In Appreciation - Charles C. Lauritsen: A Reasonable Man in an Unreasonable World

Physics in Perspective

Volumn 5, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 419-472

  Holbrow, Charles H ^a,b  

^a American Association of Physics Teachers   (United States)

^b Assistant Professor in the University Libraries   (United States)

Author keywords

A.c. accelerator; Caltech; Charles C. Lauritsen; High Potential Laboratory (Hi Volts); J. Robert Oppenheimer; Kellogg Radiation Laboratory; Thomas Lauritsen; Van de Graaff accelerator; William A. Fowler; X ray tube

Indexed keywords

EID: 0346964216     PISSN: 14226944     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00016-003-0178-7     Document Type: Review

References (170)

1. From the official tribute to C. C. Lauritsen at the dedication of the Lauritsen Laboratory at the Naval Weapons Center, China Lake, California, June 18, 1978.
2. Hans A. Bethe interview by Judith R. Goodstein, Session 1, February 17, 1982, Caltech Archives.
3. Personnel Security Questionnaire, April 7, 1942, and Personnel Security Questionnaire, undated, accompanied by letter, December 31, 1952, Charles C. Lauritsen Papers (hereafter Lauritsen Papers), Caltech Archives; military service records, 29th Batallion, 3rd Company, #807, 1991, Rigsarkivet, Copenhagen.
4. Shelley Erwin, "Interview with Margaret Lauritsen Leighton," California Institute of Technology Oral History Project, 1999, Caltech Archives.
5. Albert B. Christman, "Interview with Thomas Lauritsen: Wartime Rocket Work of the California Institute of Technology," June 26, 1969, Caltech Archives; also available as Naval Weapons Center document NWC/75201-S68. He talks here about his father's work on radios for communications with submarines during World War I and of going to Palo Alto in 1921 to work on ship-to-shore radio for Federal Telegraph.
6. U.S. patents 1397591 Valve; 1505050 Weir meter; 15208743 Measuring and integrating mechanism; 1520874 Recording and indicating mechanism.
7. U.S. patents 1655553 Receiving apparatus for electromagnetic waves; 1813541 Circuit control system for radio apparatus; 1631100 Vibration damping means for vacuum tubes.
8. Charles C. Lauritsen interview by Charles Weiner, June 27, 1966, American Institute of Physics Center for History of Physics, College Park, Maryland.
9. I b i d.
10. Erwin, "Interview with Margaret Lauritsen Leighton" (ref. 4). Tommy Lauritsen's widow here relates this as one of his vivid memories of the trip.
11. There is an often-told story that Lauritsen was inspired to come to Caltech after hearing a lecture given by Millikan on a visit to St. Louis; see William A. Fowler, "Charles Christian Lauritsen April 4, 1892-April 13, 1968," National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoirs, Vol. 46 (Washington: National Academy of Sciences, 1975), 222. The story seems to come from the recollections of Tommy Lauritsen, but I am disinclined to believe it, because when Weiner in his interview (ref. 8) asks Lauritsen why he chose to come to Caltech, Lauritsen replies: "Well, I liked it. It had a good reputation." And when Weiner continues, "How had you heard about it?" Lauritsen answers, "Oh, reading mostly." Despite this direct questioning, he never mentions the Millikan story.
12. Albert Christman interview with Earnest C. Watson, 1970, Caltech Archives; also available as Naval Weapons Center document NWC/75201-S69.
13. Charles H. Holbrow, "The Giant Cancer Tube and the Kellogg Radiation Laboratory," Physics Today 34 (July 1981), 42-49.
14. R.A. Millikan and C.C. Lauritsen, "Relations of Field-Currents to Thermionic-Currents," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 14 (1928), 45-49; "Dependence of Electron Emission from Metals upon Field Strength and Temperature," Physical Review 33 (1929), 598-604; Charles C. Lauritsen, "Electron Emission from Metals in Intense Electric Fields, " Ph. D. Thesis, California Institute of Technology, 1929.
15. R.A. Millikan and C.C. Lauritsen, "Relations of Field-Currents to Thermionic-Currents," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 14 (1928), 45-49; "Dependence of Electron Emission from Metals upon Field Strength and Temperature," Physical Review 33 (1929), 598-604; Charles C. Lauritsen, "Electron Emission from Metals in Intense Electric Fields, " Ph. D. Thesis, California Institute of Technology, 1929.
16. R.A. Millikan and C.C. Lauritsen, "Relations of Field-Currents to Thermionic-Currents," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 14 (1928), 45-49; "Dependence of Electron Emission from Metals upon Field Strength and Temperature," Physical Review 33 (1929), 598-604; Charles C. Lauritsen, "Electron Emission from Metals in Intense Electric Fields, " Ph. D. Thesis, California Institute of Technology, 1929.
17. J. Robert Oppenheimer, "Zur Quantenmechanik kontinuierlicher Absorptionsspektrums," Zeitschrift für Physik 41 (1927), 268-293; "Three Notes on the Quantum Theory of Aperiodic Effects," Phys. Rev. 31 (1928), 66-81; "On the Quantum Theory of Field Currents," ibid., 914 (A).
18. J. Robert Oppenheimer, "Zur Quantenmechanik kontinuierlicher Absorptionsspektrums," Zeitschrift für Physik 41 (1927), 268-293; "Three Notes on the Quantum Theory of Aperiodic Effects," Phys. Rev. 31 (1928), 66-81; "On the Quantum Theory of Field Currents," ibid., 914 (A).
19. J. Robert Oppenheimer, "Zur Quantenmechanik kontinuierlicher Absorptionsspektrums," Zeitschrift für Physik 41 (1927), 268-293; "Three Notes on the Quantum Theory of Aperiodic Effects," Phys. Rev. 31 (1928), 66-81; "On the Quantum Theory of Field Currents," ibid., 914 (A).
20. J. Robert Oppenheimer, "To Live with Ourselves," in Uncommon Sense, ed. N. Metropolis, Gian-Carlo Rota, and David Sharp (Boston: Birkhäuser, 1984), p. 173. Oppenheimer delivered this talk at the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1965.
