Rumford and the Reflection of Radiant Cold: Historical Reflections and Metaphysical Reflexes

Physics in Perspective

Volumn 4, Issue 2, 2002, Pages 127-169

  Chang, Hasok ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Caloric; Cold; Count Rumford; Frigorific; Marc Auguste Pictet; Pierre Prevost; Radiant heat

Indexed keywords

EID: 0346994489     PISSN: 14226944     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00016-002-8362-8     Document Type: Article

References (185)

1. For more details on the Celsius, Delisle, and Royal Society scales, see W. E. Knowles Middleton, A History of the Thermometer and Its Use in Meteorology (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1966), pp. 58-62, 87-89, 98-101; J. H. van Swinden, Dissertations sur la comparaison des Thermomètres (Amsterdam: Marc-Michel Rey, 1778), pp. 102-106, 115-116, 221-238; and Olof Beckman, "Celsius, Linné and the Celsius Temperature Scale," Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society, no. 56 (March 1998), 17-23. An original Delisle thermometer sent to Celsius by Delisle in 1737 is still preserved at Uppsala University; see Beckman, ibid., pp. 18-19, for a photo and description. The National Maritime Museum in Greenwich, London, holds three Royal Society thermometers (ref. no. MT/Th.5, MT/BM.29, MT/BM.28), and also a late 19th-century thermometer graduated on the Delisle scale (ref. no. MT/Th.17(iv)).
2. For more details on the Celsius, Delisle, and Royal Society scales, see W. E. Knowles Middleton, A History of the Thermometer and Its Use in Meteorology (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1966), pp. 58-62, 87-89, 98-101; J. H. van Swinden, Dissertations sur la comparaison des Thermomètres (Amsterdam: Marc-Michel Rey, 1778), pp. 102-106, 115-116, 221-238; and Olof Beckman, "Celsius, Linné and the Celsius Temperature Scale," Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society, no. 56 (March 1998), 17-23. An original Delisle thermometer sent to Celsius by Delisle in 1737 is still preserved at Uppsala University; see Beckman, ibid., pp. 18-19, for a photo and description. The National Maritime Museum in Greenwich, London, holds three Royal Society thermometers (ref. no. MT/Th.5, MT/BM.29, MT/BM.28), and also a late 19th-century thermometer graduated on the Delisle scale (ref. no. MT/Th.17(iv)).
3. For more details on the Celsius, Delisle, and Royal Society scales, see W. E. Knowles Middleton, A History of the Thermometer and Its Use in Meteorology (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1966), pp. 58-62, 87-89, 98-101; J. H. van Swinden, Dissertations sur la comparaison des Thermomètres (Amsterdam: Marc-Michel Rey, 1778), pp. 102-106, 115-116, 221-238; and Olof Beckman, "Celsius, Linné and the Celsius Temperature Scale," Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society, no. 56 (March 1998), 17-23. An original Delisle thermometer sent to Celsius by Delisle in 1737 is still preserved at Uppsala University; see Beckman, ibid., pp. 18-19, for a photo and description. The National Maritime Museum in Greenwich, London, holds three Royal Society thermometers (ref. no. MT/Th.5, MT/BM.29, MT/BM.28), and also a late 19th-century thermometer graduated on the Delisle scale (ref. no. MT/Th.17(iv)).
4. For more details on the Celsius, Delisle, and Royal Society scales, see W. E. Knowles Middleton, A History of the Thermometer and Its Use in Meteorology (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1966), pp. 58-62, 87-89, 98-101; J. H. van Swinden, Dissertations sur la comparaison des Thermomètres (Amsterdam: Marc-Michel Rey, 1778), pp. 102-106, 115-116, 221-238; and Olof Beckman, "Celsius, Linné and the Celsius Temperature Scale," Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society, no. 56 (March 1998), 17-23. An original Delisle thermometer sent to Celsius by Delisle in 1737 is still preserved at Uppsala University; see Beckman, ibid., pp. 18-19, for a photo and description. The National Maritime Museum in Greenwich, London, holds three Royal Society thermometers (ref. no. MT/Th.5, MT/BM.29, MT/BM.28), and also a late 19th-century thermometer graduated on the Delisle scale (ref. no. MT/Th.17(iv)).
5. Private communication, February 28, 2001; I thank Professor Beckman for his advice.
6. See Henry Carrington Bolton, The Evolution of the Thermometer, 1592-1743 (Easton, Pa.: The Chemical Publishing Co., 1900), pp. 30-31, for a description of Mersenne's thermometer; the illustration in figure 2 is from p. 31. See ibid., p. 62, for a discussion of Amontons's mercury thermometer, which was not graduated in the same way as his air thermometer, which is more famous.
7. See Henry Carrington Bolton, The Evolution of the Thermometer, 1592-1743 (Easton, Pa.: The Chemical Publishing Co., 1900), pp. 30-31, for a description of Mersenne's thermometer; the illustration in figure 2 is from p. 31. See ibid., p. 62, for a discussion of Amontons's mercury thermometer, which was not graduated in the same way as his air thermometer, which is more famous.
8. For a summary of the mechanical philosophers' views on heat and cold, see Andrew J. Pyle, Atomism and its Critics: Problem Areas Associated with the Development of the Atomic Theory of Matter from Democritus to Newton (Bristol: Thoemmes Press, 1995), pp. 558-565. For Bacon's view, see Francis Bacon, The New Organon, ed. by Lisa Jardine and Michael Silverthorne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), Book II, esp. Aphorism XX, pp. 132-135. On Boyle see Rose-Mary Sargent, The Diffident Naturalist: Robert Boyle and the Philosophy of Experiment (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1995), pp. 203-204, and also Christiana Christopoulou, "Looking into the Nature of Cold: the Experiments of Robert Boyle" (manuscript).
9. For a summary of the mechanical philosophers' views on heat and cold, see Andrew J. Pyle, Atomism and its Critics: Problem Areas Associated with the Development of the Atomic Theory of Matter from Democritus to Newton (Bristol: Thoemmes Press, 1995), pp. 558-565. For Bacon's view, see Francis Bacon, The New Organon, ed. by Lisa Jardine and Michael Silverthorne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), Book II, esp. Aphorism XX, pp. 132-135. On Boyle see Rose-Mary Sargent, The Diffident Naturalist: Robert Boyle and the Philosophy of Experiment (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1995), pp. 203-204, and also Christiana Christopoulou, "Looking into the Nature of Cold: the Experiments of Robert Boyle" (manuscript).
10. For a summary of the mechanical philosophers' views on heat and cold, see Andrew J. Pyle, Atomism and its Critics: Problem Areas Associated with the Development of the Atomic Theory of Matter from Democritus to Newton (Bristol: Thoemmes Press, 1995), pp. 558-565. For Bacon's view, see Francis Bacon, The New Organon, ed. by Lisa Jardine and Michael Silverthorne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), Book II, esp. Aphorism XX, pp. 132-135. On Boyle see Rose-Mary Sargent, The Diffident Naturalist: Robert Boyle and the Philosophy of Experiment (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1995), pp. 203-204, and also Christiana Christopoulou, "Looking into the Nature of Cold: the Experiments of Robert Boyle" (manuscript).
