U.S.-China scientific exchange: A case study of state-sponsored scientific internationalism during the Cold War and beyond

Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences

Volumn 30, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 248-277

  Wang, Zuoyue ^a  

^a CALIFORNIA STATE POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0347140716     PISSN: 08909997     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/27757826     Document Type: Article

References (150)

1. A. Doak Barnett, China and the major powers in East Asia (Washington, D.C., 1977), 178, as quoted in Harry Harding, A fragile relationship: The United States and China since 1972 (Washington, D.C., 1992), 33; Leo A. Orleans, Science in China and U.S.-China scientific exchanges: Assessment and prospects (Washington, D.C., 1976), 11, estimated in 1976 that about 10,000 Americans visited China between 1971 and 1976.
2. A. Doak Barnett, China and the major powers in East Asia (Washington, D.C., 1977), 178, as quoted in Harry Harding, A fragile relationship: The United States and China since 1972 (Washington, D.C., 1992), 33; Leo A. Orleans, Science in China and U.S.-China scientific exchanges: Assessment and prospects (Washington, D.C., 1976), 11, estimated in 1976 that about 10,000 Americans visited China between 1971 and 1976.
3. A. Doak Barnett, China and the major powers in East Asia (Washington, D.C., 1977), 178, as quoted in Harry Harding, A fragile relationship: The United States and China since 1972 (Washington, D.C., 1992), 33; Leo A. Orleans, Science in China and U.S.-China scientific exchanges: Assessment and prospects (Washington, D.C., 1976), 11, estimated in 1976 that about 10,000 Americans visited China between 1971 and 1976.
4. David M. Lampton, A relationship restored: Trends in U.S.-China educational exchanges, 1978-1984 (Washington, D.C., 1986); Leo A. Orleans, Chinese students in America: Policies, issues, and numbers (Washington, D.C., 1988). See also Kathlin Smith, "The role of scientists in normalizing U.S.-China relations, 1965-1979," and Richard P. Suttmeier, "Scientific cooperation and conflict management in U.S.-China relations, 1978 to the present," unpublished papers, 1998, courtesy of the authors; Denis Fred Simon, "The role of science and technology in Chinese foreign relations," in Samuel S. Kim, ed., China and the world: Chinese foreign policy in the post-Mao era (Boulder and London, 1984), 293-318. There is also little written about U.S.-Taiwan scientific exchange, which should make a fascinating comparison with the U.S.-China case. Although it is beyond the scope of the present paper, I intend to address aspects of that story in the future.
5. David M. Lampton, A relationship restored: Trends in U.S.-China educational exchanges, 1978-1984 (Washington, D.C., 1986); Leo A. Orleans, Chinese students in America: Policies, issues, and numbers (Washington, D.C., 1988). See also Kathlin Smith, "The role of scientists in normalizing U.S.-China relations, 1965-1979," and Richard P. Suttmeier, "Scientific cooperation and conflict management in U.S.-China relations, 1978 to the present," unpublished papers, 1998, courtesy of the authors; Denis Fred Simon, "The role of science and technology in Chinese foreign relations," in Samuel S. Kim, ed., China and the world: Chinese foreign policy in the post-Mao era (Boulder and London, 1984), 293-318. There is also little written about U.S.-Taiwan scientific exchange, which should make a fascinating comparison with the U.S.-China case. Although it is beyond the scope of the present paper, I intend to address aspects of that story in the future.
6. David M. Lampton, A relationship restored: Trends in U.S.-China educational exchanges, 1978-1984 (Washington, D.C., 1986); Leo A. Orleans, Chinese students in America: Policies, issues, and numbers (Washington, D.C., 1988). See also Kathlin Smith, "The role of scientists in normalizing U.S.-China relations, 1965-1979," and Richard P. Suttmeier, "Scientific cooperation and conflict management in U.S.-China relations, 1978 to the present," unpublished papers, 1998, courtesy of the authors; Denis Fred Simon, "The role of science and technology in Chinese foreign relations," in Samuel S. Kim, ed., China and the world: Chinese foreign policy in the post-Mao era (Boulder and London, 1984), 293-318. There is also little written about U.S.-Taiwan scientific exchange, which should make a fascinating comparison with the U.S.-China case. Although it is beyond the scope of the present paper, I intend to address aspects of that story in the future.
7. David M. Lampton, A relationship restored: Trends in U.S.-China educational exchanges, 1978-1984 (Washington, D.C., 1986); Leo A. Orleans, Chinese students in America: Policies, issues, and numbers (Washington, D.C., 1988). See also Kathlin Smith, "The role of scientists in normalizing U.S.-China relations, 1965-1979," and Richard P. Suttmeier, "Scientific cooperation and conflict management in U.S.-China relations, 1978 to the present," unpublished papers, 1998, courtesy of the authors; Denis Fred Simon, "The role of science and technology in Chinese foreign relations," in Samuel S. Kim, ed., China and the world: Chinese foreign policy in the post-Mao era (Boulder and London, 1984), 293-318. There is also little written about U.S.-Taiwan scientific exchange, which should make a fascinating comparison with the U.S.-China case. Although it is beyond the scope of the present paper, I intend to address aspects of that story in the future.
