'Singing for his supper': The reinvention of juvenile streetsinging in early modern Nuremberg

Social History

Volumn 22, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 26-44

  Harrington, Joel F ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0347171151     PISSN: 03071022     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (112)

1. The first recorded reference to this meaning for 'wassail' in English is in 1742, when it is already described as an 'ancient custom' among children (Oxford English Dictionary, XIX, 955-6). The date of origin for this particular carol is unknown.
2. See especially R. Muchembled, Popular Culture and Elite Culture in France, 1400-1750 (Baton Rouge, 1985) and G. Oestreich, Neastoicism and the Early Modern State (Cambridge, 1982).
3. See especially R. Muchembled, Popular Culture and Elite Culture in France, 1400-1750 (Baton Rouge, 1985) and G. Oestreich, Neastoicism and the Early Modern State (Cambridge, 1982).
4. See especially Discipline and Punish:The Birth of Prison, trans. A. Sheridan (New York, 1977) and Madness and Civilization, trans. R. Howard (New York, 1967).
5. See especially Discipline and Punish:The Birth of Prison, trans. A. Sheridan (New York, 1977) and Madness and Civilization, trans. R. Howard (New York, 1967).
6. Cf. M. Weber, Economy and Society, ed. G. Roth and C. Wittich (Berkeley, 1979), 1, 53.
7. T. Robisheaux, Rural Society and the Search for Order in Early Modern Germany (Cambridge, 1989), 258.
8. 'Introduction' in E. Hobsbawm and T. Roger (eds), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1992), 2.
9. 'Bettelunzüge' in E. Hoffman-Krayer and H. Baechtold-Stäubli (eds), Handwörterbuch des deutschen Aberglaubens (Berlin and Leipzig, 1927-42) (hereafter HDA) I, 1190-1; 'Katzenmusik' in HDA, IV, 1125-6.
10. 'Bettelunzüge' in E. Hoffman-Krayer and H. Baechtold-Stäubli (eds), Handwörterbuch des deutschen Aberglaubens (Berlin and Leipzig, 1927-42) (hereafter HDA) I, 1190-1; 'Katzenmusik' in HDA, IV, 1125-6.
11. 'Dreikönige' and 'Weihnacht' in HDA, II, 448 ff, IX, 872-3; also 'Sternsingen' in J. Grimm, Deutsches Wörterbuch (Leipzig, 1956), XVIII, 2522. The latter custom was usually only during the Twelve Days of Christmas or on the last night, 5 January, eve of Epiphany.
12. 'Dreikönige' and 'Weihnacht' in HDA, II, 448 ff, IX, 872-3; also 'Sternsingen' in J. Grimm, Deutsches Wörterbuch (Leipzig, 1956), XVIII, 2522. The latter custom was usually only during the Twelve Days of Christmas or on the last night, 5 January, eve of Epiphany.
13. 'Dreikönige' and 'Weihnacht' in HDA, II, 448 ff, IX, 872-3; also 'Sternsingen' in J. Grimm, Deutsches Wörterbuch (Leipzig, 1956), XVIII, 2522. The latter custom was usually only during the Twelve Days of Christmas or on the last night, 5 January, eve of Epiphany.
14. See the most persuasive rebuttals of this distortion in M. Mollat, The Poor in the Middle Ages: An Essay in Social History, trans. A. Goldhammer (New Haven, 1986), and B. Geremek, Poverty: A History, trans. A. Kolakowska (Oxford, 1994).
15. See the most persuasive rebuttals of this distortion in M. Mollat, The Poor in the Middle Ages: An Essay in Social History, trans. A. Goldhammer (New Haven, 1986), and B. Geremek, Poverty: A History, trans. A. Kolakowska (Oxford, 1994).
16. Cf. discussion in W. Rüger, Mittelalterliches Almosenwesen. Die Almosenordnungen der Reichsstadt Nürnberg (Nuremberg, 1932), 30-6.