11. For a summary of the mechanical philosophers' views on heat and cold, see Andrew J. Pyle, Atomism and its Critics: Problem Areas Associated with the Development of the Atomic Theory of Matter from Democritus to Newton (Bristol: Thoemmes Press, 1995), pp. 558-565. For Bacon's view, see Francis Bacon, The New Organon, ed. by Lisa Jardine and Michael Silverthorne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), Book II, esp. Aphorism XX, pp. 132-135. On Boyle see Rose-Mary Sargent, The Diffident Naturalist: Robert Boyle and the Philosophy of Experiment (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1995), pp. 203-204, and also Christiana Christopoulou, "Looking into the Nature of Cold: the Experiments of Robert Boyle" (manuscript).
12. For more information about Thomson, see J. B. Morrell, "The Chemist Breeders: The Research Schools of Liebig and Thomas Thomson," Ambix 19 (1972), 1-46, and Herbert S. Klickstein, "Thomas Thomson: Pioneer Historian of Chemistry," Chymia 1 (1948), 37-53.
13. For more information about Thomson, see J. B. Morrell, "The Chemist Breeders: The Research Schools of Liebig and Thomas Thomson," Ambix 19 (1972), 1-46, and Herbert S. Klickstein, "Thomas Thomson: Pioneer Historian of Chemistry," Chymia 1 (1948), 37-53.
14. Thomas Thomson, A System of Chemistry, 4 vols. (Edinburgh: Bell & Bradfute, and E. Balfour, 1802), Vol. 1, p.339; emphasis added.
15. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2nd ed., Vol. 2 (1778), pp. 2065-2067; 3rd ed., Vol. 8 (1797), p. 351.
16. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2nd ed., Vol. 2 (1778), pp. 2065-2067; 3rd ed., Vol. 8 (1797), p. 351.
17. There are many biographical accounts of Pictet, but the most convenient summary is Robert Fox, "Pictet, Marc-Auguste," in The Dictionary of Scientific Biography. For further details of Pictet, his family, and especially the Bibliothèque Britannique, see David M. Bickerton, Marc-Auguste and Charles Pictet, the Bibliothèque Britannique (1796-1815) and the Dissemination of British Literature and Science on the Continent (Geneva: Slatkine Reprints, 1986).
18. There are many biographical accounts of Pictet, but the most convenient summary is Robert Fox, "Pictet, Marc-Auguste," in The Dictionary of Scientific Biography. For further details of Pictet, his family, and especially the Bibliothèque Britannique, see David M. Bickerton, Marc-Auguste and Charles Pictet, the Bibliothèque Britannique (1796-1815) and the Dissemination of British Literature and Science on the Continent (Geneva: Slatkine Reprints, 1986).
19. Marc-Auguste Pictet, An Essay on Fire, translated by W. B[elcombe], under the inspection of the author (London: E. Jeffery, 1791; originally published in Geneva in 1790 as Essai sur le feu), pp. 86-111.
20. Marc-Auguste Pictet, An Essay on Fire, translated by W. B[elcombe], under the inspection of the author (London: E. Jeffery, 1791; originally published in Geneva in 1790 as Essai sur le feu), pp. 86-111.
21. For a description of these experiments on cold radiation, see ibid., pp. 116-118.
22. Ian Hacking, Representing and Intervening (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 23.
23. John Murray, A System of Chemistry, 4th ed., 4 Vols. (Edinburgh: Francis Pillans; London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme & Brown, 1819), Vol. 1, pp. 359-360.
24. See the anonymous obiturary, "Memoirs of Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count of Rumford," Gentleman's Magazine, and Historical Chronicle 84:2 (1814), 394-398, on p. 397. See also Sanborn C. Brown, Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford (Cambridge, Mass. and London, England: The MIT Press, 1979), p. 260.
25. See the anonymous obiturary, "Memoirs of Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count of Rumford," Gentleman's Magazine, and Historical Chronicle 84:2 (1814), 394-398, on p. 397. See also Sanborn C. Brown, Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford (Cambridge, Mass. and London, England: The MIT Press, 1979), p. 260.
26. Thomas Young, A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts, 2 Vols. (London: Joseph Johnson, 1807), Vol. 1, p. 631. He continued: "but there are many reasons for supposing heat to be the positive quality, and cold the diminution or absence of that quality"; however, he did not care to state any of those "many reasons."
27. Brown, Benjamin Thompson (ref. 13), esp. pp. 256-270; James Evans and Brian Popp, "Pictet's experiment: The apparent radiation and reflection of cold," American Journal of Physics 53 (1985), 737-753. Also notable are: Burghard Weiss, "Das Schalltrichter-Experiment des Benjamin Thompson Count Rumford: der gescheiterte Versuch einer Widerlegung der Theorie des strahlenden Wärmestoffs," Gesnerus 43 (1986), 109-132; Burghard Weiss, Zwischen Physikotheologie und Positivismus: Pierre Prevost und die korpuskular-kinetische Physik der Genfer Schule (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1988).
28. Brown, Benjamin Thompson (ref. 13), esp. pp. 256-270; James Evans and Brian Popp, "Pictet's experiment: The apparent radiation and reflection of cold," American Journal of Physics 53 (1985), 737-753. Also notable are: Burghard Weiss, "Das Schalltrichter-Experiment des Benjamin Thompson Count Rumford: der gescheiterte Versuch einer Widerlegung der Theorie des strahlenden Wärmestoffs," Gesnerus 43 (1986), 109-132; Burghard Weiss, Zwischen Physikotheologie und Positivismus: Pierre Prevost und die korpuskular-kinetische Physik der Genfer Schule (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1988).
29. Brown, Benjamin Thompson (ref. 13), esp. pp. 256-270; James Evans and Brian Popp, "Pictet's experiment: The apparent radiation and reflection of cold," American Journal of Physics 53 (1985), 737-753. Also notable are: Burghard Weiss, "Das Schalltrichter-Experiment des Benjamin Thompson Count Rumford: der gescheiterte Versuch einer Widerlegung der Theorie des strahlenden Wärmestoffs," Gesnerus 43 (1986), 109-132; Burghard Weiss, Zwischen Physikotheologie und Positivismus: Pierre Prevost und die korpuskular-kinetische Physik der Genfer Schule (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1988).
30. Brown, Benjamin Thompson (ref. 13), esp. pp. 256-270; James Evans and Brian Popp, "Pictet's experiment: The apparent radiation and reflection of cold," American Journal of Physics 53 (1985), 737-753. Also notable are: Burghard Weiss, "Das Schalltrichter-Experiment des Benjamin Thompson Count Rumford: der gescheiterte Versuch einer Widerlegung der Theorie des strahlenden Wärmestoffs," Gesnerus 43 (1986), 109-132; Burghard Weiss, Zwischen Physikotheologie und Positivismus: Pierre Prevost und die korpuskular-kinetische Physik der Genfer Schule (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1988).
31. For a convenient introduction to the basic tenets of the caloric theory, see S. Lilley, "Attitudes to the Nature of Heat about the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century," Archive Internationale d'Histoire des Sciences 1 (1947-48), 630-639, and Sanborn C. Brown, "The Caloric Theory of Heat," American Journal of Physics 18 (1950), 367-373. For more detailed treatments, see Robert Fox, The Caloric Theory of Gases From Lavoisier to Regnault (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971); and D. S. L. Cardwell, From Watt to Clausius (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1971).