8. David M. Lampton, A relationship restored: Trends in U.S.-China educational exchanges, 1978-1984 (Washington, D.C., 1986); Leo A. Orleans, Chinese students in America: Policies, issues, and numbers (Washington, D.C., 1988). See also Kathlin Smith, "The role of scientists in normalizing U.S.-China relations, 1965-1979," and Richard P. Suttmeier, "Scientific cooperation and conflict management in U.S.-China relations, 1978 to the present," unpublished papers, 1998, courtesy of the authors; Denis Fred Simon, "The role of science and technology in Chinese foreign relations," in Samuel S. Kim, ed., China and the world: Chinese foreign policy in the post-Mao era (Boulder and London, 1984), 293-318. There is also little written about U.S.-Taiwan scientific exchange, which should make a fascinating comparison with the U.S.-China case. Although it is beyond the scope of the present paper, I intend to address aspects of that story in the future.
9. Lawrence Badash, "British and American views of the German menace in World War I," Royal Society of London, Notes and records, 34 (1979), 91-121.
10. J.L. Heilbron, The dilemmas of an upright man: Max Planck as spokesman for German science (Berkeley, 1986), 104.
11. Ibid., 109; Paul Forman, "Scientific internationalism and the Weimar physicists: The ideology and its manipulation in Germany after World War I," Isis, 64 (1973), 151-180; Daniel Kevles, "'Into hostile political camps': The reorganization of international science in World War I," Isis, 62 ( 1971), 47-60.
12. Ibid., 109; Paul Forman, "Scientific internationalism and the Weimar physicists: The ideology and its manipulation in Germany after World War I," Isis, 64 (1973), 151-180; Daniel Kevles, "'Into hostile political camps': The reorganization of international science in World War I," Isis, 62 ( 1971), 47-60.
13. Ibid., 109; Paul Forman, "Scientific internationalism and the Weimar physicists: The ideology and its manipulation in Germany after World War I," Isis, 64 (1973), 151-180; Daniel Kevles, "'Into hostile political camps': The reorganization of international science in World War I," Isis, 62 ( 1971), 47-60.
14. Peter Neushul and Zuoyue Wang, "Between the devil and the deep sea: C.K. Tseng, ocean farming, and the politics of science in modern China," unpublished paper.
15. In 1961, for example, the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH) spent about $20 million overseas and planned to double it the next year. Eugene B. Skolnikoff to Jerome B. Wiesner, 13 Oct 1961 (National Archives, Office of Science and Technology Records (RG 359), box 87, folder "International - T[itle] F[older] 1961" ). On the Soviet imposition of its state-dominated model in the East bloc, see Gábor Palló, "Internationalism in Soviet world-science: The Hungarian case," in Elisabeth Crawford et al., eds., Denationalizing science (Dordrecht, 1993), 209-232.
16. Hu Jimin et al., eds., Wang Gangchang he tade kexue gongxian (Wang Ganchang and his scientific contributions) (Beijing, 1987).
17. Mikhail A. Klochko, Soviet scientist in Red China, trans. Andrew Mac-Andrew (New York, 1964).
18. The tortuous histories of the Geneva conference on Atoms for Peace of 1955, the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957-1958, and the 1958 Geneva Conference of Experts on a nuclear test ban illustrate the tension between international science and national security concerns. See Walter McDougall, The heavens and the earth: A political history of the space age (New York, 1985), 118-121; Robert A. Divine, The Sputnik challenge (New York, 1993).
19. The tortuous histories of the Geneva conference on Atoms for Peace of 1955, the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957-1958, and the 1958 Geneva Conference of Experts on a nuclear test ban illustrate the tension between international science and national security concerns. See Walter McDougall, The heavens and the earth: A political history of the space age (New York, 1985), 118-121; Robert A. Divine, The Sputnik challenge (New York, 1993).
20. Robert F. Byrnes, Soviet-American academic exchanges, 1958-1975 (Bloomington, 1976); Glenn T. Seaborg, Kennedy, Khrushchev, and the test ban (Berkeley, 1981), 201-203.
21. Robert F. Byrnes, Soviet-American academic exchanges, 1958-1975 (Bloomington, 1976); Glenn T. Seaborg, Kennedy, Khrushchev, and the test ban (Berkeley, 1981), 201-203.
22. Walter Sullivan, Assault on the unknown: The International Geophysical Year (New York, 1961).
23. Yu Guangyuan, "Enshi he zhanyou" ("Beloved mentor and comrade in arms") in Kexue jujiang, shibiao liufang (A great scientist and teacher, a festschrift for Zhou Peiyuan on his 90th birthday) (Beijing, 1992), 80-86.
24. Gordon H. Chang, "JFK, China, and the bomb," Journal of American history, 74 (1988), 1287-1300.
25. Luis Alvarez to Claude T. Bissell, 9 Apr 1962 (National Archives, Office of Science and Technology Records (RG 359), box 141, folder 'International - Title Folder 1962").
26. Walter G. Whitman to Harrison Brown, 10 May 1961 (National Archives, Office of Science and Technology Records (RG 359). box 87, folder "International-Chicom [Chinese Communists").
27. Neushul and Wang (ref. 6).
28. Henry Kissinger, White House years (Boston, 1982), 693, 705; Harding (ref. 1), 35-36, 394-395.
29. Kissinger (ref. 18), 1490-1492, quote on 1492.
30. Another example of scientific internationalism paving the way for sensitive diplomatic overtures occurred in Chinese-Israeli relations. See "Israel will open liaison office in China," Los Angeles Times (11 June 1990), A7; Lena H. Sun, "China sets official ties with Israel," Washington Post (25 Jan 1992), A14.
31. Another example of scientific internationalism paving the way for sensitive diplomatic overtures occurred in Chinese-Israeli relations. See "Israel will open liaison office in China," Los Angeles Times (11 June 1990), A7; Lena H. Sun, "China sets official ties with Israel," Washington Post (25 Jan 1992), A14.
