ANTHONY ROTUNDO, AMERICAN MANHOOD: TRANSFORMATIONS IN MASCULINITY FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE MODERN ERA (1993); and LILLIAN FADERMAN, SURPASSING THE LOVE OF MEN: ROMANTIC FRIENDSHIP AND LOVE BETWEEN WOMEN FROM THE RENAISSANCE TO THE PRESENT (1981). For earlier developments along these lines in Europe, see Randolph Trumbach, Gender and the Homosexual Role in Modern Western Culture: The 18th and 19th Centuries Compared, in HOMOSEXUALITY, WHICH HOMOSEXUALITY? 149, 153 (Dennis Altman et al. eds., 1989).
185. RICHARD VON KRAFFT-EBING, PSYCHOPATHIA SEXUALIS, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE ANTIPATHIC SEXUAL INSTINCT: A MEDICO-FORENSIC STUDY 14 (F.J. Rebman trans., Physicians & Surgeons Book Co. 1931) (1899), quoted and contextualized in ESKRIDGE & HUNTER, supra note 2, at 136-41.
186. See KRAFFT-EBING, supra note 112, at 54-55, 382-83.
187. 2 HAVELOCK ELLIS, STUDIES IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SEX: SEXUAL INVERSION 147-48 (F.A. Davis Co. 1913) (1897).
188. See GEORGE M. BEARD, SEXUAL NEURASTHENIA: ITS HYGIENE, CAUSES, SYMPTOMS, AND TREATMENT (2d ed. 1886); G. Frank Lydston, Clinical Lecture: Sexual Perversion, Satyriasis and Nymphomania, 61 MED. & SURGICAL REP. 253 (1889). For other early examples, see JONATHAN NED KATZ, GAY/LESBIAN ALMANAC: A NEW DOCUMENTARY (1983); and George Chauncey, Jr., From Sexual Inversion to Homosexuality: Medicine and the Changing Conceptualization of Female Deviance, 58-59 SALMAGUNDI 114 (1982/83), reprinted in HOMOSEXUALITY: SACRILEGE, VISION, POLITICS (Robert Boyers & George Steiner eds., 1982-83).
189. See GEORGE M. BEARD, SEXUAL NEURASTHENIA: ITS HYGIENE, CAUSES, SYMPTOMS, AND TREATMENT (2d ed. 1886); G. Frank Lydston, Clinical Lecture: Sexual Perversion, Satyriasis and Nymphomania, 61 MED. & SURGICAL REP. 253 (1889). For other early examples, see JONATHAN NED KATZ, GAY/LESBIAN ALMANAC: A NEW DOCUMENTARY (1983); and George Chauncey, Jr., From Sexual Inversion to Homosexuality: Medicine and the Changing Conceptualization of Female Deviance, 58-59 SALMAGUNDI 114 (1982/83), reprinted in HOMOSEXUALITY: SACRILEGE, VISION, POLITICS (Robert Boyers & George Steiner eds., 1982-83).
190. See GEORGE M. BEARD, SEXUAL NEURASTHENIA: ITS HYGIENE, CAUSES, SYMPTOMS, AND TREATMENT (2d ed. 1886); G. Frank Lydston, Clinical Lecture: Sexual Perversion, Satyriasis and Nymphomania, 61 MED. & SURGICAL REP. 253 (1889). For other early examples, see JONATHAN NED KATZ, GAY/LESBIAN ALMANAC: A NEW DOCUMENTARY (1983); and George Chauncey, Jr., From Sexual Inversion to Homosexuality: Medicine and the Changing Conceptualization of Female Deviance, 58-59 SALMAGUNDI 114 (1982/83), reprinted in HOMOSEXUALITY: SACRILEGE, VISION, POLITICS (Robert Boyers & George Steiner eds., 1982-83).
191. See GEORGE M. BEARD, SEXUAL NEURASTHENIA: ITS HYGIENE, CAUSES, SYMPTOMS, AND TREATMENT (2d ed. 1886); G. Frank Lydston, Clinical Lecture: Sexual Perversion, Satyriasis and Nymphomania, 61 MED. & SURGICAL REP. 253 (1889). For other early examples, see JONATHAN NED KATZ, GAY/LESBIAN ALMANAC: A NEW DOCUMENTARY (1983); and George Chauncey, Jr., From Sexual Inversion to Homosexuality: Medicine and the Changing Conceptualization of Female Deviance, 58-59 SALMAGUNDI 114 (1982/83), reprinted in HOMOSEXUALITY: SACRILEGE, VISION, POLITICS (Robert Boyers & George Steiner eds., 1982-83).