32. For a convenient introduction to the basic tenets of the caloric theory, see S. Lilley, "Attitudes to the Nature of Heat about the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century," Archive Internationale d'Histoire des Sciences 1 (1947-48), 630-639, and Sanborn C. Brown, "The Caloric Theory of Heat," American Journal of Physics 18 (1950), 367-373. For more detailed treatments, see Robert Fox, The Caloric Theory of Gases From Lavoisier to Regnault (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971); and D. S. L. Cardwell, From Watt to Clausius (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1971).
33. For a convenient introduction to the basic tenets of the caloric theory, see S. Lilley, "Attitudes to the Nature of Heat about the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century," Archive Internationale d'Histoire des Sciences 1 (1947-48), 630-639, and Sanborn C. Brown, "The Caloric Theory of Heat," American Journal of Physics 18 (1950), 367-373. For more detailed treatments, see Robert Fox, The Caloric Theory of Gases From Lavoisier to Regnault (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971); and D. S. L. Cardwell, From Watt to Clausius (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1971).
34. For a convenient introduction to the basic tenets of the caloric theory, see S. Lilley, "Attitudes to the Nature of Heat about the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century," Archive Internationale d'Histoire des Sciences 1 (1947-48), 630-639, and Sanborn C. Brown, "The Caloric Theory of Heat," American Journal of Physics 18 (1950), 367-373. For more detailed treatments, see Robert Fox, The Caloric Theory of Gases From Lavoisier to Regnault (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971); and D. S. L. Cardwell, From Watt to Clausius (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1971).
35. René-Just Haüy, An Elementary Treatise on Natural Philosophy, trans. by Olinthus Gregory, 2 Vols. (London: George Kearsley, 1807; originally published as Traité élémentaire de physique in 1803 in Paris), pp. 83-84.
36. René-Just Haüy, An Elementary Treatise on Natural Philosophy, trans. by Olinthus Gregory, 2 Vols. (London: George Kearsley, 1807; originally published as Traité élémentaire de physique in 1803 in Paris), pp. 83-84.
37. William Henry, "A Review of Some Experiments, which Have Been Supposed to Disprove the Materiality of Heat," Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester 5:2 (1802), 603-621, on p. 621; emphasis original. The experiment that Henry refers to here is described in Rumford (Benjamin Thompson), "Of the Propagation of Heat in Various Substances, Chapter 1" [1786], Vol. 1, The Collected Works of Count Rumford (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968), pp. 52-84, especially pp. 53-56.
38. William Henry, "A Review of Some Experiments, which Have Been Supposed to Disprove the Materiality of Heat," Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester 5:2 (1802), 603-621, on p. 621; emphasis original. The experiment that Henry refers to here is described in Rumford (Benjamin Thompson), "Of the Propagation of Heat in Various Substances, Chapter 1" [1786], Vol. 1, The Collected Works of Count Rumford (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968), pp. 52-84, especially pp. 53-56.
39. Thomson, System of Chemistry (ref. 6), Vol. 1, p. 259.
40. Pictet, Essay on Fire (ref. 9), pp. 10-13.
41. Ibid., pp. 121-123.
42. On Hutton's geological contributions, see Frank Dawson Adams, The Birth and Development of the Geological Sciences (New York: Dover, 1938), pp. 238-245.
43. James Hutton, A Dissertation upon the Philosophy of Light, Heat, and Fire (Edinburgh and London: Cadell and Davies, 1794), pp. 85-92.
44. For an exposition of these earlier ideas, see James Hutton, Dissertations on different subjects in natural philosophy (Edinburgh: A. Strahan; London: T. Cadell, 1792), pp. 473, 487-496. Hutton had been discussing these ideas since the 1770s, according to Richard G. Olson, "Count Rumford, Sir John Leslie, and the Study of the Nature and Propagation of Heat at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century," Annals of Science 26 (1970), 273-304, on p. 214.
45. For an exposition of these earlier ideas, see James Hutton, Dissertations on different subjects in natural philosophy (Edinburgh: A. Strahan; London: T. Cadell, 1792), pp. 473, 487-496. Hutton had been discussing these ideas since the 1770s, according to Richard G. Olson, "Count Rumford, Sir John Leslie, and the Study of the Nature and Propagation of Heat at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century," Annals of Science 26 (1970), 273-304, on p. 214.
46. Hutton, Philosophy of Light (ref. 23), pp. 86-88, and also pp. 32-56.
47. Ibid., pp. 95-98.
48. For the explanation of the difficulty, and a few words about Végobre, see Pierre Prevost, "Sur l'équilibre du feu," Journal de Physique 38 (1791), 314-323, on 315, 320-321; also Pierre Prevost, Du calorique rayonnant (Paris and Geneva: Paschoud, 1809), p. 14.
49. For the explanation of the difficulty, and a few words about Végobre, see Pierre Prevost, "Sur l'équilibre du feu," Journal de Physique 38 (1791), 314-323, on 315, 320-321; also Pierre Prevost, Du calorique rayonnant (Paris and Geneva: Paschoud, 1809), p. 14.
50. For further details on Prevost's life and work see A. Cherbuliez, Discours sur la vie et les travaux de feu Pierre Prevost, ancien Professeur de Philosophie à l'Académie de Genève (Geneva: Ramboz, 1839), and also Auguste de Candolle, "Notice sur M. Pierre Prevost," Archives des sciences physiques et naturelles 19 (1839), 1-10. For a convenient summary in English, see John G. Burke, "Prevost, Pierre," in Charles Coulston Gillispie, ed., Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Vol. 11 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1975), pp. 134-135.
51. For further details on Prevost's life and work see A. Cherbuliez, Discours sur la vie et les travaux de feu Pierre Prevost, ancien Professeur de Philosophie à l'Académie de Genève (Geneva: Ramboz, 1839), and also Auguste de Candolle, "Notice sur M. Pierre Prevost," Archives des sciences physiques et naturelles 19 (1839), 1-10. For a convenient summary in English, see John G. Burke, "Prevost, Pierre," in Charles Coulston Gillispie, ed., Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Vol. 11 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1975), pp. 134-135.
52. For further details on Prevost's life and work see A. Cherbuliez, Discours sur la vie et les travaux de feu Pierre Prevost, ancien Professeur de Philosophie à l'Académie de Genève (Geneva: Ramboz, 1839), and also Auguste de Candolle, "Notice sur M. Pierre Prevost," Archives des sciences physiques et naturelles 19 (1839), 1-10. For a convenient summary in English, see John G. Burke, "Prevost, Pierre," in Charles Coulston Gillispie, ed., Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Vol. 11 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1975), pp. 134-135.
53. Bickerton, Pictet (ref. 8), gives a good description of this community.
54. This is the first part of Pierre Prevost, Deux traités de physique mécanique (Geneva and Paris: J. J. Paschoud, 1818).