21. C. C. Lauritsen and R. D. Bennett, "A New High Potential X-Ray Tube," Phys. Rev. 32 (1928), 850-857.
22. For a full account of the race for high voltages, see John L. Heilbron and Robert W. Seidel, Lawrence and His Laboratory: A History of the Lawrence Laboratory, Vol. 1 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); see also Per F. Dahl, From Nuclear Transmutation to Nuclear Fission, 1932-1939 (Bristol and Philadelphia: Institute of Physics Publishing, 2002).
23. For a full account of the race for high voltages, see John L. Heilbron and Robert W. Seidel, Lawrence and His Laboratory: A History of the Lawrence Laboratory, Vol. 1 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); see also Per F. Dahl, From Nuclear Transmutation to Nuclear Fission, 1932-1939 (Bristol and Philadelphia: Institute of Physics Publishing, 2002).
24. Lauritsen interview by Weiner (ref. 8), p. 14.
25. U.S. patent 1995478 and C.C. Lauritsen and B. Cassen, "High Potential X-Ray Tube," Phys. Rev. 36 (1930), 988-992.
26. C. C. Lauritsen, "Spectrum of Radiation from a High Potential X-Ray Tube," Phys. Rev. 36 (1930), 1680-1684.
27. Charles Packard and C.C. Lauritsen, "The Biological Effect of High Voltage X-Rays," Science 73 (1931), 321-322.
28. For more on the origin of the Kellogg Radiation Laboratory, see Holbrow, "Giant Cancer Tube" (ref. 13).
29. Charles C. Lauritsen, "Energy Considerations in High Voltage Therapy," American Journal of Roentgenology and Radium Therapy 30 (1933), 380-387; "Energy Considerations in Medium and High Voltage Therapy," ibid., 529-532. This work was an important part of the basis of the standard of dose adopted internationally in the late 1940s.
30. Charles C. Lauritsen, "Energy Considerations in High Voltage Therapy," American Journal of Roentgenology and Radium Therapy 30 (1933), 380-387; "Energy Considerations in Medium and High Voltage Therapy," ibid., 529-532. This work was an important part of the basis of the standard of dose adopted internationally in the late 1940s.
31. The device described in U.S. patent 2022117, filed January 3, 1933, appears to be a more compact version of an earlier device that Lauritsen probably developed in 1930; see C. C. Lauritsen and Thomas Lauritsen, "Simple Quartz Fiber Electrometer," Review of Scientific Instruments 8 (1937), 438-439.
32. E. Rutherford and Hans Geiger, "The Charge and Nature of the α-Particle," Proceedings of the Royal Society [A] 81 (1908), 162-173; reprinted in James Chadwick, ed., The Collected Papers of Lord Rutherford of Nelson, O.M., F.R.S., Vol. 2. Manchester (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1963), pp. 109-120.
33. E. Rutherford and Hans Geiger, "The Charge and Nature of the α-Particle," Proceedings of the Royal Society [A] 81 (1908), 162-173; reprinted in James Chadwick, ed., The Collected Papers of Lord Rutherford of Nelson, O.M., F.R.S., Vol. 2. Manchester (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1963), pp. 109-120.
34. See, for example, Roger H. Stuewer, "The Nuclear Electron Hypothesis," in William R. Shea, ed., Otto Hahn and the Rise of Nuclear Physics (Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1983), pp. 19-67.
35. James Chadwick, "Possible Existence of a Neutron," Nature 129 (1932), 312 (signed February 17, 1932); "The Existence of a Neutron," Proc. Roy. Soc. [A] 136 (1932), 692-708; reprinted in Robert T. Beyer, ed., Foundations of Nuclear Physics (New York: Dover, 1949), pp. 5-21.
36. James Chadwick, "Possible Existence of a Neutron," Nature 129 (1932), 312 (signed February 17, 1932); "The Existence of a Neutron," Proc. Roy. Soc. [A] 136 (1932), 692-708; reprinted in Robert T. Beyer, ed., Foundations of Nuclear Physics (New York: Dover, 1949), pp. 5-21.
37. James Chadwick, "Possible Existence of a Neutron," Nature 129 (1932), 312 (signed February 17, 1932); "The Existence of a Neutron," Proc. Roy. Soc. [A] 136 (1932), 692-708; reprinted in Robert T. Beyer, ed., Foundations of Nuclear Physics (New York: Dover, 1949), pp. 5-21.
38. Werner Heisenberg, "Über den Bau der Atomkerne. I," Zeit. f. Phys. 77 (1932), 1-11; "II.," ibid. 78 (1932), 156-164; "III," ibid. 80 (1933), 587-596; reprinted in Gesammelte Werke/Collected Works, Series A/Part II, ed. W. Blum, H.-P. Dürr, and H. Rechenberg (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1989), pp. 197-226; see also A. I. Miller, "Heisenberg and the Beginning of Nuclear Physics," Phys. Today 38 (November 1985) 60-68; Laurie M. Brown and Helmut Rechenberg, The Origin of the Concept of Nuclear Forces (Bristol and Philadelphia: Institute of Physics Publishing, 1996), pp. 31-41.
39. Werner Heisenberg, "Über den Bau der Atomkerne. I," Zeit. f. Phys. 77 (1932), 1-11; "II.," ibid. 78 (1932), 156-164; "III," ibid. 80 (1933), 587-596; reprinted in Gesammelte Werke/Collected Works, Series A/Part II, ed. W. Blum, H.-P. Dürr, and H. Rechenberg (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1989), pp. 197-226; see also A. I. Miller, "Heisenberg and the Beginning of Nuclear Physics," Phys. Today 38 (November 1985) 60-68; Laurie M. Brown and Helmut Rechenberg, The Origin of the Concept of Nuclear Forces (Bristol and Philadelphia: Institute of Physics Publishing, 1996), pp. 31-41.
40. Werner Heisenberg, "Über den Bau der Atomkerne. I," Zeit. f. Phys. 77 (1932), 1-11; "II.," ibid. 78 (1932), 156-164; "III," ibid. 80 (1933), 587-596; reprinted in Gesammelte Werke/Collected Works, Series A/Part II, ed. W. Blum, H.-P. Dürr, and H. Rechenberg (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1989), pp. 197-226; see also A. I. Miller, "Heisenberg and the Beginning of Nuclear Physics," Phys. Today 38 (November 1985) 60-68; Laurie M. Brown and Helmut Rechenberg, The Origin of the Concept of Nuclear Forces (Bristol and Philadelphia: Institute of Physics Publishing, 1996), pp. 31-41.