32. Memorandum of conversation between Kissinger, Zhou, and others, Beijing, 13 Nov 1973, in William Burr, ed., The Kissinger transcripts: The top-secret talks with Beijing and Moscow (New York, 1998), 204.
33. Zhou Enlai, "Jiancheng shehuizhuyi qiangguo, guanjian zaiyu shixian kexue jishu xiandaihua" ("To build a strong socialist nation, the key is modernization in science and technology"), a talk at a conference on science and technology in Shanghai on 29 Jan 1963, Zhou Enlai xuanji (Selected papers of Zhou Enlai) (2 vols., Beijing, 1984), 2, 412-416.
34. Zhou Enlai, "Zhuajin kexue jishu kaoca" ("Strengthen the study of [foreign] science and technology"), a talk with Chinese diplomats on 13 Feb 1966, Zhou Enlai waijiao wenxuan (Selected diplomatic papers of Zhou Enlai) (Beijing, 1990), 458-459.
35. Zhou Enlai, "Xiang sige xiandaihua de hongwei mubiao qianjin" ("March toward the grand goal of the four modernizations") excerpt from "Report on the work of the govern-ment" at the Fourth National People's Congress delivered on 13 Jan 1975, Zhou Enlai xuanji (ref. 22), 2, 412-416. The full report is reprinted in Renmin Ribao (People's daily) (21 Jan 1975).
36. Zhou Enlai, "Xiang sige xiandaihua de hongwei mubiao qianjin" ("March toward the grand goal of the four modernizations") excerpt from "Report on the work of the govern-ment" at the Fourth National People's Congress delivered on 13 Jan 1975, Zhou Enlai xuanji (ref. 22), 2, 412-416. The full report is reprinted in Renmin Ribao (People's daily) (21 Jan 1975).
37. Although disappointed by these deletions, the American group was nevertheless delighted to hear Premier Zhou promise that China would consider sending some students to study in the U.S. See Glenn T. Seaborg, "Chini journal: Report of a visit to the People's Republic of China," 22 May - 10 June 1973; unpublished manuscript courtesy of Professor Seaborg, 29-39; Smith (ref. 2).
38. Seaborg (ref. 25), 39.
39. See, for example, the following trip reports published by the CSCPRC: Astronomy in China: A trip report of the American Astronomy Delegation (1979); Oceanography in China: A trip report of the American Oceanography Delegation (1980); Pure and applied mathematics in the People's Republic of China: A trip report of the American Pure and Applied Mathematics Delegation (1980); Solid state physics in the People's Republic of China: A trip report of the American Solid State Physics Delegation (1976); Nuclear science in China (1980).
40. See, for example, the following trip reports published by the CSCPRC: Astronomy in China: A trip report of the American Astronomy Delegation (1979); Oceanography in China: A trip report of the American Oceanography Delegation (1980); Pure and applied mathematics in the People's Republic of China: A trip report of the American Pure and Applied Mathematics Delegation (1980); Solid state physics in the People's Republic of China: A trip report of the American Solid State Physics Delegation (1976); Nuclear science in China (1980).
41. See, for example, the following trip reports published by the CSCPRC: Astronomy in China: A trip report of the American Astronomy Delegation (1979); Oceanography in China: A trip report of the American Oceanography Delegation (1980); Pure and applied mathematics in the People's Republic of China: A trip report of the American Pure and Applied Mathematics Delegation (1980); Solid state physics in the People's Republic of China: A trip report of the American Solid State Physics Delegation (1976); Nuclear science in China (1980).
42. See, for example, the following trip reports published by the CSCPRC: Astronomy in China: A trip report of the American Astronomy Delegation (1979); Oceanography in China: A trip report of the American Oceanography Delegation (1980); Pure and applied mathematics in the People's Republic of China: A trip report of the American Pure and Applied Mathematics Delegation (1980); Solid state physics in the People's Republic of China: A trip report of the American Solid State Physics Delegation (1976); Nuclear science in China (1980).
43. See, for example, the following trip reports published by the CSCPRC: Astronomy in China: A trip report of the American Astronomy Delegation (1979); Oceanography in China: A trip report of the American Oceanography Delegation (1980); Pure and applied mathematics in the People's Republic of China: A trip report of the American Pure and Applied Mathematics Delegation (1980); Solid state physics in the People's Republic of China: A trip report of the American Solid State Physics Delegation (1976); Nuclear science in China (1980).
44. Anne Keatley, ed., Reflections on scholarly exchange with the People's Republic of China, 1972-1976 (Washington, D.C., n.d.).
45. Richard Garwin, "China trip: Transcribed notes of a trip to the Chinese People's Republic, March 18 to April 17, 1974," 21 June 1974, and Garwin, "Discussion at Chinese People's Institute for Foreign Affairs, December 10-12, 1979," 17 Dec 1979, unpublished manuscripts courtesy of Dr. Garwin; Laya Wiesner, "China notes: Jerome and Laya Wiesner's visit to People's Republic of China, October 1974" (Committee on Scholarly Communication with China Archives, George Washington University Library, Washington, D.C.).
46. Richard Garwin, "China trip: Transcribed notes of a trip to the Chinese People's Republic, March 18 to April 17, 1974," 21 June 1974, and Garwin, "Discussion at Chinese People's Institute for Foreign Affairs, December 10-12, 1979," 17 Dec 1979, unpublished manuscripts courtesy of Dr. Garwin; Laya Wiesner, "China notes: Jerome and Laya Wiesner's visit to People's Republic of China, October 1974" (Committee on Scholarly Communication with China Archives, George Washington University Library, Washington, D.C.).