55. For references to Le Sage and Bernoulli, see Pierre Prevost, "Considérations sur les nouvelles recherches du Comte de Rumford relatives au mode d'action du Calorique, addressées aux Rédacteurs de la Bibliothèque Britannique" and "Résumé des considérations sur le mode d'action du calorique," Bibliothèque Britannique 26 (1804), 13-28, 205-219, 309-314, on 15; and also Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), pp. 13-14. Weiss, Zwischen Physikotheologie und Positivismus (ref. 15), gives an extensive discussion of the theoretical tradition in which Prevost's ideas developed; unfortunately, I have not been able to obtain this volume.
56. For references to Le Sage and Bernoulli, see Pierre Prevost, "Considérations sur les nouvelles recherches du Comte de Rumford relatives au mode d'action du Calorique, addressées aux Rédacteurs de la Bibliothèque Britannique" and "Résumé des considérations sur le mode d'action du calorique," Bibliothèque Britannique 26 (1804), 13-28, 205-219, 309-314, on 15; and also Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), pp. 13-14. Weiss, Zwischen Physikotheologie und Positivismus (ref. 15), gives an extensive discussion of the theoretical tradition in which Prevost's ideas developed; unfortunately, I have not been able to obtain this volume.
57. For references to Le Sage and Bernoulli, see Pierre Prevost, "Considérations sur les nouvelles recherches du Comte de Rumford relatives au mode d'action du Calorique, addressées aux Rédacteurs de la Bibliothèque Britannique" and "Résumé des considérations sur le mode d'action du calorique," Bibliothèque Britannique 26 (1804), 13-28, 205-219, 309-314, on 15; and also Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), pp. 13-14. Weiss, Zwischen Physikotheologie und Positivismus (ref. 15), gives an extensive discussion of the theoretical tradition in which Prevost's ideas developed; unfortunately, I have not been able to obtain this volume.
58. Prevost, "Sur l'équilibre du feu" (ref. 27), pp. 315-318, gives the essential ideas of his theory of dynamic equilibrium; the application of this theory to the reflection of cold is given on pp. 318-320. In the more extended treatment in Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), the basic exposition of the theory can be found in Section 1, and the treatment of the reflection of cold in Section 4.
59. Prevost, "Sur l'équilibre du feu" (ref. 27), pp. 315-318, gives the essential ideas of his theory of dynamic equilibrium; the application of this theory to the reflection of cold is given on pp. 318-320. In the more extended treatment in Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), the basic exposition of the theory can be found in Section 1, and the treatment of the reflection of cold in Section 4.
60. Pierre Prevost, Exposition élémentaire des principes qui servent de base a la théorie de la chaleur rayonnante, faisant suite a l'ouvrage intitulé du calorique rayonnant (Geneva and Paris: Abraham Cherbuliez, 1832), p. 71. Prevost's theory was often referred to as the "theory of exchanges."
61. On Pictet's attitude, see Prevost, "Sur l'équilibre du feu" (ref. 27), p. 315.
62. There are many accounts of Rumford's life and work, but the definitive modern account is Sanborn C. Brown, Benjamin Thompson (ref. 13). The definitive 19th-century work is George E. Ellis, Memoir of Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford (Boston: American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1871). A brief and useful introduction can be found in G. I. Brown, Scientist, Soldier, Statesman, Spy - Count Rumford: The Extraordinary Life of a Scientific Genius (Phoenix Mill: Sutton Publishing, 1999).
63. There are many accounts of Rumford's life and work, but the definitive modern account is Sanborn C. Brown, Benjamin Thompson (ref. 13). The definitive 19th-century work is George E. Ellis, Memoir of Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford (Boston: American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1871). A brief and useful introduction can be found in G. I. Brown, Scientist, Soldier, Statesman, Spy - Count Rumford: The Extraordinary Life of a Scientific Genius (Phoenix Mill: Sutton Publishing, 1999).
64. There are many accounts of Rumford's life and work, but the definitive modern account is Sanborn C. Brown, Benjamin Thompson (ref. 13). The definitive 19th-century work is George E. Ellis, Memoir of Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford (Boston: American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1871). A brief and useful introduction can be found in G. I. Brown, Scientist, Soldier, Statesman, Spy - Count Rumford: The Extraordinary Life of a Scientific Genius (Phoenix Mill: Sutton Publishing, 1999).
65. Rumford to Pictet, January 5, 1797. I quote from a copy of Rumford's letters to Pictet, preserved in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
66. Rumford to Pictet, October 18, 1800. See Rumford, "Historical Review of the Various Experiments of the Author on the Subject of Heat" [1804], Vol. 1 Collected Works (ref. 18), pp. 443-496, on pp. 477-478, for a published account of this event. According to the latter account, the experiment was also witnessed by John Playfair, Dugald Stewart, and other luminaries of the Scottish Enlightenment; Thomas Hope (1766-1844), who hosted this occasion, was Joseph Black's successor in the Edinburgh chair of chemistry. By this time both Black and Hutton had passed away.
67. Rumford had come up with an analogy between sound and heat at least a few years before this. He wrote to Pictet (November 8, 1797): "A bell when struck with a hammer gives off sound, -but I do no[t] think it would be speaking philosophically to call sound a material substance."
68. For the circumstances of Young's appointment, see Henry Bence Jones, The Royal Institution: Its Founder and Its First Professors (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1871), p. 238, and pp. 223ff for Young's life and work more generally.
69. Thomas Young, "Outlines of Experiments and Inquiries respecting Sound and Light," Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 90 (1800), 106-150, on 130; Thomas Young, "On the Theory of Light and Colours," Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 92 (1802), 12-48, on 32-33 and 47.
70. Thomas Young, "Outlines of Experiments and Inquiries respecting Sound and Light," Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 90 (1800), 106-150, on 130; Thomas Young, "On the Theory of Light and Colours," Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 92 (1802), 12-48, on 32-33 and 47.
71. See, e.g., Rumford, "An Inquiry Concerning the Nature of Heat, and the Mode of its Communication" [1804], Vol. 1 Collected Works (ref. 18), pp. 323-433, on p. 416.
72. Ibid., p. 408, emphases original; see pp. 376 and 405ff, for further explanations. A succinct summary can be found in Rumford, "Reflections on Heat" [1804], Vol. 1 Collected Works (ref. 18), pp. 301-322, on p. 313.
73. Ibid., p. 408, emphases original; see pp. 376 and 405ff, for further explanations. A succinct summary can be found in Rumford, "Reflections on Heat" [1804], Vol. 1 Collected Works (ref. 18), pp. 301-322, on p. 313.
74. Pictet, Essay (ref. 9), p. 123.
75. Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), pp. 400-401; Rumford, "Experiments Tending to Show that Heat is Communicated through Solid Bodies, by a Law which is the Same as that which would Ensue from Radiation between the Particles" (Section 3 of "Experimental Investigations Concerning Heat") [1804], Vol. 2 (1969) Collected Works (ref. 18), pp. 9-23.
76. Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), pp. 400-401; Rumford, "Experiments Tending to Show that Heat is Communicated through Solid Bodies, by a Law which is the Same as that which would Ensue from Radiation between the Particles" (Section 3 of "Experimental Investigations Concerning Heat") [1804], Vol. 2 (1969) Collected Works (ref. 18), pp. 9-23.
77. Rumford, "An Experimental Inquiry concerning the Source of the Heat which is Excited by Friction" [1798], Vol. 1 Collected Works (ref. 18), pp. 3-26; Rumford, "An Inquiry concerning the Weight Ascribed to Heat" [1799], Vol. 1 Collected Works (ref. 18), pp. 27-48.