17. By the sixteenth century, payments had increased to 1 fl. worth of food and supplies. Distributed in the churchyard of St Sebald, the alms also required a special badge and were limited to fifty quarters (i.e. 121/2 years' total) per recipient, Rüger, op. cit., 18-21; E. Reicke, Geschichte der Reichsstadt Nürnberg (Nuremberg, 1896; reprinted 1983), 620-1. The many other charitable foundations in Nuremberg included the Keyper fund (since 1481) for 'verschämte Leute', the Kinderbetterinalmosen (since 1495) for poor, expectant mothers, and the general alms distributed in the Buchsleinalmosen.
18. By the sixteenth century, payments had increased to 1 fl. worth of food and supplies. Distributed in the churchyard of St Sebald, the alms also required a special badge and were limited to fifty quarters (i.e. 121/2 years' total) per recipient, Rüger, op. cit., 18-21; E. Reicke, Geschichte der Reichsstadt Nürnberg (Nuremberg, 1896; reprinted 1983), 620-1. The many other charitable foundations in Nuremberg included the Keyper fund (since 1481) for 'verschämte Leute', the Kinderbetterinalmosen (since 1495) for poor, expectant mothers, and the general alms distributed in the Buchsleinalmosen.
19. The offer paid the apprentice's fee (Lehrgeld) and doctor's costs but was limited to one child per family: 'Doch so ein petler oder pettlerin vier oder fünf kinder hette, der yedes undter dem alter sieben jar were und ein Kynd das über acht jar allt were, dabey hette, der andern zuwartten, des soll der vorgemellt herre zuvergonen haben (ibid., 71).
20. J. Janssen, Geschichte des Deutschen Volkes seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters (Freiburg i.Br., 1876-94), VIII, 290.
21. Local and foreign students were distinguished by different colour badges, white and yellow, respectively (Rastsverlaß, 7 August 1497). A 1503 ordinance also required foreign students to register with a local schoolmaster and leave a two Pfennig deposit for a singing badge. R. Endres, 'Das Schulwesen in Franken in ausgehenden Mittelalter' in B. Moeller et al. (eds), Studien zum städtischen Bildungswesen des späten Mittelalters und der frühen Neuzeit (Göttingen, 1983), 173-215, especially 182 ff; Reicke, op. cit., 725.
22. Local and foreign students were distinguished by different colour badges, white and yellow, respectively (Rastsverlaß, 7 August 1497). A 1503 ordinance also required foreign students to register with a local schoolmaster and leave a two Pfennig deposit for a singing badge. R. Endres, 'Das Schulwesen in Franken in ausgehenden Mittelalter' in B. Moeller et al. (eds), Studien zum städtischen Bildungswesen des späten Mittelalters und der frühen Neuzeit (Göttingen, 1983), 173-215, especially 182 ff; Reicke, op. cit., 725.
23. Full texts of both ordinances are found in Rüger, op. cit., 70-6 and 76-90.
24. ibid., 78, 82-3. The lament is repeated verbatim in the 1562 Haußarme ordinance (Staatsarchiv Nürnberg (hereafter SAN) 63 Ia/C, 40). Cf. 1533 ordinance of the city of Würzburg, similarly restricting streetsinging to poor students. (Janssen, op. cit., VIII, 300).
25. ibid., 78, 82-3. The lament is repeated verbatim in the 1562 Haußarme ordinance (Staatsarchiv Nürnberg (hereafter SAN) 63 Ia/C, 40). Cf. 1533 ordinance of the city of Würzburg, similarly restricting streetsinging to poor students. (Janssen, op. cit., VIII, 300).
26. See ordinances of 1525, 1536, 1539 and 1566 in Rüger, op. cit., 40 ff.
27. Mandates of 17 November 1556, 2 July 1557, 19 March 1562, 15 October 1567, 29 May 1571 and 25 October 1571. SAN 63Ia, Bde. B: 143, 151; C: 22, 158; D: 52, 53.
28. On the accidental, cyclical and structural causes of poverty in early modern Europe, see the excellent survey, R. Jütte, Poverty and Deviance in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge, 1994), 21-44.