47. Richard Garwin, "China trip: Transcribed notes of a trip to the Chinese People's Republic, March 18 to April 17, 1974," 21 June 1974, and Garwin, "Discussion at Chinese People's Institute for Foreign Affairs, December 10-12, 1979," 17 Dec 1979, unpublished manuscripts courtesy of Dr. Garwin; Laya Wiesner, "China notes: Jerome and Laya Wiesner's visit to People's Republic of China, October 1974" (Committee on Scholarly Communication with China Archives, George Washington University Library, Washington, D.C.).
48. Yao Shuping, Luo Wei, Li Peishan, and Zhang Wei, Zhongguo kexueyuan (Chinese Academy of Sciences), Vol. 1 (3 vols., Beijing, 1994); Zuoyue Wang, "Revolutionary utilitarianism: Science and political ideology in China, 1949-1976," a paper presented at the workshop on "Science and political ideology," Union College, Schenectady, NY, Aug 1997.
49. Yao Shuping, Luo Wei, Li Peishan, and Zhang Wei, Zhongguo kexueyuan (Chinese Academy of Sciences), Vol. 1 (3 vols., Beijing, 1994); Zuoyue Wang, "Revolutionary utilitarianism: Science and political ideology in China, 1949-1976," a paper presented at the workshop on "Science and political ideology," Union College, Schenectady, NY, Aug 1997.
50. Only in November 1972 did the State Council approve a report of the Chinese Academy of Sciences that allowed the exchange of scientific books and journals with foreign countries. See Wu Heng, Keji zhanxian wushinian (Fifty years on the scientific and technological front) (Beijing, 1992), 362. Wu was a long-time science administrator in the Chinese Communist Party. One reason Zhou said that China needed to do some preparation before receiving foreign scientists was that during the Cultural Revolution most research had stopped, so there was not much to show. Sec Zhu Kezhen, Zhu Kezhen riji (Zhu Kezhen diary). Vol. 5 (5 vols., Beijing, 1990), 553, entry for 14 Sep 1972.
51. Only in November 1972 did the State Council approve a report of the Chinese Academy of Sciences that allowed the exchange of scientific books and journals with foreign countries. See Wu Heng, Keji zhanxian wushinian (Fifty years on the scientific and technological front) (Beijing, 1992), 362. Wu was a long-time science administrator in the Chinese Communist Party. One reason Zhou said that China needed to do some preparation before receiving foreign scientists was that during the Cultural Revolution most research had stopped, so there was not much to show. Sec Zhu Kezhen, Zhu Kezhen riji (Zhu Kezhen diary). Vol. 5 (5 vols., Beijing, 1990), 553, entry for 14 Sep 1972.
52. Wu (ref. 31), 353-354.
53. Ibid., 346-356.
54. Neushul and Wang (ref. 6).
55. Seaborg (ref. 25), 39.
56. Glenn T. Seaborg, "China revisited: May 14 - June 11, 1978," report prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy, courtesy of Professor Seaborg; interview with Seaborg by Zuoyue Wang, 3 Mar 1992, Berkeley.
57. Wu (ref. 31), 361. In 1975, a scientific delegation visited the U.S. under the leadership of Zhou Peiyuan and the marine biologist Zeng Chengkui (C.K. Tseng), including a warm reception with President Gerald Ford in the White House. Upon their return, however, delegation members found that politics had removed their original sponsors from power and they themselves became target of attacks. See Neushul and Wang (ref. 6).
58. Wang (ref. 30); Richard Suttmeier, Research and revolution: Science policy and societal change in China (Lexington, MA, 1974).
59. Zhu (ref. 31), entries for 6-14 Jan 1970.
60. Wu (ref. 31), 363.
61. Zhu (ref. 31), entries for 6-14 Jan 1970.
62. Long conferences were common in China, probably due both to inefficiency and to the substantial time devoted to political and ideological studies.
63. Wu (ref. 31), 347-349.
64. Ibid., 349-352.
65. Ibid., 351; Chen Ning Yang, Selected papers, with commentary (San Francisco, 1983), 76-77.
66. Yang (ref. 45), 77-78.
67. Zhou Peiyuan, "'Sirenbang' pohuai jichu lilun yanjiu yongxin hezai" ("Why did the 'Gang of Four' sabotage basic theoretical research"). Renmin Ribao (People's daily) (13 Jan 1977). reprinted in Chedi jianfa pipan "sirenbang" cuanda duoquan de taotian zuixing (Thoroughly disclose and criticize the great crimes of the "Gang of Four" who wanted to seize the power of the party) (Beijing, 1977). Zhou Ruling, "Fuqin" ("Father"), Kexue jujiang, shibiao liufang (A great scientist and teacher, a festschrift for Zhou Peiyuan on his 90th birthday), 274-307, on 284; Chi-Kung Jen, Recollections of a Chinese physicist (New York, 1991); Yang (ref. 45), 77-78.
68. Zhou Peiyuan, "'Sirenbang' pohuai jichu lilun yanjiu yongxin hezai" ("Why did the 'Gang of Four' sabotage basic theoretical research"). Renmin Ribao (People's daily) (13 Jan 1977). reprinted in Chedi jianfa pipan "sirenbang" cuanda duoquan de taotian zuixing (Thoroughly disclose and criticize the great crimes of the "Gang of Four" who wanted to seize the power of the party) (Beijing, 1977). Zhou Ruling, "Fuqin" ("Father"), Kexue jujiang, shibiao liufang (A great scientist and teacher, a festschrift for Zhou Peiyuan on his 90th birthday), 274-307, on 284; Chi-Kung Jen, Recollections of a Chinese physicist (New York, 1991); Yang (ref. 45), 77-78.