78. Rumford, "An Experimental Inquiry concerning the Source of the Heat which is Excited by Friction" [1798], Vol. 1 Collected Works (ref. 18), pp. 3-26; Rumford, "An Inquiry concerning the Weight Ascribed to Heat" [1799], Vol. 1 Collected Works (ref. 18), pp. 27-48.
79. For standard calorist rebuttals of Rumford's arguments, see for instance: Henry, "Review" (ref. 18), pp. 603-613; Berthollet is quoted at length and discussed in Rumford, "Historical Review" (ref. 37), pp. 471-474; Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), pp. 9-12; and Thomas Thomson, An Outline of the Sciences of Heat and Electricity (London: Baldwin & Cradock, 1830), pp. 339-341.
80. For standard calorist rebuttals of Rumford's arguments, see for instance: Henry, "Review" (ref. 18), pp. 603-613; Berthollet is quoted at length and discussed in Rumford, "Historical Review" (ref. 37), pp. 471-474; Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), pp. 9-12; and Thomas Thomson, An Outline of the Sciences of Heat and Electricity (London: Baldwin & Cradock, 1830), pp. 339-341.
81. For standard calorist rebuttals of Rumford's arguments, see for instance: Henry, "Review" (ref. 18), pp. 603-613; Berthollet is quoted at length and discussed in Rumford, "Historical Review" (ref. 37), pp. 471-474; Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), pp. 9-12; and Thomas Thomson, An Outline of the Sciences of Heat and Electricity (London: Baldwin & Cradock, 1830), pp. 339-341.
82. For standard calorist rebuttals of Rumford's arguments, see for instance: Henry, "Review" (ref. 18), pp. 603-613; Berthollet is quoted at length and discussed in Rumford, "Historical Review" (ref. 37), pp. 471-474; Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), pp. 9-12; and Thomas Thomson, An Outline of the Sciences of Heat and Electricity (London: Baldwin & Cradock, 1830), pp. 339-341.
83. Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), p. 323.
84. The published version of this paper is Rumford, "Reflections" (ref. 42).
85. Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), p. 421.
86. Rumford, "Historical Review" (ref. 37), p. 484.
87. On how Rumford commenced and applied these studies, see Brown, Benjamin Thompson (ref. 13), pp. 259-260; and Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), pp. 324ff.
88. On how Rumford commenced and applied these studies, see Brown, Benjamin Thompson (ref. 13), pp. 259-260; and Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), pp. 324ff.
89. Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), pp. 337-338, 377-378; Rumford, "Reflections" (ref. 42), p. 313.
90. Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), pp. 337-338, 377-378; Rumford, "Reflections" (ref. 42), p. 313.
91. The design of the thermoscope is described in Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), pp. 348ff; Rumford, "Reflections" (ref. 42), pp. 309-312; and Rumford, "Description of a New Instrument of Physics" ("First Memoir on Heat") [1804], Vol. 2 (1969) Collected Works (ref. 18), pp. 25-30.
92. The design of the thermoscope is described in Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), pp. 348ff; Rumford, "Reflections" (ref. 42), pp. 309-312; and Rumford, "Description of a New Instrument of Physics" ("First Memoir on Heat") [1804], Vol. 2 (1969) Collected Works (ref. 18), pp. 25-30.
93. The design of the thermoscope is described in Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), pp. 348ff; Rumford, "Reflections" (ref. 42), pp. 309-312; and Rumford, "Description of a New Instrument of Physics" ("First Memoir on Heat") [1804], Vol. 2 (1969) Collected Works (ref. 18), pp. 25-30.
94. Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), Experiments 12 and 13, pp. 357-360.
95. Ibid., Experiment 20, pp. 365-366.
96. Ibid., Experiment 23, pp. 370-372, and also pp. 422-425; see also the brief summary in Rumford, "Reflections" (ref. 42), p. 314.
97. Ibid., Experiment 23, pp. 370-372, and also pp. 422-425; see also the brief summary in Rumford, "Reflections" (ref. 42), p. 314.
98. Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), Experiment 24, pp. 375-376, and 425-427; see also the brief summary in Rumford, "Reflections" (ref. 42), p. 314.
99. Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), Experiment 24, pp. 375-376, and 425-427; see also the brief summary in Rumford, "Reflections" (ref. 42), p. 314.
100. Rumford, "Reflections" (ref. 42), pp. 314-315; see also Rumford, "Description" (ref. 53), pp. 29-30.
101. Rumford, "Reflections" (ref. 42), pp. 314-315; see also Rumford, "Description" (ref. 53), pp. 29-30.
102. See Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), pp. 379-383, 429-433; Rumford, "Reflections" (ref. 42), pp. 319-321.
103. See Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), pp. 379-383, 429-433; Rumford, "Reflections" (ref. 42), pp. 319-321.
104. For the quoted claim, see Rumford "Inquiry" (ref. 41), p. 414. The experiments in support of this claim are reported in Rumford, "Research on Heat: Second Memoir" [1804], Vol. 1 Collected Works (ref. 18), pp. 434-441; and "Experiments on Cooling Bodies" (Section 2 of "Experimental Investigations Concerning Heat") [1804], Vol. 2 (1969) Collected Works (ref. 18), pp. 1-8. See also the summary in Rumford, "Reflections" (ref. 42), pp. 315-317.
105. For the quoted claim, see Rumford "Inquiry" (ref. 41), p. 414. The experiments in support of this claim are reported in Rumford, "Research on Heat: Second Memoir" [1804], Vol. 1 Collected Works (ref. 18), pp. 434-441; and "Experiments on Cooling Bodies" (Section 2 of "Experimental Investigations Concerning Heat") [1804], Vol. 2 (1969) Collected Works (ref. 18), pp. 1-8. See also the summary in Rumford, "Reflections" (ref. 42), pp. 315-317.
106. For the quoted claim, see Rumford "Inquiry" (ref. 41), p. 414. The experiments in support of this claim are reported in Rumford, "Research on Heat: Second Memoir" [1804], Vol. 1 Collected Works (ref. 18), pp. 434-441; and "Experiments on Cooling Bodies" (Section 2 of "Experimental Investigations Concerning Heat") [1804], Vol. 2 (1969) Collected Works (ref. 18), pp. 1-8. See also the summary in Rumford, "Reflections" (ref. 42), pp. 315-317.
107. For the quoted claim, see Rumford "Inquiry" (ref. 41), p. 414. The experiments in support of this claim are reported in Rumford, "Research on Heat: Second Memoir" [1804], Vol. 1 Collected Works (ref. 18), pp. 434-441; and "Experiments on Cooling Bodies" (Section 2 of "Experimental Investigations Concerning Heat") [1804], Vol. 2 (1969) Collected Works (ref. 18), pp. 1-8. See also the summary in Rumford, "Reflections" (ref. 42), pp. 315-317.
108. Rumford, "Reflections" (ref. 42), p. 307.
109. For records of these demonstrations, see Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), p. 372; Rumford, "Historical Review" (ref. 37), pp. 490, 494; Prevost, "Considérations" (ref. 31), p. 215; and Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), pp. 102-103.