29. Mandate of 3 December 1566; Stadtarchiv Nürnberg (hereafter StAN) D1/543.
30. r-v. A begging mandate of 31 May 1625 repeats complaints of older beggars depriving the students of alms (StAN D1/546).
31. Mandate of 3 December 1566; StAN D1/543. Complaints about health problems from winter exposure were repeated in many subsequent mandates and ordinances throughout the seventeenth century.
32. ibid. 'Ungewöhnliche Zeiten' apparently meant more than two hours after sundown, the city's traditional curfew. (Mandate of 17 November 1556; SAN 63 Ia/B 143; Reicke, op. cit., 567-71, 625.) Cf. similar complaints of the corruption of minors by Katherina Zell in 1534 (Janssen, op. cit., VI, 192).
33. ibid. 'Ungewöhnliche Zeiten' apparently meant more than two hours after sundown, the city's traditional curfew. (Mandate of 17 November 1556; SAN 63 Ia/B 143; Reicke, op. cit., 567-71, 625.) Cf. similar complaints of the corruption of minors by Katherina Zell in 1534 (Janssen, op. cit., VI, 192).
34. The threat was to be repeated at every distribution to recipients (1579 Almosenordnung; StAN D1/3).
35. Bedencken of four schoolmasters (12 August 1580; StAN B5/80-III-46), and Gerhard Pfeiffer (ed.), Nürnberg, Geschichte einer Stadt (Munich, 1971), 284. For previous complaints, see especially the begging mandate of 29 September 1571, and the Polizeiordnung of 12 May 1571; SAN 633 Bd. D.
36. r) and the text of the ordinance itself has been published in Rüger, op. cit., 90-3.
37. r.
38. StAN D1/544.
39. Both were suggestions of the four schoolmasters in their Bedencken of 12 August 1580 (StAN B5/80-III-46). This earlier proposal also suggested limiting collections to once a week on Saturday.
40. Apparently no adults were present (at least at this time) since the schoolmaster was occupied teaching the remaining students. Each collection basket bore a picture of the school's patron saint, the paraclete in the case of the Heilig-Geist-Spital school (Reicke, op. cit., 725).
41. StAN D1/544, #3. The council's final instructions added 'Es sollen auch die Schulmaister in d. wochen zum öffermal, sond. lich aber an dem sambstag alle Schuler fleissig vermanen, das sie ausser d. verordneten Schuler nicht solten uff den gassen sing.' will be arrested and punished. The same applied in Wörd, Gostenhoff and all other Vororte (ibid., #8: points 11 and 12).
42. v; Ernst Mummenhoff, 'Das Findel- und Waisenhaus zu Nürnberg; orts-, kultur-, und wirtschaftsgeschichtlich' in Mitteilungen des Vereins für Geschichte der Stadt Nürnberg, XXI (1915), 292. The practice is also explicitly mentioned in a begging ordinance of 20 August 1580 (SAN 63Ia/Bd. E).
43. Begging ordinance of 20 August 1588 (SAN 63Ia/Bd. E); Mummenhoff, op. cit., 297.
44. Based on the suggestions of several of the consultants, apprehended children were ordered 'das Siechhaus uff den newrew paw gefürt, und daselbsten wie bedacht werden gehalten werden sollen, und also zusehen wie es damit entlassen wolt', StAN D1/544.
45. ibid., #4.
46. r-v).
47. StAN D1/544, #1.
48. One consultant proposed 'Es könne villeicht auch nicht shaden, dz, wie hievor auch gesheh., in den furnembst. wirthaussen versperrt puch angemacht wurden, und durch den vorordnen Mann in dem Siechhaus, alle Monat solche durch such, und wz darinnen gefunden, obgedacht. Almuspfleger zugestellett wurdt' (ibid., #1). Another suggested using marriage and tavern registration books, as well as that every quarter and suburb appoint a 'Gesenndtner Mans und Weibsperson, verhandt., dz eines ied. handirung, wie land und alder gewehret, von weme er aufgenommen, ob es sein Ehelich abshidt gehatt, und sondlich, wievil in iedn Gesendtheus d. selb bestendtner beiemand. sein' (ibid., #2). The latter suggestion was eventually implemented during the seventeenth century; see below, n. 62.