69. Zhou Peiyuan, "'Sirenbang' pohuai jichu lilun yanjiu yongxin hezai" ("Why did the 'Gang of Four' sabotage basic theoretical research"). Renmin Ribao (People's daily) (13 Jan 1977). reprinted in Chedi jianfa pipan "sirenbang" cuanda duoquan de taotian zuixing (Thoroughly disclose and criticize the great crimes of the "Gang of Four" who wanted to seize the power of the party) (Beijing, 1977). Zhou Ruling, "Fuqin" ("Father"), Kexue jujiang, shibiao liufang (A great scientist and teacher, a festschrift for Zhou Peiyuan on his 90th birthday), 274-307, on 284; Chi-Kung Jen, Recollections of a Chinese physicist (New York, 1991); Yang (ref. 45), 77-78.
70. Zhou Peiyuan, "'Sirenbang' pohuai jichu lilun yanjiu yongxin hezai" ("Why did the 'Gang of Four' sabotage basic theoretical research"). Renmin Ribao (People's daily) (13 Jan 1977). reprinted in Chedi jianfa pipan "sirenbang" cuanda duoquan de taotian zuixing (Thoroughly disclose and criticize the great crimes of the "Gang of Four" who wanted to seize the power of the party) (Beijing, 1977). Zhou Ruling, "Fuqin" ("Father"), Kexue jujiang, shibiao liufang (A great scientist and teacher, a festschrift for Zhou Peiyuan on his 90th birthday), 274-307, on 284; Chi-Kung Jen, Recollections of a Chinese physicist (New York, 1991); Yang (ref. 45), 77-78.
71. Zhou Peiyuan, "'Sirenbang' pohuai jichu lilun yanjiu yongxin hezai" ("Why did the 'Gang of Four' sabotage basic theoretical research"). Renmin Ribao (People's daily) (13 Jan 1977). reprinted in Chedi jianfa pipan "sirenbang" cuanda duoquan de taotian zuixing (Thoroughly disclose and criticize the great crimes of the "Gang of Four" who wanted to seize the power of the party) (Beijing, 1977). Zhou Ruling, "Fuqin" ("Father"), Kexue jujiang, shibiao liufang (A great scientist and teacher, a festschrift for Zhou Peiyuan on his 90th birthday), 274-307, on 284; Chi-Kung Jen, Recollections of a Chinese physicist (New York, 1991); Yang (ref. 45), 77-78.
72. Zhou Enlai to Zhou Peiyuan, 23 Jul 1972, quoted in Wu (ref. 31), 364.
73. For Mao's interest in high energy physics, see Mao Zedong, "Guanyu Bantian wenzhang de tanhua" ("A talk on the articles of Shoichi Sakata"), 24 Aug 1964, Mao Zedong Sixiang Wansui (Long live Mao Zedong thoughts) (n.p., n.d.), 561-567.
74. Yao el al. (ref. 30), 386.
75. The group was called the first division of te 401 Institute of the Second Ministry of Machinery. See Zhou Enlai xuanji (ref. 22), 2, 535, n368. On August 18, 1972, the group wrote a letter to Zhou Enlai describing the status of high energy physics in China and proposing that China promote research in that field. Ibid., 534, n366.
76. Although Zhang was apparently not involved in nuclear weapons research, his wife. Wang Chengshu, a Ph.D. from the University of Michigan, was in charge of the diffusion process to enrich uranium for the bomb. See Peng Jichao, Dongfang jiuxiang: Zhongguo hewuqi shiyan jishi (China's nuclear weapon tests) (Beijing, 1995), 52-55, 146-150.
77. The Chinese (Nationalist) government sent Zhu Guangya and T.D. Lee to the U.S. in 1946 with the hope that they would study nuclear physics and return to build atomic bombs for China. See Qiu Zhaoming, "Li Zhengdao" ("T.D. Lee"), Lu Jiaxi, editor in chief, Zhongguo xiandai kexuejia zhuanji (Biographies of modern Chinese scientists) (Beijing, 1994), 153-178, on 154; "Zhu Guangya Li Zhengdao chuan ceng lai mei xue zao yuanzidan" ("Zhu Guangya and T.D. Lee reportedly came to the U.S. to learn how to make atomic bombs,") Shijie Ribao (World Journal) (7 June 1998), A9.
78. The Chinese (Nationalist) government sent Zhu Guangya and T.D. Lee to the U.S. in 1946 with the hope that they would study nuclear physics and return to build atomic bombs for China. See Qiu Zhaoming, "Li Zhengdao" ("T.D. Lee"), Lu Jiaxi, editor in chief, Zhongguo xiandai kexuejia zhuanji (Biographies of modern Chinese scientists) (Beijing, 1994), 153-178, on 154; "Zhu Guangya Li Zhengdao chuan ceng lai mei xue zao yuanzidan" ("Zhu Guangya and T.D. Lee reportedly came to the U.S. to learn how to make atomic bombs,") Shijie Ribao (World Journal) (7 June 1998), A9.
79. Zhou Enlai, "Zhongshi jichu kexue he lilun yanjiu" ("Take basic science and theoretical research seriously"), a letter to Zhang Wenyu and Zhu Guangya on 21 Sep 1972, in Zhou Enlai xuanji (ref. 22), 2, 473.
80. Wu (ref. 31), 369-370.
81. Ibid., 370.
82. Ibid., 368-369.
83. Ibid., 368.
84. Ibid., 368-369; Zhou also relied on Lee to certify discoveries made by Chinese physicists. At a meeting, Zhang Wenyu asked Zhou whether Chinese scientists should publish the discovery of a new particle and Zhou said that he would need to discuss it with Lee first. See Zhu (ref. 31), 558-559, entry for 5 Oct 1972.