110. For records of these demonstrations, see Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), p. 372; Rumford, "Historical Review" (ref. 37), pp. 490, 494; Prevost, "Considérations" (ref. 31), p. 215; and Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), pp. 102-103.
111. For records of these demonstrations, see Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), p. 372; Rumford, "Historical Review" (ref. 37), pp. 490, 494; Prevost, "Considérations" (ref. 31), p. 215; and Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), pp. 102-103.
112. For records of these demonstrations, see Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), p. 372; Rumford, "Historical Review" (ref. 37), pp. 490, 494; Prevost, "Considérations" (ref. 31), p. 215; and Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), pp. 102-103.
113. Cherbuliez, Discours (ref. 28), p. 31.
114. Marc-Auguste Pictet, "An enquiry concerning the nature of heat, etc. ... par Benjamin Comte de Rumford," Bibliothèque Britannique 25 (1804), 185-221, 273-311; see especially pp. 214, 303-304, and 311.
115. Prevost, "Considérations" (ref. 31), pp. 21-22.
116. Pierre Prevost, "Some Remarks on the Theory of the Equilibrium of Radiant Heat, and on some Difficulties started [sic] against that Theory," trans. by Thomas Thomson, Annals of Philosophy 6 (1815), 379-385., on 380.
117. Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), p. 422.
118. For the grille model see Prevost, "Considérations" (ref. 31), pp. 18-21, 214; and Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), pp. 127-128. The model of punctured surfaces is discussed in Prevost, Exposition (ref. 33), p. 8.
119. For the grille model see Prevost, "Considérations" (ref. 31), pp. 18-21, 214; and Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), pp. 127-128. The model of punctured surfaces is discussed in Prevost, Exposition (ref. 33), p. 8.
120. For the grille model see Prevost, "Considérations" (ref. 31), pp. 18-21, 214; and Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), pp. 127-128. The model of punctured surfaces is discussed in Prevost, Exposition (ref. 33), p. 8.
121. Prevost, "Considérations" (ref. 31), pp. 25-26.
122. Ibid., pp. 26-27 (including an editor's note there by Pictet reporting on the experiment), and pp. 207-208.
123. Ibid., p. 209.
124. Prevost, "Considérations" (ref. 31), p. 213. A similar reasoning, regarding Pictet's original setup with two concave mirrors, was elaborated by J. L. Tremery, "Observations sur les expériences à l'aide desquelles les physiciens démontrent la réflexion du calorique," Nouveau Bulletin des Sciences, par la Société Philomathique de Paris 3 (1813), 323-328; and Richard Davenport, "Observations on the Objections that have been made to Mr. Prevost's Explanation of the Effect produced by a Mass of Ice on a Thermometer in the Focus of a Reflecting Mirror," Annals of Philosophy 5 (1815), 338-345, esp. on p. 342.
125. Prevost, "Considérations" (ref. 31), p. 213. A similar reasoning, regarding Pictet's original setup with two concave mirrors, was elaborated by J. L. Tremery, "Observations sur les expériences à l'aide desquelles les physiciens démontrent la réflexion du calorique," Nouveau Bulletin des Sciences, par la Société Philomathique de Paris 3 (1813), 323-328; and Richard Davenport, "Observations on the Objections that have been made to Mr. Prevost's Explanation of the Effect produced by a Mass of Ice on a Thermometer in the Focus of a Reflecting Mirror," Annals of Philosophy 5 (1815), 338-345, esp. on p. 342.
126. Prevost, "Considérations" (ref. 31), p. 213. A similar reasoning, regarding Pictet's original setup with two concave mirrors, was elaborated by J. L. Tremery, "Observations sur les expériences à l'aide desquelles les physiciens démontrent la réflexion du calorique," Nouveau Bulletin des Sciences, par la Société Philomathique de Paris 3 (1813), 323-328; and Richard Davenport, "Observations on the Objections that have been made to Mr. Prevost's Explanation of the Effect produced by a Mass of Ice on a Thermometer in the Focus of a Reflecting Mirror," Annals of Philosophy 5 (1815), 338-345, esp. on p. 342.
127. C. S. M. M. R. Pouillet, Élémens de physique expérimentale et de météorologie, 1 Vols. (Paris and Brussels: Béchet Jeune, 1827), Vol. 1, p. 381.
128. William Charles Wells, An Essay on Dew, and Several Appearances Connected with it (London: Taylor and Hessey, 1814), esp. pp. 66-68 for reference to Prevost; Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), p. 433; Joseph Fourier, The Analytic Theory of Heat, trans. with notes by Alexander Freeman (New York: Dover, 1955; originally published as Théorie analytique de la chaleur in 1822), pp. 32-33 (§§38-40).
129. William Charles Wells, An Essay on Dew, and Several Appearances Connected with it (London: Taylor and Hessey, 1814), esp. pp. 66-68 for reference to Prevost; Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), p. 433; Joseph Fourier, The Analytic Theory of Heat, trans. with notes by Alexander Freeman (New York: Dover, 1955; originally published as Théorie analytique de la chaleur in 1822), pp. 32-33 (§§38-40).
130. William Charles Wells, An Essay on Dew, and Several Appearances Connected with it (London: Taylor and Hessey, 1814), esp. pp. 66-68 for reference to Prevost; Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), p. 433; Joseph Fourier, The Analytic Theory of Heat, trans. with notes by Alexander Freeman (New York: Dover, 1955; originally published as Théorie analytique de la chaleur in 1822), pp. 32-33 (§§38-40).
131. William Charles Wells, An Essay on Dew, and Several Appearances Connected with it (London: Taylor and Hessey, 1814), esp. pp. 66-68 for reference to Prevost; Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), p. 433; Joseph Fourier, The Analytic Theory of Heat, trans. with notes by Alexander Freeman (New York: Dover, 1955; originally published as Théorie analytique de la chaleur in 1822), pp. 32-33 (§§38-40).
132. On the general reception of Prevost's ideas, see Cherbuliez, Discours (ref. 28), p. 32.
133. Haüy, Elementary Treatise (ref. 17), pp. 111-112; René-Just Haüy, Traité élémentaire de physique, 2nd ed., 2 Vols. (Paris: Courcier, 1806), Vol. 1, pp. 88-90, 99-100.
134. Haüy, Elementary Treatise (ref. 17), pp. 111-112; René-Just Haüy, Traité élémentaire de physique, 2nd ed., 2 Vols. (Paris: Courcier, 1806), Vol. 1, pp. 88-90, 99-100.
135. See Haüy's letters to Prevost, reprinted in Alfred Lacroix, "La vie et l'oeuvre de l'Abbé René-Just Haüy," Bulletin de la Société Française de Minéralogie 67 (1944), 15-226, on pp. 154-156, 160-162; and also in Lucien de la Rive, Pierre Prevost: Notice relative à ses recherches sur la chaleur rayonnante (Geneva: Aubert-Schuchardt, 1890), pp. 19-20.
136. See Haüy's letters to Prevost, reprinted in Alfred Lacroix, "La vie et l'oeuvre de l'Abbé René-Just Haüy," Bulletin de la Société Française de Minéralogie 67 (1944), 15-226, on pp. 154-156, 160-162; and also in Lucien de la Rive, Pierre Prevost: Notice relative à ses recherches sur la chaleur rayonnante (Geneva: Aubert-Schuchardt, 1890), pp. 19-20.