49. ibid., #4.
50. ibid., #1. Another consultant (#2) recommended a few nights in the Bettelstock with adult men.
51. ibid., #1.
52. Rüger, op. cit., 49.
53. StAS D10/Schubl. 2, Bde. I, II, III, VII, IX, X; Mummenhoff, op. cit., 294.
54. Stadtalmosenamt Vorschlag (c. 1666); StAN D1/564. The practice is also mentioned in ordinances of 13 December 1661 and 18 December 1663 (SAN 63Ia, Band L).
55. SAN 63Ia, Bde. H and L.
56. Funeral singing by parish children dates back at least to 1575, probably much earlier. The orphans' Kißen practice was also well in place by the time of the 1625 ordinance. K. Leder, Kirche und Jugend in Nürnberg und seinem Landgebiet 1400 bis 1800 (Neustadt/Aisch, 1973), 80-90; Mummenhoff, op. cit., 300-1.
57. Funeral singing by parish children dates back at least to 1575, probably much earlier. The orphans' Kißen practice was also well in place by the time of the 1625 ordinance. K. Leder, Kirche und Jugend in Nürnberg und seinem Landgebiet 1400 bis 1800 (Neustadt/Aisch, 1973), 80-90; Mummenhoff, op. cit., 300-1.
58. Begging ordinance of 21 December 1634; SAN 63Ia/K, 2.
59. r-v.
60. Reicke, op. cit., 725.
61. r.
62. r. The city's orphans continued the practice until the Bavarian annexation of 1806 (Mummenhoff, op. cit., 297).
63. 1588 ordinance in Rüger, op. cit., 93. Innkeepers were also fined 20fl. per day that they lodged such children. The earliest prohibition of shameful songs in Nuremberg was on 3 March 1526 (SAN 63Ia/A 17). A mandate from c. 1555 threatened offenders with a 50 fl. fine (ibid., B:27).
64. Reicke, op. cit., 733-42; G. Strauss, Nuremberg in the Sixteenth Century (Bloomington, 1967), 214-15; and see the related S. L. Somberg, The Nuremberg Schembart Carnival (New York, 1941) and H. U. Roller, Der Nürnberger Schembartlauf (Tübingen, 1965). Cf. similar complaints among sixteenth- century Catholics (Janssen, op. cit., VI, 173 ff).
65. Reicke, op. cit., 733-42; G. Strauss, Nuremberg in the Sixteenth Century (Bloomington, 1967), 214-15; and see the related S. L. Somberg, The Nuremberg Schembart Carnival (New York, 1941) and H. U. Roller, Der Nürnberger Schembartlauf (Tübingen, 1965). Cf. similar complaints among sixteenth- century Catholics (Janssen, op. cit., VI, 173 ff).
66. Reicke, op. cit., 733-42; G. Strauss, Nuremberg in the Sixteenth Century (Bloomington, 1967), 214-15; and see the related S. L. Somberg, The Nuremberg Schembart Carnival (New York, 1941) and H. U. Roller, Der Nürnberger Schembartlauf (Tübingen, 1965). Cf. similar complaints among sixteenth- century Catholics (Janssen, op. cit., VI, 173 ff).
67. Reicke, op. cit., 733-42; G. Strauss, Nuremberg in the Sixteenth Century (Bloomington, 1967), 214-15; and see the related S. L. Somberg, The Nuremberg Schembart Carnival (New York, 1941) and H. U. Roller, Der Nürnberger Schembartlauf (Tübingen, 1965). Cf. similar complaints among sixteenth-century Catholics (Janssen, op. cit., VI, 173 ff).