85. Wu (ref. 31), 370-371; interview with Panofsky by Zuoyue Wang, Jan 1998, Berkeley. According to Ye Minghan, long-time Vice Director of the Institute for High Energy Physics, Zhang initially proposed a machine in the 20-30 GeV range, but C.C. Ting, the third Chinese American physicist to win the Nobel prize, persuaded the Chinese scientists and government that to make new discoveries they needed 40-50 GeV. C.N. Yang recommended that instead of building the accelerator by itself China should purchase a small one from abroad. Fan Dainian emails to Zuoyue Wang, 14 and 20 Mar 1998.
86. The enterprise was dubbed "Project 753," in honor of the month. Wu (ref. 31), 371.
87. Ibid., 372.
88. Yao et al. (ref. 30), 414-415. On Hua's program, see Roderick MacFarquhar, "The succession to Mao and the end of Maoism, 1969-82," MacFarquhar, ed., The politics of China: The eras of Mao and Deng (New York, 1997 ), 248-339, esp. 316-317.
89. Yao et al. (ref. 30), 414-415. Even before this decision, SLAC had maintained extensive exchange and cooperation with Chinese high energy physicists. See Wolfgang Panofsky to Ingrid H. Hoffmann, 12 Apr 1986, and attached draft article by Ingrid Hoffmann on U.S.-China cooperation in high energy physics (Committee on Scholarly Communication with China archives, George Washington University Library, Washington, D.C.); Panofsky interview (ref. 60); Liu Huaizu, Beijing zhengfu dianzi duizhuangji (Beijing electron positron collider) (Beijing, 1994), 36-45.
90. Yao et al. (ref. 30), 415-418; Liu (ref. 64).
91. Chinese leaders, especially Zhou Enlai, adroitly tapped into the home-country nationalism of Chinese Americans. During a meeting with C.S. Wu and her physicist husband, Luke Yuan, Zhou showed his deeply moved guests a map indicating how much Chinese territory formerly under Russian control he was able to get back from the Soviet Union through negotiations in the 1950s. See Ts'ai-chien Chiang, Wu Chien-hsiung: wu li k'o hsueh ti ti i fu jen (C.S. Wu: The first lady of physical science) (T'ai-pei, 1996).
92. Yang (ref. 45), 57.
93. Iris Chang, Thread of the silkworm (New York, 1995), 143.
94. Ibid., 170.
95. Ibid., 196-198.
96. Li Peishan, "Science and technology: U.S. impact on China," Beijing review, 34 (18 Nov 1991), 35-37.
97. Yang (ref. 45), 56-57.
98. William Wei, The Asian American movement (Philadelphia, 1993).
99. Shih-Shan Henry Tsai, review of The Asian American movement by William Wei, Pacific historical review, 64 (1995), 154-155.
100. Chi-Kung Jen, Recollections of a Chinese physicist (Los Alamos, 1991).
101. Yang (ref. 45), 56-57. Yang, "My reflections on some social problems," a speech delivered to the Hong Kong Student Association in New York on 3 Oct 1970, Yang, Dushu jiaoxue sishi nian (Forty years of studying and teaching) (Hong Kong, 1985), 55-61.
102. Yang, "My reflections" (ref. 76); Ruan Beikang and Ouyang Yingzi, "Zhongmei de huagong yanjiu he yingyong: Fang Wei Qianguang jiaoshou" ("Research and applications of chemical engineering in China and the United States: An interview with Professor James Wei" on 21 Aug 1978),
103. Yang, "My reflections" (ref. 76); Ruan Beikang and Ouyang Yingzi, "Zhongmei de huagong yanjiu he yingyong: Fang Wei Qianguang jiaoshou" ("Research and applications of chemical engineering in China and the United States: An interview with Professor James Wei" on 21 Aug 1978),
104. Ruan and Ouyang, Xuerer Zhuanfang Lu (Interviews with scholars) (Hong Kong, 1980), 124.
105. . Tu Wei-ming, "Cultural China: The periphery as center," Daedalus, 120 (Spring 1991), 1-32, quote on 12.
106. Ibid., 16.
107. Jen (ref. 75); interview with Chang-lin Tien by Zuoyue Wang, 19 Mar 1999, Berkeley. Elizabeth Venant, "A position of prominence," Los Angeles times (27 Aug 1990), E1-3, on E3. In a way, Tien represented the second generation of Chinese American scientists, who usually grew up in mainland China, fled with their families to Taiwan in the 1940s, then came to study in the U.S. in the 1950s and 1960s. I intend to study their experiences in a future project.
108. C.N. Yang, Dushu jiaoxue zhai shinian (Ten more years of learning and teaching) (Taipei, 1995), back cover.
109. The difference perhaps reflected in some ways the well-known personal animosity between the two early collaborators. See, for example, T.D. Lee, "Broken parity," T.D. Lee selected papers, G. Feinberg, ed. (3 vols., Boston, 1986), vol. 3, 487-509.
110. Zhu (ref. 31), 544, entry for 4 Aug 1972.
111. C.N. Yang, "Tantan wulixue yanjiu he jiaoxue: zai beijing zhongguo kexue jishu daxue yanjiushengyuan de wuci tanhua" ("On research and teaching in physics: Five talks at the Graduate School of the University of Science and Technology of China in Beijing," 27 May-12 June 1986), Yang Zhenning Yanjiang Ji (Speeches of Chen Ning Yang) (Tianjin, China, 1989), 145-160, on 149.
112. Burkhard Bilger, "Holding pattern: Chinese science has arrived, but the fate of dissident scientists is still up in the air," Sciences, 36:4 (Jul-Aug 1996), 10-11.