41. Werner Heisenberg, "Über den Bau der Atomkerne. I," Zeit. f. Phys. 77 (1932), 1-11; "II.," ibid. 78 (1932), 156-164; "III," ibid. 80 (1933), 587-596; reprinted in Gesammelte Werke/Collected Works, Series A/Part II, ed. W. Blum, H.-P. Dürr, and H. Rechenberg (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1989), pp. 197-226; see also A. I. Miller, "Heisenberg and the Beginning of Nuclear Physics," Phys. Today 38 (November 1985) 60-68; Laurie M. Brown and Helmut Rechenberg, The Origin of the Concept of Nuclear Forces (Bristol and Philadelphia: Institute of Physics Publishing, 1996), pp. 31-41.
42. Werner Heisenberg, "Über den Bau der Atomkerne. I," Zeit. f. Phys. 77 (1932), 1-11; "II.," ibid. 78 (1932), 156-164; "III," ibid. 80 (1933), 587-596; reprinted in Gesammelte Werke/Collected Works, Series A/Part II, ed. W. Blum, H.-P. Dürr, and H. Rechenberg (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1989), pp. 197-226; see also A. I. Miller, "Heisenberg and the Beginning of Nuclear Physics," Phys. Today 38 (November 1985) 60-68; Laurie M. Brown and Helmut Rechenberg, The Origin of the Concept of Nuclear Forces (Bristol and Philadelphia: Institute of Physics Publishing, 1996), pp. 31-41.
43. Werner Heisenberg, "Über den Bau der Atomkerne. I," Zeit. f. Phys. 77 (1932), 1-11; "II.," ibid. 78 (1932), 156-164; "III," ibid. 80 (1933), 587-596; reprinted in Gesammelte Werke/Collected Works, Series A/Part II, ed. W. Blum, H.-P. Dürr, and H. Rechenberg (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1989), pp. 197-226; see also A. I. Miller, "Heisenberg and the Beginning of Nuclear Physics," Phys. Today 38 (November 1985) 60-68; Laurie M. Brown and Helmut Rechenberg, The Origin of the Concept of Nuclear Forces (Bristol and Philadelphia: Institute of Physics Publishing, 1996), pp. 31-41.
44. H.C. Urey, F.G. Brickwedde, and G.M. Murphy, "A Hydrogen Isotope of Mass 2," Phys. Rev. 39 (1932), 164-165 (received December 5, 1931; published January 1, 1932); "A Hydrogen Isotope of Mass 2 and Its Concentration," ibid. 40 (1932), 1-15. For an account of Urey's life and work, see James R. Arnold, Jacob Bigeleisen, and Clyde A. Hutchison, Jr., "Harold Clayton Urey April 29, 1893-January 5, 1981," National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoirs,Vol. 68 (Washington: National Academy of Sciences, 1995), 362-411. For his discovery, see Ferdinand G. Brickwedde, "Harold Urey and the discovery of deuterium," Phys. Today 35 (September 1982), 34-39.
45. H.C. Urey, F.G. Brickwedde, and G.M. Murphy, "A Hydrogen Isotope of Mass 2," Phys. Rev. 39 (1932), 164-165 (received December 5, 1931; published January 1, 1932); "A Hydrogen Isotope of Mass 2 and Its Concentration," ibid. 40 (1932), 1-15. For an account of Urey's life and work, see James R. Arnold, Jacob Bigeleisen, and Clyde A. Hutchison, Jr., "Harold Clayton Urey April 29, 1893-January 5, 1981," National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoirs,Vol. 68 (Washington: National Academy of Sciences, 1995), 362-411. For his discovery, see Ferdinand G. Brickwedde, "Harold Urey and the discovery of deuterium," Phys. Today 35 (September 1982), 34-39.
46. H.C. Urey, F.G. Brickwedde, and G.M. Murphy, "A Hydrogen Isotope of Mass 2," Phys. Rev. 39 (1932), 164-165 (received December 5, 1931; published January 1, 1932); "A Hydrogen Isotope of Mass 2 and Its Concentration," ibid. 40 (1932), 1-15. For an account of Urey's life and work, see James R. Arnold, Jacob Bigeleisen, and Clyde A. Hutchison, Jr., "Harold Clayton Urey April 29, 1893-January 5, 1981," National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoirs,Vol. 68 (Washington: National Academy of Sciences, 1995), 362-411. For his discovery, see Ferdinand G. Brickwedde, "Harold Urey and the discovery of deuterium," Phys. Today 35 (September 1982), 34-39.
47. H.C. Urey, F.G. Brickwedde, and G.M. Murphy, "A Hydrogen Isotope of Mass 2," Phys. Rev. 39 (1932), 164-165 (received December 5, 1931; published January 1, 1932); "A Hydrogen Isotope of Mass 2 and Its Concentration," ibid. 40 (1932), 1-15. For an account of Urey's life and work, see James R. Arnold, Jacob Bigeleisen, and Clyde A. Hutchison, Jr., "Harold Clayton Urey April 29, 1893-January 5, 1981," National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoirs,Vol. 68 (Washington: National Academy of Sciences, 1995), 362-411. For his discovery, see Ferdinand G. Brickwedde, "Harold Urey and the discovery of deuterium," Phys. Today 35 (September 1982), 34-39.
48. John D. Cockcroft and E.T.S. Walton, "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift Protons," Nature 129 (1932), 649 (signed April 16, 1932); "Experiments with High Velocity Positive Ions. - (II) The Disintegration of Elements by High Velocity Protons," Proc. Roy. Soc. [A] 137 (1932), 229-242; reprinted in Beyer, Foundations (ref. 28), pp. 23-38. See also Ernest T.S. Walton, "Personal Recollections of the Discovery of Fast Particles," in John Hendry, ed., Cambridge Physics in the Thirties (Bristol: Adam Hilger, 1984), pp. 49-55.
49. John D. Cockcroft and E.T.S. Walton, "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift Protons," Nature 129 (1932), 649 (signed April 16, 1932); "Experiments with High Velocity Positive Ions. - (II) The Disintegration of Elements by High Velocity Protons," Proc. Roy. Soc. [A] 137 (1932), 229-242; reprinted in Beyer, Foundations (ref. 28), pp. 23-38. See also Ernest T.S. Walton, "Personal Recollections of the Discovery of Fast Particles," in John Hendry, ed., Cambridge Physics in the Thirties (Bristol: Adam Hilger, 1984), pp. 49-55.