68. Reicke, op. cit., 733-42; G. Strauss, Nuremberg in the Sixteenth Century (Bloomington, 1967), 214-15; and see the related S. L. Somberg, The Nuremberg Schembart Carnival (New York, 1941) and H. U. Roller, Der Nürnberger Schembartlauf (Tübingen, 1965). Cf. similar complaints among sixteenth-century Catholics (Janssen, op. cit., VI, 173 ff).
69. 1525 Gesangbuch zu nutz und gut den jungen kindern; für Schulkinder, Kneblein, und Meidlein (Nuremberg, 1560; reprinted in 1568). Leder, op. cit., 35 ff, 105; also Reicke, op. cit., 849 ff. Cf. verse ten of Ein schön New Lied wider das schandt hurnlied . . .: 'Desgleichen groben zoten/die man vor handen hat/die Christus hatt verboten/inn seim Göttlichen wort/das treibt man je lenger je mehr/auff der Gaß dise klein Kinder/hat man für grose ehr' in P. M. Kürner (ed.), Historische Volkslieder aus dem sechzehnten und siebzehnten Jahrhundert (Stuttgart, 1840; reprinted Wiesbaden, 1973), 248; Janssen, op. cit., VI, 193.
70. 1525 Gesangbuch zu nutz und gut den jungen kindern; für Schulkinder, Kneblein, und Meidlein (Nuremberg, 1560; reprinted in 1568). Leder, op. cit., 35 ff, 105; also Reicke, op. cit., 849 ff. Cf. verse ten of Ein schön New Lied wider das schandt hurnlied . . .: 'Desgleichen groben zoten/die man vor handen hat/die Christus hatt verboten/inn seim Göttlichen wort/das treibt man je lenger je mehr/auff der Gaß dise klein Kinder/hat man für grose ehr' in P. M. Kürner (ed.), Historische Volkslieder aus dem sechzehnten und siebzehnten Jahrhundert (Stuttgart, 1840; reprinted Wiesbaden, 1973), 248; Janssen, op. cit., VI, 193.
71. 1525 Gesangbuch zu nutz und gut den jungen kindern; für Schulkinder, Kneblein, und Meidlein (Nuremberg, 1560; reprinted in 1568). Leder, op. cit., 35 ff, 105; also Reicke, op. cit., 849 ff. Cf. verse ten of Ein schön New Lied wider das schandt hurnlied . . .: 'Desgleichen groben zoten/die man vor handen hat/die Christus hatt verboten/inn seim Göttlichen wort/das treibt man je lenger je mehr/auff der Gaß dise klein Kinder/hat man für grose ehr' in P. M. Kürner (ed.), Historische Volkslieder aus dem sechzehnten und siebzehnten Jahrhundert (Stuttgart, 1840; reprinted Wiesbaden, 1973), 248; Janssen, op. cit., VI, 193.
72. 1525 Gesangbuch zu nutz und gut den jungen kindern; für Schulkinder, Kneblein, und Meidlein (Nuremberg, 1560; reprinted in 1568). Leder, op. cit., 35 ff, 105; also Reicke, op. cit., 849 ff. Cf. verse ten of Ein schön New Lied wider das schandt hurnlied . . .: 'Desgleichen groben zoten/die man vor handen hat/die Christus hatt verboten/inn seim Göttlichen wort/das treibt man je lenger je mehr/auff der Gaß dise klein Kinder/hat man für grose ehr' in P. M. Kürner (ed.), Historische Volkslieder aus dem sechzehnten und siebzehnten Jahrhundert (Stuttgart, 1840; reprinted Wiesbaden, 1973), 248; Janssen, op. cit., VI, 193.
73. 1525 Gesangbuch zu nutz und gut den jungen kindern; für Schulkinder, Kneblein, und Meidlein (Nuremberg, 1560; reprinted in 1568). Leder, op. cit., 35 ff, 105; also Reicke, op. cit., 849 ff. Cf. verse ten of Ein schön New Lied wider das schandt hurnlied . . .: 'Desgleichen groben zoten/die man vor handen hat/die Christus hatt verboten/inn seim Göttlichen wort/das treibt man je lenger je mehr/auff der Gaß dise klein Kinder/hat man für grose ehr' in P. M. Kürner (ed.), Historische Volkslieder aus dem sechzehnten und siebzehnten Jahrhundert (Stuttgart, 1840; reprinted Wiesbaden, 1973), 248; Janssen, op. cit., VI, 193.