113. Zhou responded that the reason was not ideological but material: the government could not accommodate all the students in universities. But he agreed that some of the more talented ones should be allowed to enter univers ty directly. See Zhou Enlai, "Zhongxue biyesheng keyi zhijie shang daxue" ("Middle school students can go directly to university"), Zhou Enlai xuanji (ref. 22), 2, 473-474.
114. William Sweet, "Future of Chinese students in US at issue; CUSPEA program nears its end," Physics today, 41 (June 1988), 67-71; Robert Novick, ed., Thirty years since parity nonconservation: A symposium for T.D. Lee (Boston, 1988), 169.
115. William Sweet, "Future of Chinese students in US at issue; CUSPEA program nears its end," Physics today, 41 (June 1988), 67-71; Robert Novick, ed., Thirty years since parity nonconservation: A symposium for T.D. Lee (Boston, 1988), 169.
116. See T.D. Lee, Li Zhengdao wenji (Essays of Lee Tsung-Dao) (Hangzhou, China, 1999). T.D. Lee founded the Center (Zhongguo Gaodeng Kexue Jishu Zhongxin) in 1986, with funding from the Italian government. It sponsored colloquia, workshops, and other activities where Chinese scientists could meet and talk to visiting foreign or overseas Chinese scientists. See articles about or by Lee in Zuji (Footprints: C.N. Yang's, T.D. Lee's, Samuel Ting's, and Yuan T. Lee's routes to successes) (Beijing, 1989), 95-166.
117. See T.D. Lee, Li Zhengdao wenji (Essays of Lee Tsung-Dao) (Hangzhou, China, 1999). T.D. Lee founded the Center (Zhongguo Gaodeng Kexue Jishu Zhongxin) in 1986, with funding from the Italian government. It sponsored colloquia, workshops, and other activities where Chinese scientists could meet and talk to visiting foreign or overseas Chinese scientists. See articles about or by Lee in Zuji (Footprints: C.N. Yang's, T.D. Lee's, Samuel Ting's, and Yuan T. Lee's routes to successes) (Beijing, 1989), 95-166.
118. T. D. Lee, "Wulixue ji qita" ("Physics and beyond"), a talk with graduate students at the graduate school of the University of Science and Technology of China, Beijing," 12 May 1979, in Zuji (ref. 88), 98-102, on 101.
119. Yang (ref. 84).
120. See Fang Lizhi, Bringing down the Great Wall: Writings on science, culture, and democracy in China, ed. James H. Williams (New York, 1991); H. Lyman Miller, Science and dissent in Post-Mao China: The politics of knowledge (Seattle, 1996).
121. See Fang Lizhi, Bringing down the Great Wall: Writings on science, culture, and democracy in China, ed. James H. Williams (New York, 1991); H. Lyman Miller, Science and dissent in Post-Mao China: The politics of knowledge (Seattle, 1996).
122. Yang also criticized the Chinese emphasis on collective research in favor of more individual choices. Chen Ning Yang, "Fahui qiaoliang zuoyong, cujin zhongguo fazhan" ("Playing the role of a bridge, and promoting Chinese development"),Ning Zhiping, Tang Xianmin, and Zhang Qinhua, eds., Yang Zhenning Yanjiangji (Collected speeches by Chen Ning Yang), 195-197.
123. Qishi Niandai (The seventies journal), Liumei huayi xuezhe chongfa zhongguo guangan ji (Reflections on revisiting China by Chinese American scholars) (Hong Kong, 1974).
124. See, for example, Edward David, Jr. to Henry Kissinger, 22 Sep 1971, on "Visit of U.S. physicist, C.N. Yang, to the People's Republic of China" (National Archives, Nixon Presidential Materials, White House Central Files, Subject Files, FG 6-9, box 1, folder "[EX] FG 6-9 Office of Science and Technology 1/1/71-"). David was Nixon's science advisor at the time.
125. Yang (ref. 92), 197.
126. Nie Huatong, "Wo suo zhidao de Yang Zhenning" ("The Chen Ning Yang that I know"), reprinted in Pan Guoju and Man Chuanyuan, eds., Ning zhuo wu qiao: Yang Zhenningfangtai tu (Interviews with C.N. Yang) (Singapore, 1988), 101-119.
127. Wang Xi, "Dalu lumei xueren ziyuan yu ershiyi shiji zhongguo de fazhan" ("Mainland scholarly personnel in the United States and China's development in the twenty-first century"), Shijie Ribao (Chinese daily) (9 Nov 1997), A5.
128. According to a survey conducted by the American Institute of Physics in 1996, women make up 12% among the 144 Asian or Pacific Islander U.S. Ph.D. physicists, but only 6% of the 1,942 U.S. Ph.D. physicists of all other ethnic groups. Email from Raymond Chu of AIP to Zuoyue Wang, 5 Mar 1998.
129. Yang (ref. 76), 89.
130. Tung-Mow Yan, "Professor C.N. Yang's impact on physics," C.S. Liu and S.-T. Yau, eds., Chen Ning Yang, A great physicist of the twentieth century (Boston, 1995), 451-456.
131. Ted Plafker, "Physics meeting unites the two Chinas - briefly," Science, 269 (18 Aug 1995), 916.
132. Shih-shan Henry Tsai, The Chinese experience in America (Bloomington, 1986).
133. Tu (ref. 78).
134. Richard Suttmeier, Science, technology, and China's drive for modernization (Stanford, 1980), 67-94.
135. David Holloway, Stalin and the bomb: The Soviet Union and atomic energy, 1939-56 (New Haven, 1994). On Chinese scientists' evolution toward political dissent, see Miller (ref. 91).