50. John D. Cockcroft and E.T.S. Walton, "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift Protons," Nature 129 (1932), 649 (signed April 16, 1932); "Experiments with High Velocity Positive Ions. - (II) The Disintegration of Elements by High Velocity Protons," Proc. Roy. Soc. [A] 137 (1932), 229-242; reprinted in Beyer, Foundations (ref. 28), pp. 23-38. See also Ernest T.S. Walton, "Personal Recollections of the Discovery of Fast Particles," in John Hendry, ed., Cambridge Physics in the Thirties (Bristol: Adam Hilger, 1984), pp. 49-55.
51. John D. Cockcroft and E.T.S. Walton, "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift Protons," Nature 129 (1932), 649 (signed April 16, 1932); "Experiments with High Velocity Positive Ions. - (II) The Disintegration of Elements by High Velocity Protons," Proc. Roy. Soc. [A] 137 (1932), 229-242; reprinted in Beyer, Foundations (ref. 28), pp. 23-38. See also Ernest T.S. Walton, "Personal Recollections of the Discovery of Fast Particles," in John Hendry, ed., Cambridge Physics in the Thirties (Bristol: Adam Hilger, 1984), pp. 49-55.
52. M. Stanley Livingston, "High-Speed Hydrogen Ions," Phys. Rev. 42 (1932), 441-442.
53. For a full account, see Heilbron and Seidel, Lawrence and His Laboratory (ref. 18).
54. Carl D. Anderson, "The Apparent Existence of Easily Deflectable Positives," Science 76 (1932), 238-239; "The Positive Electron," Phys. Rev. 43 (1933), 491-494; reprinted in Beyer, Foundations (ref. 28), pp. 1-4. See also C.D. Anderson, "Early Work on the Positron and Muon," American Journal of Physics 29 (1961), 825-830; Michelangelo De Maria and Arturo Russo, "The Discovery of the Positron," Rivista di Storia della Scienza 2 (1985), 237-286; Xavier Roqué, "The Manufacture of the Positron," Studies in the History and Philosophy of Modern Physics 28 (1997), 73-129; Richard J. Weiss, ed., The Discovery of Anti-matter: The Autobiography of Carl David Anderson, the Youngest Man to Win the Nobel Prize (Singapore: World Scientific, 1999).
55. Carl D. Anderson, "The Apparent Existence of Easily Deflectable Positives," Science 76 (1932), 238-239; "The Positive Electron," Phys. Rev. 43 (1933), 491-494; reprinted in Beyer, Foundations (ref. 28), pp. 1-4. See also C.D. Anderson, "Early Work on the Positron and Muon," American Journal of Physics 29 (1961), 825-830; Michelangelo De Maria and Arturo Russo, "The Discovery of the Positron," Rivista di Storia della Scienza 2 (1985), 237-286; Xavier Roqué, "The Manufacture of the Positron," Studies in the History and Philosophy of Modern Physics 28 (1997), 73-129; Richard J. Weiss, ed., The Discovery of Anti-matter: The Autobiography of Carl David Anderson, the Youngest Man to Win the Nobel Prize (Singapore: World Scientific, 1999).
56. Carl D. Anderson, "The Apparent Existence of Easily Deflectable Positives," Science 76 (1932), 238-239; "The Positive Electron," Phys. Rev. 43 (1933), 491-494; reprinted in Beyer, Foundations (ref. 28), pp. 1-4. See also C.D. Anderson, "Early Work on the Positron and Muon," American Journal of Physics 29 (1961), 825-830; Michelangelo De Maria and Arturo Russo, "The Discovery of the Positron," Rivista di Storia della Scienza 2 (1985), 237-286; Xavier Roqué, "The Manufacture of the Positron," Studies in the History and Philosophy of Modern Physics 28 (1997), 73-129; Richard J. Weiss, ed., The Discovery of Anti-matter: The Autobiography of Carl David Anderson, the Youngest Man to Win the Nobel Prize (Singapore: World Scientific, 1999).
57. Carl D. Anderson, "The Apparent Existence of Easily Deflectable Positives," Science 76 (1932), 238-239; "The Positive Electron," Phys. Rev. 43 (1933), 491-494; reprinted in Beyer, Foundations (ref. 28), pp. 1-4. See also C.D. Anderson, "Early Work on the Positron and Muon," American Journal of Physics 29 (1961), 825-830; Michelangelo De Maria and Arturo Russo, "The Discovery of the Positron," Rivista di Storia della Scienza 2 (1985), 237-286; Xavier Roqué, "The Manufacture of the Positron," Studies in the History and Philosophy of Modern Physics 28 (1997), 73-129; Richard J. Weiss, ed., The Discovery of Anti-matter: The Autobiography of Carl David Anderson, the Youngest Man to Win the Nobel Prize (Singapore: World Scientific, 1999).
58. Carl D. Anderson, "The Apparent Existence of Easily Deflectable Positives," Science 76 (1932), 238-239; "The Positive Electron," Phys. Rev. 43 (1933), 491-494; reprinted in Beyer, Foundations (ref. 28), pp. 1-4. See also C.D. Anderson, "Early Work on the Positron and Muon," American Journal of Physics 29 (1961), 825-830; Michelangelo De Maria and Arturo Russo, "The Discovery of the Positron," Rivista di Storia della Scienza 2 (1985), 237-286; Xavier Roqué, "The Manufacture of the Positron," Studies in the History and Philosophy of Modern Physics 28 (1997), 73-129; Richard J. Weiss, ed., The Discovery of Anti-matter: The Autobiography of Carl David Anderson, the Youngest Man to Win the Nobel Prize (Singapore: World Scientific, 1999).