74. By the eighteenth century, the children were accompanied by adults and their stops announced in advance to residents, though it is not clear when this practice started. Mummenhoff, op. cit., 293.
75. See the discussions of new, properly pious 'folk songs' of seventeenth-century England in A. L. Lloyd, Folk Song in England (London, 1967), 107, 123 ff, 126, 134 ff; and throughout the continent in P. Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (New York, 1978), 217 ff.
76. See the discussions of new, properly pious 'folk songs' of seventeenth-century England in A. L. Lloyd, Folk Song in England (London, 1967), 107, 123 ff, 126, 134 ff; and throughout the continent in P. Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (New York, 1978), 217 ff.
77. Rüger, op. cit., 52 ff. No records have survived from before 1699.
78. r. This included many sick children, the older of whom were placed in the Heilig-Geist-Spital, the younger in the Foundling House. Cf. an especially moving account of magisterial concern in a Ratsverlaß of 16 September 1635; StAN 547.
79. Rüger, Die Kinderfürsorge, op. cit., 86-7; this included 2719 receiving alms, approximately 60 in the Foundling House, and 20 Springbuben.
80. 60 Ratsverläße of 2 July 1650, 19 February 1651, 9 June 1651 and 1 March 1656 (StAN D1/545; D1/564). Mandates of 21 June 1634, 23 May 1636, 9 June 1637, 8 June 1653 and 18 December 1663 (SAN 60Ia/Bde. 1, 81; K, 23, 31; L). This does not include the frequent reproclamations of the latter.
81. StAN D1/546. The recommendation resulted in the Ratsverlaß of 20 June 1625.
82. Mandate of 6 July 1651; StAN D1/564. Supposedly such a survey had at least one precedent in December 1636.
83. Rüger, Die Kinderfürsorge, op. cit., 55.
84. Begging mandate of 8 June 1653; SAN 63Ia/Bd. L.
85. Stadtalmosenamt Bericht, 19 July 1666; StAN D1/564.
86. From StAN D1/560: Simon Stengel, teenager, at least three months; Adam Heinrich Neumann, 17, one month; Balthasar Reuth, 16, two weeks; Jacob Kreuth, teenager, four-and-a-half months (!); Hans Pühlhofman, 13, two months; Andreas Schaden, teenager, two weeks; Hans Surein, 13, four days. At least half of those named in this collection of Ratsverläße were later placed with craftsmen. In view of the records' incompleteness, there were probably other minors sentenced during this period.
87. Figures are calculated on 26 cases where number of children and ages listed StAN D1/564; letter of 8 April 1663. The similarity to poor relief patterns elsewhere in early modern Europe is striking; cf. Jütte, op. cit., 47, Table 3.
88. Stadtalmosenamt Bedencken of 30 March 1625 (StAN D1/546): the Stadalmosenamt ordered a similar list drawn up on 11 April 1668 (StAN D1/563).
89. Ratsverlass of 26 April 1632 records that municipal pastors 'für eine notdurft erachte, dess für die übel gezogene jugent umb St Jacobs dasselbst eine schule angerichtet und die armen gratis instruiert werden sollen' (StAN D1/563).
90. Ratsverlaßof 17 April 1668; StAN D1/563. Cf. earlier versions of the same in a mandate of 29 September 1571, police ordinance of 12 May 1572; Reichalmosen ordinance of 1579, begging ordinances of 20 August 1588 and 16 August 1615 (SAN 63Ia, Bde. B, D, and E; StAN D1/3).
91. Stadtalmosenamt Bericht of 22 April 1668; StAN D1/564. Cf. similar concern about freezing during the winter in the begging mandate of 16 August 1615 (SAN 63Ia, Bd. F).