192. See Eskridge, American Regulation, supra note 48, at 1040-43; Nan D. Hunter, Gender Disguise and the Law (1989) (unpublished manuscript, on file with author).
193. See Eskridge, American Regulation, supra note 48, at 1040-43; Nan D. Hunter, Gender Disguise and the Law (1989) (unpublished manuscript, on file with author).
194. See EARL LIND (Ralph Werther-Jenie June), AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF AN ANDROGYNE (Arno Press 1975) (1918); LAWRENCE R. MURPHY, PERVERTS BY OFFICIAL ORDER: THE CAMPAIGN AGAINST HOMOSEXUALS BY THE UNITED STATES NAVY (1988); Louis G. SULLIVAN, FROM FEMALE TO MALE: THE LIFE OF JACK B. GARLAND (1990); Lisa Duggan, The Trials of Alice Mitchell: Sensationalism, Sexology, and the Lesbian Subject in Turn-of-the-Century America, 18 SIGNS 791 (1993).
195. See EARL LIND (Ralph Werther-Jenie June), AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF AN ANDROGYNE (Arno Press 1975) (1918); LAWRENCE R. MURPHY, PERVERTS BY OFFICIAL ORDER: THE CAMPAIGN AGAINST HOMOSEXUALS BY THE UNITED STATES NAVY (1988); Louis G. SULLIVAN, FROM FEMALE TO MALE: THE LIFE OF JACK B. GARLAND (1990); Lisa Duggan, The Trials of Alice Mitchell: Sensationalism, Sexology, and the Lesbian Subject in Turn-of-the-Century America, 18 SIGNS 791 (1993).
196. See EARL LIND (Ralph Werther-Jenie June), AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF AN ANDROGYNE (Arno Press 1975) (1918); LAWRENCE R. MURPHY, PERVERTS BY OFFICIAL ORDER: THE CAMPAIGN AGAINST HOMOSEXUALS BY THE UNITED STATES NAVY (1988); Louis G. SULLIVAN, FROM FEMALE TO MALE: THE LIFE OF JACK B. GARLAND (1990); Lisa Duggan, The Trials of Alice Mitchell: Sensationalism, Sexology, and the Lesbian Subject in Turn-of-the-Century America, 18 SIGNS 791 (1993).
197. See EARL LIND (Ralph Werther-Jenie June), AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF AN ANDROGYNE (Arno Press 1975) (1918); LAWRENCE R. MURPHY, PERVERTS BY OFFICIAL ORDER: THE CAMPAIGN AGAINST HOMOSEXUALS BY THE UNITED STATES NAVY (1988); Louis G. SULLIVAN, FROM FEMALE TO MALE: THE LIFE OF JACK B. GARLAND (1990); Lisa Duggan, The Trials of Alice Mitchell: Sensationalism, Sexology, and the Lesbian Subject in Turn-of-the-Century America, 18 SIGNS 791 (1993).
198. See Eskridge, American Regulation, supra note 48, at 1025-32, 1043-45.
199. See Siegel, supra note 99, at 282.
200. See Eskridge, American Regulation, supra note 48, at 1110-11 & app.1.
201. See Eskridge, supra note 28.
202. See Estelle Freedman, "Uncontrolled Desires": The Response to the Sexual Psychopath, 1920-1960, 74 J. AM. HIST. 83, 94, 103 (1987).
203. See 1 NATHAN G. HALE, JR., FREUD AND THE AMERICANS: THE BEGINNINGS OF PSYCHOANALYSIS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1876-1917 (1971), for a detailed account of the American Freudians.
204. Barnett v. State, 135 N.E. 647, 649 (Ohio 1922).
205. Berryman v. State, 283 P.2d 558, 565 n.1 (Okla. Crim. App. 1955) (quoting MORRIS PLOSCOWE, SEX AND THE LAW (1951)).
206. See Report of Lieutenant Colonel Birge Holt and Captain Ruby Herman to the Acting Inspector General (July 29, 1944) (appendix of testimony of Dr. Alice Rost), available at National Archives, Suitland, Maryland, Record Group 159 (office of the Army Inspector General), File No. 333.9 (Third WAC Training Center). The Report is described and quoted in Eskridge, American Regulation, supra note 48, at 1092-93.