137. Jean-Baptiste Biot, "Du Calorique rayonnant, par Pierre Prevost," Mercure de France, Littéraire et Politique 38 (1809), 327-338.
138. Joseph Fourier, "Théorie du mouvement de la chaleur dans les corps solides" (second part), Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences de l'Institut de France 5 (1821-22), 153-246, esp. on pp. 181, 209; this memoir was deposited at the Academy in 1811, and cites Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), which was published two years earlier. See also Fourier, Analytic Theory (ref. 74), pp. 32-39 (§§38-51); De la Rive, Pierre Prevost (ref. 77), pp. 25-27; and Prevost, Exposition élémentaire (ref. 33), pp. 72-89.
139. Joseph Fourier, "Théorie du mouvement de la chaleur dans les corps solides" (second part), Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences de l'Institut de France 5 (1821-22), 153-246, esp. on pp. 181, 209; this memoir was deposited at the Academy in 1811, and cites Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), which was published two years earlier. See also Fourier, Analytic Theory (ref. 74), pp. 32-39 (§§38-51); De la Rive, Pierre Prevost (ref. 77), pp. 25-27; and Prevost, Exposition élémentaire (ref. 33), pp. 72-89.
140. Joseph Fourier, "Théorie du mouvement de la chaleur dans les corps solides" (second part), Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences de l'Institut de France 5 (1821-22), 153-246, esp. on pp. 181, 209; this memoir was deposited at the Academy in 1811, and cites Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), which was published two years earlier. See also Fourier, Analytic Theory (ref. 74), pp. 32-39 (§§38-51); De la Rive, Pierre Prevost (ref. 77), pp. 25-27; and Prevost, Exposition élémentaire (ref. 33), pp. 72-89.
141. Joseph Fourier, "Théorie du mouvement de la chaleur dans les corps solides" (second part), Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences de l'Institut de France 5 (1821-22), 153-246, esp. on pp. 181, 209; this memoir was deposited at the Academy in 1811, and cites Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), which was published two years earlier. See also Fourier, Analytic Theory (ref. 74), pp. 32-39 (§§38-51); De la Rive, Pierre Prevost (ref. 77), pp. 25-27; and Prevost, Exposition élémentaire (ref. 33), pp. 72-89.
142. Joseph Fourier, "Théorie du mouvement de la chaleur dans les corps solides" (second part), Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences de l'Institut de France 5 (1821-22), 153-246, esp. on pp. 181, 209; this memoir was deposited at the Academy in 1811, and cites Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), which was published two years earlier. See also Fourier, Analytic Theory (ref. 74), pp. 32-39 (§§38-51); De la Rive, Pierre Prevost (ref. 77), pp. 25-27; and Prevost, Exposition élémentaire (ref. 33), pp. 72-89.
143. Some authors did seek to improve upon Prevost's treatment. For instance, see the following simplified quantitative analyses: Thomas Crompton Holland, "On the Radiation of Caloric," Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 9 (1823), 179-185; Alfred Ainger, "On the Theory of the Radiation of Heat," Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature and Art 29 (1830), 378-383.
144. Some authors did seek to improve upon Prevost's treatment. For instance, see the following simplified quantitative analyses: Thomas Crompton Holland, "On the Radiation of Caloric," Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 9 (1823), 179-185; Alfred Ainger, "On the Theory of the Radiation of Heat," Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature and Art 29 (1830), 378-383.
145. Prevost, "Some Remarks" (ref. 66), gives a partial list of his critics and their arguments.
146. John Murray, "Defence of the Objections to Prevost's Theory of Radiant Heat," Annals of Philosophy 7 (1816), 223-225, on p. 224; Murray, System (ref. 12), Vol. 1, p. 361.
147. John Murray, "Defence of the Objections to Prevost's Theory of Radiant Heat," Annals of Philosophy 7 (1816), 223-225, on p. 224; Murray, System (ref. 12), Vol. 1, p. 361.
148. Henry Meikle, "On Calorific Radiation," The Philosophical Magazine and Journal, 53 (1819), 260-262. Ainger, "Radiation of Heat" (ref. 80), p. 383, expressed a more serious fear that accepting the "unphilosophical idea of a separate principle of cold" would lead to the idea of "a principle of darkness independent of light," given the close link between light and heat.
149. Henry Meikle, "On Calorific Radiation," The Philosophical Magazine and Journal, 53 (1819), 260-262. Ainger, "Radiation of Heat" (ref. 80), p. 383, expressed a more serious fear that accepting the "unphilosophical idea of a separate principle of cold" would lead to the idea of "a principle of darkness independent of light," given the close link between light and heat.
150. Marshall Hall, "On the Nature of Heat," (Nicholson's) Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and the Arts, new series 29 (1811), 215-222, 257-268.
151. Ibid., pp. 217-218.
152. On Hall's life and work, see "Hall, Marshall," in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed., Vol. 12 (New York: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., 1910), pp. 848-849, and also Memoirs of Marshall Hall, by His Widow [Charlotte Hall] (London: Richard Bentley, 1861).
153. On Hall's life and work, see "Hall, Marshall," in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed., Vol. 12 (New York: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., 1910), pp. 848-849, and also Memoirs of Marshall Hall, by His Widow [Charlotte Hall] (London: Richard Bentley, 1861).
154. "An Inquiry Concerning the Nature of Heat, and the mode of its Communication, by Benjamin Count of Rumford," The Edinburgh Review, or Critical Journal 4 (1804), 399-415, on 400.
155. For details of Rumford's 1801 visit to Paris, see Brown, Benjamin Thomson (ref. 13), pp. 244-248.
156. Jones, Royal Institution (ref. 39).
157. See, e.g., Prevost, "Considérations" (ref. 31), p. 27; Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), pp. 111, 121; Pictet, "Enquiry" (ref. 64), pp. 185-188; and most effusive of all, Marc-Auguste Pictet, Voyage de trois mois en Angleterre, en Ecosse, et en Irlande pendent l'Eté de l'an IX (1801 v. st.) (Geneva: l'Imprimérie de la Bibliothèque Britannique, 1802).
158. See, e.g., Prevost, "Considérations" (ref. 31), p. 27; Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), pp. 111, 121; Pictet, "Enquiry" (ref. 64), pp. 185-188; and most effusive of all, Marc-Auguste Pictet, Voyage de trois mois en Angleterre, en Ecosse, et en Irlande pendent l'Eté de l'an IX (1801 v. st.) (Geneva: l'Imprimérie de la Bibliothèque Britannique, 1802).
159. See, e.g., Prevost, "Considérations" (ref. 31), p. 27; Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), pp. 111, 121; Pictet, "Enquiry" (ref. 64), pp. 185-188; and most effusive of all, Marc-Auguste Pictet, Voyage de trois mois en Angleterre, en Ecosse, et en Irlande pendent l'Eté de l'an IX (1801 v. st.) (Geneva: l'Imprimérie de la Bibliothèque Britannique, 1802).
160. See, e.g., Prevost, "Considérations" (ref. 31), p. 27; Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), pp. 111, 121; Pictet, "Enquiry" (ref. 64), pp. 185-188; and most effusive of all, Marc-Auguste Pictet, Voyage de trois mois en Angleterre, en Ecosse, et en Irlande pendent l'Eté de l'an IX (1801 v. st.) (Geneva: l'Imprimérie de la Bibliothèque Britannique, 1802).