59. Carl D. Anderson, "The Apparent Existence of Easily Deflectable Positives," Science 76 (1932), 238-239; "The Positive Electron," Phys. Rev. 43 (1933), 491-494; reprinted in Beyer, Foundations (ref. 28), pp. 1-4. See also C.D. Anderson, "Early Work on the Positron and Muon," American Journal of Physics 29 (1961), 825-830; Michelangelo De Maria and Arturo Russo, "The Discovery of the Positron," Rivista di Storia della Scienza 2 (1985), 237-286; Xavier Roqué, "The Manufacture of the Positron," Studies in the History and Philosophy of Modern Physics 28 (1997), 73-129; Richard J. Weiss, ed., The Discovery of Anti-matter: The Autobiography of Carl David Anderson, the Youngest Man to Win the Nobel Prize (Singapore: World Scientific, 1999).
60. Carl D. Anderson, "The Apparent Existence of Easily Deflectable Positives," Science 76 (1932), 238-239; "The Positive Electron," Phys. Rev. 43 (1933), 491-494; reprinted in Beyer, Foundations (ref. 28), pp. 1-4. See also C.D. Anderson, "Early Work on the Positron and Muon," American Journal of Physics 29 (1961), 825-830; Michelangelo De Maria and Arturo Russo, "The Discovery of the Positron," Rivista di Storia della Scienza 2 (1985), 237-286; Xavier Roqué, "The Manufacture of the Positron," Studies in the History and Philosophy of Modern Physics 28 (1997), 73-129; Richard J. Weiss, ed., The Discovery of Anti-matter: The Autobiography of Carl David Anderson, the Youngest Man to Win the Nobel Prize (Singapore: World Scientific, 1999).
61. For accounts, see for example James Chadwick, "Some Personal Notes on the Discovery of the Neutron," in Hendry, Cambridge Physics (ref. 31), pp. 42-45, and Norman Feather, "The Experimental Discovery of the Neutron," in ibid., pp. 31-41.
62. For accounts, see for example James Chadwick, "Some Personal Notes on the Discovery of the Neutron," in Hendry, Cambridge Physics (ref. 31), pp. 42-45, and Norman Feather, "The Experimental Discovery of the Neutron," in ibid., pp. 31-41.
63. Walther Bothe and Herbert Becker, "Künstliche Erregung von Kern-γ-Strahlen," Zeits. f. Phys. 66 (1930), 289-306.
64. Irène Curie and Frédéric Joliot, "Émission de protons de grande vitesse par les substances hydrogénées sous l'influence des rayons γ très pénétrants," Comptes rendus 194 (1932), 273-275; reprinted in Frédéric et Irène Joliot-Curie, Oeuvres Scientifiques Complètes (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1961), pp. 359-360.
65. Irène Curie and Frédéric Joliot, "Émission de protons de grande vitesse par les substances hydrogénées sous l'influence des rayons γ très pénétrants," Comptes rendus 194 (1932), 273-275; reprinted in Frédéric et Irène Joliot-Curie, Oeuvres Scientifiques Complètes (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1961), pp. 359-360.
66. H.R. Crane, C.C. Lauritsen, and A. Soltan, "Artificial Production of Neutrons," Phys. Rev. 44 (1933), 514. Soltan was a postdoctoral visitor for a year from Warsaw who was supported by an International Research Fellowship from the Rockefeller Foundation.
67. See Dahl, Nuclear Transmutation (ref. 18).
68. H.R. Crane and C.C. Lauritsen, "A High-Potential Porcelain X-Ray Tube," Rev. Sci. Inst. 4 (1933), 118-122.
69. H.R. Crane, C.C. Lauritsen, and A. Soltan, "Artificial Production of Neutrons," Phys. Rev. 45 (1934), 507-512.
70. H. Richard Crane interview by Charles Weiner, March 28, 1973, and June 18, 1974, American Institute of Physics Center for History of Physics, College Park, Maryland.
71. H. R. Crane, C. C. Lauritsen, and A. Soltan, "Production of Neutrons by High Speed Deutons," Phys. Rev. 44 (1933), 692-693. The word "deuton" was one of several names that were proposed for the nucleus of the mass-2 isotope of hydrogen. By 1935 the name "deuteron" was coming into general acceptance; see Roger H. Stuewer, "The Naming of the Deuteron," Amer. J. Phys. 54 (1986), 206-218.
72. H. R. Crane, C. C. Lauritsen, and A. Soltan, "Production of Neutrons by High Speed Deutons," Phys. Rev. 44 (1933), 692-693. The word "deuton" was one of several names that were proposed for the nucleus of the mass-2 isotope of hydrogen. By 1935 the name "deuteron" was coming into general acceptance; see Roger H. Stuewer, "The Naming of the Deuteron," Amer. J. Phys. 54 (1986), 206-218.
73. Heilbron and Seidel, Lawrence and His Laboratory (ref. 18), passim.
74. Crane interview by Weiner (ref. 42), p. 28. Weiner mentions here a letter from Lawrence to Cockcroft of September 23, 1933, in which Lawrence wrote: "Richard Crane, who is working with Lauritsen, was in our laboratory last week. We gave him a sample of heavy hydrogen with which to bombard various elements and look for neutrons." The sample actually came from G. N. Lewis, and Lawrence noting Lauritsen's success suggests that he had received Lauritsen's telegram.
75. Thomas Lauritsen interview by Barry Richman and Charles Weiner, February 16, 1967, American Institute of Physics Center for History of Physics, College Park, Maryland, p. 12.
76. Crane interview by Weiner (ref. 42), p. 35.
77. Frédéric Joliot and Irène Curie, "Artificial Production of a New Kind of Radio-Element," Nature 133 (1934) 201-202, 721; Irène Curie and Frédéric Joliot, "Un nouveau type de radioactivité," Comptes rendus 198 (1934), 254 (communicated January 15, 1934); reprinted in Beyer, Foundations (ref. 28), pp. 39-42, and Joliot-Curie, Oeuvres (ref. 37), pp. 515-516; "Séparation chimique des nouveaux radioéléments émetteurs d'électrons positifs," ibid., 559; reprinted in Joliot-Curie, Oeuvres (ref. 37), pp. 517-519. For an account, see Roger H. Stuewer, "The Discovery of Artificial Radioactivity," in Monique Bordry and Pierre Radvanyi, ed., Oeuvre et Engagement de Frédéric Joliot-Curie (Les Ulis: EDP Sciences, 2001), pp. 11-20.