207. STAFF OF SUBCOMM. ON INVESTIGATIONS OF THE SENATE COMM. ON EXPENDITURES IN THE EXECUTIVE DEP'TS, 81ST CONG., INTERIM REPORT ON EMPLOYMENT OF HOMOSEXUALS AND OTHER SEX PERVERTS IN GOVERNMENT, S. Doc. No. 81-241, at 4 (1950).
208. See H.R. REP. No. 82-1365, at 24 (1950), reprinted in 1952 U.S.C.C.A.N. 1653, 1701; S. REP. NO. 82-1137, at 9 (1950).
209. Report of the Board Appointed to Prepare and Submit Recommendations to the Secretary of the Navy for the Revision of Policies, Procedures and Directives Dealing with Homosexuals, app. 23 (Chaplain's Presentation (WAVE Recruits)) at 2 (Dec. 21, 1956 to Mar. 15, 1957) (unpublished report, on file with author).
210. See generally Eskridge, Privacy Jurisprudence, supra note 48, at 724-33.
211. Bureau of Pub. Info., Miami Junks the Constitution, ONE, INC., Jan. 1954, at 16, 19. For similar rhetoric later in the antihomosexual campaign, see Lyn Pedersen, Miami Hurricane, ONE, INC., Nov. 1954, at 6.
212. These ordinances are reproduced in Eskridge, Privacy Regulation, supra note 48, at 827-28 app. 5.
213. FLORIDA LEGISLATIVE INVESTIGATION COMM., REPORT OF THE FLORIDA LEGISLATIVE INVESTIGATING COMMITTEE TO THE 1959 SESSION OF THE LEGISLATURE 4-5, available at Florida Dep't of State, Div. of Archives, ser. 1486, carton 1 (Tallahassee, Fla.); see also FLORIDA LEGISLATIVE INVESTIGATION COMM., HOMOSEXUALITY AND CITIZENSHIP IN FLORIDA 14 (1964) ("[T]he homosexual's goal . . . is to 'bring over' the young person."), available at Florida Dep't of State, Div. of Archives, ser. 1486, carton 1 (Tallahassee, Fla.).
214. See JAMES W. BUTTON ET AL., PRIVATE LIVES, PUBLIC CONFLICTS: BATTLES OVER GAY RIGHTS IN AMERICAN COMMUNITIES 76-86 (1997) (noting that gay rights ordinances are most likely found in cities with racial diversity, nontraditional households, and dominant religions that do not emphasize women's roles as wives and mothers, and also noting that feminist groups are especially key allies).
215. Jane S. Schachter, The Gay Civil Rights Debate in the United States, 29 HARV. C. R. -C.L. L. REV. 283, 284 nn.10-11 (1994).
216. See Michelle M. Benecke & Kirstin S. Dodge, Military Women in Nontraditional Fields: Casualties of the Armed Forces War on Homosexuals, 13 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 215, 219 (1990); Kenneth L. Karst, The Pursuit of Manhood and the Desegregation of the Armed Forces, 38 UCLA L. REV. 499, 546 (1991) (linking military's segregation of women and exclusion of gays).
217. See Michelle M. Benecke & Kirstin S. Dodge, Military Women in Nontraditional Fields: Casualties of the Armed Forces War on Homosexuals, 13 HARV. WOMEN'S L.J. 215, 219 (1990); Kenneth L. Karst, The Pursuit of Manhood and the Desegregation of the Armed Forces, 38 UCLA L. REV. 499, 546 (1991) (linking military's segregation of women and exclusion of gays).
218. See POSNER, supra note 40, at 296-97, analyzed in William N. Eskridge, Jr., A Social Constructionist Critique of Posner's Sex and Reason: Steps Toward a Gaylegal Agenda, 102 YALE L.J. 333 (1992).
219. See POSNER, supra note 40, at 296-97, analyzed in William N. Eskridge, Jr., A Social Constructionist Critique of Posner's Sex and Reason: Steps Toward a Gaylegal Agenda, 102 YALE L.J. 333 (1992).