161. Rumford, "Experiments and Observations on the Cooling of Liquids in Vessels of Porcelain, Gilded and Not Gilded," Vol. 2 (1969) Collected Works (ref. 18), pp. 135-144, on p. 138. A close acquaintance in Rumford's last years testified in his obituary: "He has repeatedly declared to me, it was his decided opinion that heat and light were the result of vibrations of bodies, and were not bodies themselves." See "Memoirs of Sir Benjamin Thompson" (ref. 13), p. 397.
162. Rumford, "Experiments and Observations on the Cooling of Liquids in Vessels of Porcelain, Gilded and Not Gilded," Vol. 2 (1969) Collected Works (ref. 18), pp. 135-144, on p. 138. A close acquaintance in Rumford's last years testified in his obituary: "He has repeatedly declared to me, it was his decided opinion that heat and light were the result of vibrations of bodies, and were not bodies themselves." See "Memoirs of Sir Benjamin Thompson" (ref. 13), p. 397.
163. About Rumford's isolation in his last years in Paris, see Brown, Benjamin Thompson (ref. 13), pp. 275-306; "Memoirs of Sir Benjamin Thompson" (ref. 13), pp. 397-398.
164. About Rumford's isolation in his last years in Paris, see Brown, Benjamin Thompson (ref. 13), pp. 275-306; "Memoirs of Sir Benjamin Thompson" (ref. 13), pp. 397-398.
165. Pierre Prevost, "De quelques phénomènes dépendans de la radiation du calorique," Mémoires de la Société de Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle de Genève 2:2 (1824), 161-199, on 171.
166. Prevost's work does include various calculations, but none bearing directly on his dispute with Rumford on the radiation of cold, except a sketchy and suspect demonstration in Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), pp. 127-130.
167. See Prevost, "Considérations" (ref. 31), p. 14.
168. Ibid., p. 15; and Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), pp. 16-17. The accusation was made in Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), p. 425.
169. Ibid., p. 15; and Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), pp. 16-17. The accusation was made in Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), p. 425.
170. Ibid., p. 15; and Prevost, calorique rayonnant (ref. 27), pp. 16-17. The accusation was made in Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), p. 425.
171. A useful critical discussion, with references, of retrospective appraisals of Rumford's work can be found in Stephen J. Goldfarb, "Rumford's Theory of Heat: A Reassessment," British Journal for the History of Science 10 (1977), 25-36, especially p. 26.
172. Even the most sympathetic and thorough authors have been liable to misunderstanding on this point. See, for instance: Olson, "Count Rumford" (ref. 24), pp. 290-291; W. J. Sparrow, Knight of the White Eagle: A Biography of Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford 1753-1814 (London: Hutchinson, 1964), pp. 230-231; and Robert James McRae, The Origin of the Conception of the Continuous Spectrum of Heat and Light (University of Wisconsin, Ph. D. thesis, 1969), pp. 143-151. Brown, Benjamin Thompson (ref. 13), pp. 259-262, avoids any explicit errors in presenting Rumford's views, but repudiates frigorifie rays and downplays Rumford's notion that cooling is effected by the absorption of frigorifie rays.
173. Even the most sympathetic and thorough authors have been liable to misunderstanding on this point. See, for instance: Olson, "Count Rumford" (ref. 24), pp. 290-291; W. J. Sparrow, Knight of the White Eagle: A Biography of Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford 1753-1814 (London: Hutchinson, 1964), pp. 230-231; and Robert James McRae, The Origin of the Conception of the Continuous Spectrum of Heat and Light (University of Wisconsin, Ph. D. thesis, 1969), pp. 143-151. Brown, Benjamin Thompson (ref. 13), pp. 259-262, avoids any explicit errors in presenting Rumford's views, but repudiates frigorifie rays and downplays Rumford's notion that cooling is effected by the absorption of frigorifie rays.
174. Even the most sympathetic and thorough authors have been liable to misunderstanding on this point. See, for instance: Olson, "Count Rumford" (ref. 24), pp. 290-291; W. J. Sparrow, Knight of the White Eagle: A Biography of Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford 1753-1814 (London: Hutchinson, 1964), pp. 230-231; and Robert James McRae, The Origin of the Conception of the Continuous Spectrum of Heat and Light (University of Wisconsin, Ph. D. thesis, 1969), pp. 143-151. Brown, Benjamin Thompson (ref. 13), pp. 259-262, avoids any explicit errors in presenting Rumford's views, but repudiates frigorifie rays and downplays Rumford's notion that cooling is effected by the absorption of frigorifie rays.
175. Even the most sympathetic and thorough authors have been liable to misunderstanding on this point. See, for instance: Olson, "Count Rumford" (ref. 24), pp. 290-291; W. J. Sparrow, Knight of the White Eagle: A Biography of Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford 1753-1814 (London: Hutchinson, 1964), pp. 230-231; and Robert James McRae, The Origin of the Conception of the Continuous Spectrum of Heat and Light (University of Wisconsin, Ph. D. thesis, 1969), pp. 143-151. Brown, Benjamin Thompson (ref. 13), pp. 259-262, avoids any explicit errors in presenting Rumford's views, but repudiates frigorifie rays and downplays Rumford's notion that cooling is effected by the absorption of frigorifie rays.
176. Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), p. 374 (emphasis added); Rumford, "Reflections" (ref. 42), p. 306. Similarly, Thomas Young vilified the followers of the caloric theory as those "who look up with unqualified reverence to the dogmas of the modern schools of chemistry"; see Young, Course of Lectures (ref. 14), p. 656.
177. Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), p. 374 (emphasis added); Rumford, "Reflections" (ref. 42), p. 306. Similarly, Thomas Young vilified the followers of the caloric theory as those "who look up with unqualified reverence to the dogmas of the modern schools of chemistry"; see Young, Course of Lectures (ref. 14), p. 656.
178. Rumford, "Inquiry" (ref. 41), p. 374 (emphasis added); Rumford, "Reflections" (ref. 42), p. 306. Similarly, Thomas Young vilified the followers of the caloric theory as those "who look up with unqualified reverence to the dogmas of the modern schools of chemistry"; see Young, Course of Lectures (ref. 14), p. 656.
179. See Pierre-Simon Laplace, Vol. 5, Traité de mécanique céleste (Paris: Bachelier, 1825), book 12.
180. Prevost, "De quelques phénomènes" (ref. 93), pp. 171-172, footnote 1, p. 171ff.
181. For a detailed description of the development of Laplacian caloric theory, see Robert Fox, Caloric Theory, (ref. 16), ch. 5.
182. Laplace, Mécanique céleste (ref. 100), pp. 93, 113.
183. About the difficulties encountered by caloric physics, see Fox, Caloric Theory (ref. 16), ch. 7.
184. Evans and Popp, "Pictet's Experiment" (ref. 15), pp. 750-751.
185. The English physician and natural philosopher William Hyde Wollaston (1766-1828) had pointed this out in a private communication to Prevost. This communication, in a letter of June 12, 1804, is cited in Weiss, "Das Schalltrichter-Experiment" (ref. 15), p. 120.