78. Frédéric Joliot and Irène Curie, "Artificial Production of a New Kind of Radio-Element," Nature 133 (1934) 201-202, 721; Irène Curie and Frédéric Joliot, "Un nouveau type de radioactivité," Comptes rendus 198 (1934), 254 (communicated January 15, 1934); reprinted in Beyer, Foundations (ref. 28), pp. 39-42, and Joliot-Curie, Oeuvres (ref. 37), pp. 515-516; "Séparation chimique des nouveaux radioéléments émetteurs d'électrons positifs," ibid., 559; reprinted in Joliot-Curie, Oeuvres (ref. 37), pp. 517-519. For an account, see Roger H. Stuewer, "The Discovery of Artificial Radioactivity," in Monique Bordry and Pierre Radvanyi, ed., Oeuvre et Engagement de Frédéric Joliot-Curie (Les Ulis: EDP Sciences, 2001), pp. 11-20.
79. Frédéric Joliot and Irène Curie, "Artificial Production of a New Kind of Radio-Element," Nature 133 (1934) 201-202, 721; Irène Curie and Frédéric Joliot, "Un nouveau type de radioactivité," Comptes rendus 198 (1934), 254 (communicated January 15, 1934); reprinted in Beyer, Foundations (ref. 28), pp. 39-42, and Joliot-Curie, Oeuvres (ref. 37), pp. 515-516; "Séparation chimique des nouveaux radioéléments émetteurs d'électrons positifs," ibid., 559; reprinted in Joliot-Curie, Oeuvres (ref. 37), pp. 517-519. For an account, see Roger H. Stuewer, "The Discovery of Artificial Radioactivity," in Monique Bordry and Pierre Radvanyi, ed., Oeuvre et Engagement de Frédéric Joliot-Curie (Les Ulis: EDP Sciences, 2001), pp. 11-20.
80. Frédéric Joliot and Irène Curie, "Artificial Production of a New Kind of Radio-Element," Nature 133 (1934) 201-202, 721; Irène Curie and Frédéric Joliot, "Un nouveau type de radioactivité," Comptes rendus 198 (1934), 254 (communicated January 15, 1934); reprinted in Beyer, Foundations (ref. 28), pp. 39-42, and Joliot-Curie, Oeuvres (ref. 37), pp. 515-516; "Séparation chimique des nouveaux radioéléments émetteurs d'électrons positifs," ibid., 559; reprinted in Joliot-Curie, Oeuvres (ref. 37), pp. 517-519. For an account, see Roger H. Stuewer, "The Discovery of Artificial Radioactivity," in Monique Bordry and Pierre Radvanyi, ed., Oeuvre et Engagement de Frédéric Joliot-Curie (Les Ulis: EDP Sciences, 2001), pp. 11-20.
81. Frédéric Joliot and Irène Curie, "Artificial Production of a New Kind of Radio-Element," Nature 133 (1934) 201-202, 721; Irène Curie and Frédéric Joliot, "Un nouveau type de radioactivité," Comptes rendus 198 (1934), 254 (communicated January 15, 1934); reprinted in Beyer, Foundations (ref. 28), pp. 39-42, and Joliot-Curie, Oeuvres (ref. 37), pp. 515-516; "Séparation chimique des nouveaux radioéléments émetteurs d'électrons positifs," ibid., 559; reprinted in Joliot-Curie, Oeuvres (ref. 37), pp. 517-519. For an account, see Roger H. Stuewer, "The Discovery of Artificial Radioactivity," in Monique Bordry and Pierre Radvanyi, ed., Oeuvre et Engagement de Frédéric Joliot-Curie (Les Ulis: EDP Sciences, 2001), pp. 11-20.
82. Frédéric Joliot and Irène Curie, "Artificial Production of a New Kind of Radio-Element," Nature 133 (1934) 201-202, 721; Irène Curie and Frédéric Joliot, "Un nouveau type de radioactivité," Comptes rendus 198 (1934), 254 (communicated January 15, 1934); reprinted in Beyer, Foundations (ref. 28), pp. 39-42, and Joliot-Curie, Oeuvres (ref. 37), pp. 515-516; "Séparation chimique des nouveaux radioéléments émetteurs d'électrons positifs," ibid., 559; reprinted in Joliot-Curie, Oeuvres (ref. 37), pp. 517-519. For an account, see Roger H. Stuewer, "The Discovery of Artificial Radioactivity," in Monique Bordry and Pierre Radvanyi, ed., Oeuvre et Engagement de Frédéric Joliot-Curie (Les Ulis: EDP Sciences, 2001), pp. 11-20.
83. Frédéric Joliot and Irène Curie, "Artificial Production of a New Kind of Radio-Element," Nature 133 (1934) 201-202, 721; Irène Curie and Frédéric Joliot, "Un nouveau type de radioactivité," Comptes rendus 198 (1934), 254 (communicated January 15, 1934); reprinted in Beyer, Foundations (ref. 28), pp. 39-42, and Joliot-Curie, Oeuvres (ref. 37), pp. 515-516; "Séparation chimique des nouveaux radioéléments émetteurs d'électrons positifs," ibid., 559; reprinted in Joliot-Curie, Oeuvres (ref. 37), pp. 517-519. For an account, see Roger H. Stuewer, "The Discovery of Artificial Radioactivity," in Monique Bordry and Pierre Radvanyi, ed., Oeuvre et Engagement de Frédéric Joliot-Curie (Les Ulis: EDP Sciences, 2001), pp. 11-20.
84. C. C. Lauritsen, H. R. Crane, and W. W. Harper, "Artificial Production of Radioactive Substances," Science 79 (1934), 234-235. Similar experiments were done independently at the same time at Berkeley and at the Cavendish Laboratory; see Malcom C. Henderson, M. Stanley Livingston, and Ernest O. Lawrence, "Artificial Radioactivity Produced by Deuton Bombardment," Phys. Rev. 46 (1934), 428-429 (submitted February 27, 1934), and J.D. Cockcroft, C.W. Gilbert, and E.T.S. Walton, "Production of Induced Radioactivity by High Velocity Protons," Nature 133 (1934), 328 (submitted February 24, 1934).