92. StAN D1/544, #1.
93. Stadtalmosenamt report of 1 March 1653; StAN D1/564.
94. Ratsverlaß of 16 October 1668; StAN D1/563.
95. Stadtalmosenamt Actum of 14 December 1688; D1/560.
96. Aussag des herrn Andr. G. Baumgartner (14 December 1688); StAN D1/563.
97. Stadtalmosenamt Actum (14 December 1668); StAN D1/563.
98. Stadtalmosenamt Actum (15 December 1668); StAN D1/563.
99. ibid.
100. Ratsverlaß of 18 December 1668; StAN D1/563.
101. Rössner's deserted wife was granted 20.12 on the same day as Anna Marie Salomon received her 15 kreuzer (6 December 1662) but payments for the former were stopped when Christoph Rössner returned sometime afterwards. On 10 October 1688 the Rössners were restored to the rolls but at a lower 10.12 weekly kreuzer while Anna Marie Salomon's stipend was raised by 3.12 kreuzer to 18. Stadtalmosenamt Acta 14 & 15 December, 1688; StAN D1/563.
102. Ratsverlaß of 14 December 1688; StAN D1/563.
103. Although prices across Germany had by this time fallen to about a third of their level during the 16205, 16 fl. a year would have only bought about three loaves of rye bread (c. 3400 grams) per week (calculated at 2.4 Albus, or 0.10 fl. each; price based on figures in D. Ebeling and F. Irisgier, Getreideumsatz, Getreide- und Brotpreise in Köln, 1368-1797 (Cologne, 1976), ix, xv, and Robisheaux, op. cit., 150).
104. Although prices across Germany had by this time fallen to about a third of their level during the 16205, 16 fl. a year would have only bought about three loaves of rye bread (c. 3400 grams) per week (calculated at 2.4 Albus, or 0.10 fl. each; price based on figures in D. Ebeling and F. Irisgier, Getreideumsatz, Getreide- und Brotpreise in Köln, 1368-1797 (Cologne, 1976), ix, xv, and Robisheaux, op. cit., 150).
105. Burke describes a similar polarization of 'two ethics' regarding work and play throughout early modern Europe (op. cit., 213 ff).
106. Rüger, Mittelalterliches Almosenwsen, op. cit., 109.
107. The school was funded by a lottery and opened on 25 September 1699 with 176 students. After four years, it moved out of the Zuchthaus into its own building. A second poor school opened in Nuremberg in 1702. Rüger, Die Kinderfürsorge, op. cit., 106-7.
108. Again, I turn to Hobsbawm's definition: ' "Invented tradition" is taken to mean a set of practices, normally governed by overtly or tacitly accepted rules, and of a ritual or symbolic nature, which seek to inculcate certain values and norms of behaviour by repetition, which automatically implies continuity with the past' (op. cit., 1).
109. On the many superstitions associated with beggars, see 'Betteln', HDA, 1, 1188-9. On the continuing medieval tradition of blind men singing door to door (especially the guslari of Serbia), see Burke, op. cit., 99-100.
110. On the many superstitions associated with beggars, see 'Betteln', HDA, 1, 1188-9. On the continuing medieval tradition of blind men singing door to door (especially the guslari of Serbia), see Burke, op. cit., 99-100.
111. Mandate of 18 December 1669; SAN 63Ia/M: 17. Cf. similar disruptions associated with New Year: mandate of 28 December 1675; SAN 63Ia/M: 58. On the continuing or revived practice of juvenile Christmas streetsinging elsewhere in Germany, see the examples and illustrations from nineteenth-century Lübeck and Schleswig-Holstein in K. D. Siewers, Leben in Armut: Zeugnisse der Armutskultur aus Lübeck und Schleswig-Holstein vom Mittelalter bis ins 20. Jahrhundert (Heide, 1991), 29-30.
112. Rüger, Die Kinderfürsorge, 49 ff.