136. Luo Yuru, Zeng Chengkui, and C.K. Tseng, eds., Dangdai Zhongguo de haiyang shiyan (Oceanography in Contemporary China) (Beijing, 1985), 416-418.
137. Testimony of John P. McTague, 20 June 1985, International cooperation in science, Task Force on Science Policy Committee on Science and Technology, House of Representatives, 99th Congress, 1st session, Hearings, 7 (Washington, D.C., 1985), 235-236.
138. Ibid., 249.
139. James C. Wang, "U.S. scientists and China," letter to the editor, Science, 246 (22 Dec 1989), 1547. Wang is professor of biochemistry and molecular biology at Harvard University.
140. T.D. Lee, "U.S.-China relations," letter to the editor, Science, 246 (17 Nov 1989), 873.
141. See Eric Lichtblau, "Physicist admits passing laser secrets to Chinese scientists," Los Angeles Times (9 Dec 1997), B1. A group of Chinese scientists who hosted Lee have denied that Lee passed any military secrets. The open letter by Wang Ganchang et al. is published in Renmin Ribao (People's Daily), overseas edition (11 Feb 1998), 4. See also Rone Tempest, "Chinese scientists defend southland spy," Los Angeles Times (11 Feb 1998), A4; James Brook, "An earlier China spy case points up post-Cold War ambiguities," New York Times (13 Mar 1999); Jeff Gerth and James Risei, "Reports show scientist gave U.S. radar secrets to China," New York Times (10 May 1990).
142. See Eric Lichtblau, "Physicist admits passing laser secrets to Chinese scientists," Los Angeles Times (9 Dec 1997), B1. A group of Chinese scientists who hosted Lee have denied that Lee passed any military secrets. The open letter by Wang Ganchang et al. is published in Renmin Ribao (People's Daily), overseas edition (11 Feb 1998), 4. See also Rone Tempest, "Chinese scientists defend southland spy," Los Angeles Times (11 Feb 1998), A4; James Brook, "An earlier China spy case points up post-Cold War ambiguities," New York Times (13 Mar 1999); Jeff Gerth and James Risei, "Reports show scientist gave U.S. radar secrets to China," New York Times (10 May 1990).
143. See Eric Lichtblau, "Physicist admits passing laser secrets to Chinese scientists," Los Angeles Times (9 Dec 1997), B1. A group of Chinese scientists who hosted Lee have denied that Lee passed any military secrets. The open letter by Wang Ganchang et al. is published in Renmin Ribao (People's Daily), overseas edition (11 Feb 1998), 4. See also Rone Tempest, "Chinese scientists defend southland spy," Los Angeles Times (11 Feb 1998), A4; James Brook, "An earlier China spy case points up post-Cold War ambiguities," New York Times (13 Mar 1999); Jeff Gerth and James Risei, "Reports show scientist gave U.S. radar secrets to China," New York Times (10 May 1990).
144. See Eric Lichtblau, "Physicist admits passing laser secrets to Chinese scientists," Los Angeles Times (9 Dec 1997), B1. A group of Chinese scientists who hosted Lee have denied that Lee passed any military secrets. The open letter by Wang Ganchang et al. is published in Renmin Ribao (People's Daily), overseas edition (11 Feb 1998), 4. See also Rone Tempest, "Chinese scientists defend southland spy," Los Angeles Times (11 Feb 1998), A4; James Brook, "An earlier China spy case points up post-Cold War ambiguities," New York Times (13 Mar 1999); Jeff Gerth and James Risei, "Reports show scientist gave U.S. radar secrets to China," New York Times (10 May 1990).
145. See Eric Lichtblau, "Physicist admits passing laser secrets to Chinese scientists," Los Angeles Times (9 Dec 1997), B1. A group of Chinese scientists who hosted Lee have denied that Lee passed any military secrets. The open letter by Wang Ganchang et al. is published in Renmin Ribao (People's Daily), overseas edition (11 Feb 1998), 4. See also Rone Tempest, "Chinese scientists defend southland spy," Los Angeles Times (11 Feb 1998), A4; James Brook, "An earlier China spy case points up post-Cold War ambiguities," New York Times (13 Mar 1999); Jeff Gerth and James Risei, "Reports show scientist gave U.S. radar secrets to China," New York Times (10 May 1990).
146. U.S. national security and military/commercial concerns with the People's Republic of China (the "Cox Report"), U.S. House of Representatives, 106th Congress, 1st session (Washington, DC, 1999). The full text is available on the U.S. House of Representatives website: http://www.house.gov/coxreport/.
147. James Brooke, "Senator tells nuclear bomb labs to end foreign scientists' visits," New York Times (13 Apr 1999), A14.
148. Linda L. Lubrano, "National and international politics in U.S.-U.S.S.R. scientific cooperation," Social sitdies of science, 11 (1981), 451-480; Byrnes (ref. 11).
149. See, for example, U.S. National Academy of Sciences Panel on Global Climate Change Sciences in China, China and global change: Opportunities for collaboration (Washington, D.C., 1992). In the mid-1990s, the NAS also launched a joint project with the Chinese Academy of Sciences on "Cooperation in the energy futures of the United States and China." See http://www2.nas.edu/oia/24ca.html.
150. See, for example, U.S. National Academy of Sciences Panel on Global Climate Change Sciences in China, China and global change: Opportunities for collaboration (Washington, D.C., 1992). In the mid-1990s, the NAS also launched a joint project with the Chinese Academy of Sciences on "Cooperation in the energy futures of the United States and China." See http://www2.nas.edu/oia/24ca.html.