220. See State v. Walsh, 713 S.W.2d 508, 509 (Mo. 1986) (en banc).
221. McLaughlin v. Florida, 379 U.S. 184, 195 (1967).
222. See Turner v. Safley, 482 U.S. 78, 101 (1987).
223. POSNER, supra note 40, at 318 (observing that gays in the military and same-sex marriage are too daring for courts to accomplish); Richard A. Posner, Should There Be Homosexual Marriage? And If So, Who Should Decide?, 95 MICH. L. REV. 1578, 1585-86 (1997) (reviewing ESKRIDGE, supra note 106).
224. POSNER, supra note 40, at 318 (observing that gays in the military and same-sex marriage are too daring for courts to accomplish); Richard A. Posner, Should There Be Homosexual Marriage? And If So, Who Should Decide?, 95 MICH. L. REV. 1578, 1585-86 (1997) (reviewing ESKRIDGE, supra note 106).
225. See William N. Eskridge, Jr. & Philip P. Frickey, The Supreme Court, 1993 Term - Forward; Law as Equilibrium, 108 HARV. L. REV. 26, 46-47 (1994).
226. Bowers v. Hardwick, 478 U.S. 186 (1986).
227. And even if, as appears likely, it takes decades for public opinion to shift, who on the Court wants to go down in history as the author of an antigay version of Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896), overruled by Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954)? (Pop quiz: As most law students and many lawyers know, Justice Byron White was the author of Hardwick. Can you name another majority opinion he wrote?)
228. 515 U.S. 200, 227, 237 (1995).
229. Id. at 229 (rejecting the view that "benign" racial classifications should be reviewed leniently and insisting upon "consistency" whenever a suspect classification is under review).
230. ALEXANDER M. BICKEL, THE LEAST DANGEROUS BRANCH: THE SUPREME COURT AT THE BAR OF POLITICS 169 (1962).
231. If four Justices voted to grant review, the Court would have to hear the case, but if the remaining five Justices believed the case nonjusticiable they could vote to dismiss the appeal. Compare, e.g., New York v. Onofre, 451 U.S. 987 (1981) (denying certiorari for an appeal of the state court invalidation of a sodomy law on federal constitutional grounds), with Uplinger v. New York, 467 U.S. 246 (1984) (voting to dismiss an appeal of the state court invalidation of the solicitation of "deviate sexual relations" law).
232. See JOHN C. JEFFRIES, JR., JUSTICE LEWIS F. POWELL, JR. 519-20 (1994).
233. "Benign sexual variation" is anthropologist Gayle Rubin's term for the idea that there may be several rather than just one healthy sexual orientation. Gayle Rubin, Thinking of Sex: Notes for a Radical Theory of the Politics of Sexuality, in PLEASURE AND DANGER: EXPLORING FEMALE SEXUALITY 267, 283 (Carole S. Vance ed., 1984).
234. Lest I be misunderstood, there is nothing in the foregoing statements that pertains to other kinds of sexual variation. For example, the moral issues presented by people who are attracted to prepubescent children (most of whom are heterosexual) are substantially different than those presented by people who are attracted to adults of either sex.
235. See Richard H. McAdams, Relative Preferences, 102 YALE L.J. 1, 98 (1992).
236. On the differences between conservative pragmatism, exemplified by William James, and progressive pragmatism, exemplified by Richard Rorty, see William N. Eskridge, Jr., Gaylegal Narratives, 46 STAN. L. REV. 607, 622 (1994).
237. 87 S.E.2d 749 (Va.) (declaring the marriage between a Chinese and a Caucasian void), vacated, 350 U.S. 891 (1955) (per curiam), adhered to on remand, 90 S.E.2d 849 (Va.), motion to recall mandate denied, 350 U.S. 985 (1956) (per curiam).
238. The Hawaii Supreme Court's unexpected decision in Baehr generated a strange override effort, in which Hawaii voters are being asked to amend the state constitution to empower the legislature to override any ultimate decision by the court requiring the state to issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples.
239. See supra text accompanying note 147.
240. See Naim v. Naim, 350 U.S. 891 (1955) (per curiam).
241. See Naim v. Naim, 90 S.E.2d 849, 850 (Va. 1956).
242. See Naim v. Naim, 350 U.S. 985 (1956) (per curiam).
243. See MORRIS J. MACGREGOR, JR., INTEGRATION OF THE ARMED FORCES, 1940-1965, at 40, 408-10, 441-42 (1981).