85. C. C. Lauritsen, H. R. Crane, and W. W. Harper, "Artificial Production of Radioactive Substances," Science 79 (1934), 234-235. Similar experiments were done independently at the same time at Berkeley and at the Cavendish Laboratory; see Malcom C. Henderson, M. Stanley Livingston, and Ernest O. Lawrence, "Artificial Radioactivity Produced by Deuton Bombardment," Phys. Rev. 46 (1934), 428-429 (submitted February 27, 1934), and J.D. Cockcroft, C.W. Gilbert, and E.T.S. Walton, "Production of Induced Radioactivity by High Velocity Protons," Nature 133 (1934), 328 (submitted February 24, 1934).
86. C. C. Lauritsen, H. R. Crane, and W. W. Harper, "Artificial Production of Radioactive Substances," Science 79 (1934), 234-235. Similar experiments were done independently at the same time at Berkeley and at the Cavendish Laboratory; see Malcom C. Henderson, M. Stanley Livingston, and Ernest O. Lawrence, "Artificial Radioactivity Produced by Deuton Bombardment," Phys. Rev. 46 (1934), 428-429 (submitted February 27, 1934), and J.D. Cockcroft, C.W. Gilbert, and E.T.S. Walton, "Production of Induced Radioactivity by High Velocity Protons," Nature 133 (1934), 328 (submitted February 24, 1934).
87. Horace Richard Crane, "Artificial Radioactivity," Ph. D. Thesis, California Institute of Technology, 1934.
88. E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, B. Pontecorvo, F. Rasetti, and E. Segrè, "Azione di sostanze idrogenate sulla radioattività provocata da neutroni. I," Ricerche Scientifica 5 (1934), 282-283; translated as "Influence of Hydrogenous Substances on the Radioactivity Produced by Neutrons" in Enrico Fermi, Collected Papers (Note e Memorie). Vol. I. Italy 1921-1938 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), pp. 761-762. Niels Bohr, "Neutron Capture and Nuclear Constitution," Nature 137 (1936), 344-348; reprinted in Niels Bohr Collected Works. Vol. 9. Nuclear Physics (1929-1952), ed. Sir Rudolf Peierls (Amsterdam; North-Holland, 1986), pp. 152-156.
89. E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, B. Pontecorvo, F. Rasetti, and E. Segrè, "Azione di sostanze idrogenate sulla radioattività provocata da neutroni. I," Ricerche Scientifica 5 (1934), 282-283; translated as "Influence of Hydrogenous Substances on the Radioactivity Produced by Neutrons" in Enrico Fermi, Collected Papers (Note e Memorie). Vol. I. Italy 1921-1938 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), pp. 761-762. Niels Bohr, "Neutron Capture and Nuclear Constitution," Nature 137 (1936), 344-348; reprinted in Niels Bohr Collected Works. Vol. 9. Nuclear Physics (1929-1952), ed. Sir Rudolf Peierls (Amsterdam; North-Holland, 1986), pp. 152-156.
90. E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, B. Pontecorvo, F. Rasetti, and E. Segrè, "Azione di sostanze idrogenate sulla radioattività provocata da neutroni. I," Ricerche Scientifica 5 (1934), 282-283; translated as "Influence of Hydrogenous Substances on the Radioactivity Produced by Neutrons" in Enrico Fermi, Collected Papers (Note e Memorie). Vol. I. Italy 1921-1938 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), pp. 761-762. Niels Bohr, "Neutron Capture and Nuclear Constitution," Nature 137 (1936), 344-348; reprinted in Niels Bohr Collected Works. Vol. 9. Nuclear Physics (1929-1952), ed. Sir Rudolf Peierls (Amsterdam; North-Holland, 1986), pp. 152-156.
91. E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, B. Pontecorvo, F. Rasetti, and E. Segrè, "Azione di sostanze idrogenate sulla radioattività provocata da neutroni. I," Ricerche Scientifica 5 (1934), 282-283; translated as "Influence of Hydrogenous Substances on the Radioactivity Produced by Neutrons" in Enrico Fermi, Collected Papers (Note e Memorie). Vol. I. Italy 1921-1938 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), pp. 761-762. Niels Bohr, "Neutron Capture and Nuclear Constitution," Nature 137 (1936), 344-348; reprinted in Niels Bohr Collected Works. Vol. 9. Nuclear Physics (1929-1952), ed. Sir Rudolf Peierls (Amsterdam; North-Holland, 1986), pp. 152-156.
92. H.A. Bethe and R.F. Bacher, "Nuclear Physics. A. Stationary States of Nuclei," Reviews of Modern Physics 8 (1936), 82-229; H.A. Bethe, "Nuclear Physics. B. Nuclear Dynamics, Theoretical," ibid. 9 (1937), 69-244; M. Stanley Livingston and H.A. Bethe, "Nuclear Physics. C. Nuclear Dynamics, Experimental," ibid., 245-390; reprinted as Hans A. Bethe, Robert F. Bacher, and M. Stanley Livingston, Basic Bethe: Seminal Articles on Nuclear Physics, 1936-1937 (New York: Tomash Publishers and American Institute of Physics, 1986).
93. H.A. Bethe and R.F. Bacher, "Nuclear Physics. A. Stationary States of Nuclei," Reviews of Modern Physics 8 (1936), 82-229; H.A. Bethe, "Nuclear Physics. B. Nuclear Dynamics, Theoretical," ibid. 9 (1937), 69-244; M. Stanley Livingston and H.A. Bethe, "Nuclear Physics. C. Nuclear Dynamics, Experimental," ibid., 245-390; reprinted as Hans A. Bethe, Robert F. Bacher, and M. Stanley Livingston, Basic Bethe: Seminal Articles on Nuclear Physics, 1936-1937 (New York: Tomash Publishers and American Institute of Physics, 1986).
94. H.A. Bethe and R.F. Bacher, "Nuclear Physics. A. Stationary States of Nuclei," Reviews of Modern Physics 8 (1936), 82-229; H.A. Bethe, "Nuclear Physics. B. Nuclear Dynamics, Theoretical," ibid. 9 (1937), 69-244; M. Stanley Livingston and H.A. Bethe, "Nuclear Physics. C. Nuclear Dynamics, Experimental," ibid., 245-390; reprinted as Hans A. Bethe, Robert F. Bacher, and M. Stanley Livingston, Basic Bethe: Seminal Articles on Nuclear Physics, 1936-1937 (New York: Tomash Publishers and American Institute of Physics, 1986).
95. H.A. Bethe and R.F. Bacher, "Nuclear Physics. A. Stationary States of Nuclei," Reviews of Modern Physics 8 (1936), 82-229; H.A. Bethe, "Nuclear Physics. B. Nuclear Dynamics, Theoretical," ibid. 9 (1937), 69-244; M. Stanley Livingston and H.A. Bethe, "Nuclear Physics. C. Nuclear Dynamics, Experimental," ibid., 245-390; reprinted as Hans A. Bethe, Robert F. Bacher, and M. Stanley Livingston, Basic Bethe: Seminal Articles on Nuclear Physics, 1936-1937 (New York: Tomash Publishers and American Institute of Physics, 1986).
96. For an account of Herb's life and work, see Henry H. Barschall, "Raymond George Herb January 22, 1908-October 1, 1996," National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoirs, Vol. 72 (Washington; National Academy of Sciences, 1977), 176-191.
97. For early accounts, see Norman Bentwich, The Refugees from Germany April 1933 to December 1935 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1936); The Rescue and Achievement of Refugee Scholars: The Story of Displaced Scholars and Scientists 1933-1952 (The Hague: Marinus Nijhoff, 1953); Lord Beveridge, A Defence of Free Learning (London: Oxford University Press, 1959).
98. For early accounts, see Norman Bentwich, The Refugees from Germany April 1933 to December 1935 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1936); The Rescue and Achievement of Refugee Scholars: The Story of Displaced Scholars and Scientists 1933-1952 (The Hague: Marinus Nijhoff, 1953); Lord Beveridge, A Defence of Free Learning (London: Oxford University Press, 1959).
99. For early accounts, see Norman Bentwich, The Refugees from Germany April 1933 to December 1935 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1936); The Rescue and Achievement of Refugee Scholars: The Story of Displaced Scholars and Scientists 1933-1952 (The Hague: Marinus Nijhoff, 1953); Lord Beveridge, A Defence of Free Learning (London: Oxford University Press, 1959).
100. Judith R. Goodstein, Millikan's School: A History of the California Institute of Technology (New York: W.W. Norton, 1991), p. 241. A good account of the wartime rocket project at Caltech is given in the chapter, "The Rockets' Red Glare," pp. 239-260.
101. Judith R. Goodstein, Millikan's School: A History of the California Institute of Technology (New York: W.W. Norton, 1991), p. 241. A good account of the wartime rocket project at Caltech is given in the chapter, "The Rockets' Red Glare," pp. 239-260.
102. James Phinney Baxter, Scientists Against Time (Boston: Little, Brown, 1946).
103. A.B. Christman, History of the Naval Weapons Center, China Lake, California. Vol. 1. Sailors, Scientists and Rockets (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1971); John E. Burchard, ed., Rockets, Guns and Targets (Boston: Little Brown, 1948).
104. A.B. Christman, History of the Naval Weapons Center, China Lake, California. Vol. 1. Sailors, Scientists and Rockets (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1971); John E. Burchard, ed., Rockets, Guns and Targets (Boston: Little Brown, 1948).
105. J.D. Gerrard-Gough and A.B. Christman, History of the Naval Weapons Center, China Lake, California. Vol. 2. The Grand Experiment at Inyokem (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1978). For a full account, see Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986).
106. J.D. Gerrard-Gough and A.B. Christman, History of the Naval Weapons Center, China Lake, California. Vol. 2. The Grand Experiment at Inyokem (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1978). For a full account, see Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986).
107. For the MAUD committee, see Margaret Gowing, Britain Atomic Energy 1939-1945 (London: Macmillan, 1964), pp. 45-89.
108. William A. Fowler interview by John Greenberg, California Institute of Technology Oral History Project, 1986, Caltech Archives, p. 29.
109. Robert F. Bacher interview by Mary Terrall, California Institute of Technology Oral History Project, 1983, Caltech Archives, p. 126.
110. Alvin Tollestrup telephone interview by Charles H. Holbrow, March 13, 2002, where Tollestrup told the story of the quarter-scale model and related the remark about always using the scrap heap. Bacher tells this story in more detail and describes the extensive modifications Caltech had to make to use what Lawrence offered; see Bacher interview by Terrall (ref. 61), pp. 148-150.
111. Tollestrup telephone interview by Holbrow (ref. 62).
112. For a lively account of the difficulties and successes of William McLean, a former Lauritsen student, in the NOTS environment, see the website 〈http://polaris.umuc.edu/̃fbetz/references/Westrum.html〉
113. For a history of ONR, see Harvey M. Sapolsky, Science and the Navy: The History of the Office of Naval Research (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990); see also the website 〈http://www.onr.navy.mil/onr/docs/50years_pl.pdf〉.
114. For a history of ONR, see Harvey M. Sapolsky, Science and the Navy: The History of the Office of Naval Research (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990); see also the website 〈http://www.onr.navy.mil/onr/docs/50years_pl.pdf〉.
115. "C.C. Lauritsen: Scientific Contributions to National Defense, " July 1, 1962, Lauritsen Papers 12.4, Caltech Archives. The author of this document is not given, but it probably was prepared by Tommy Lauritsen in consultation with his father. The penciled notes on it probably are in Tommy Lauritsen's handwriting.
116. Lauritsen to Conrad, July 2, 1946, Lauritsen Papers, Caltech Archives.
117. The Ford Foundation, Report of the Study for the Ford Foundation on Policy and Program (Detroit: The Ford Foundation, November 1949).
118. David Hounshell, "The Cold War, RAND, and the generation of knowledge," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 27 (1997) 237-267. This is a succinct and informative description of the origins and accomplishments of RAND. See also "RAND's History: 50 Years of Service to the Nation," website 〈http://www.rand.org/history/#origins〉.
119. David Hounshell, "The Cold War, RAND, and the generation of knowledge," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 27 (1997) 237-267. This is a succinct and informative description of the origins and accomplishments of RAND. See also "RAND's History: 50 Years of Service to the Nation," website 〈http://www.rand.org/history/#origins〉.
120. For a full account, see Alice Kimball Smith, A Peril and a Hope: The Scientists' Movement in America: 1945-47 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965).
121. For a full account, see Richard G. Hewlett and Oscar E. Anderson, Jr., A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. Vol I. The New World, 1939/1946 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1962).
122. Jessica Wang, "Edward Condon and the Cold War Politics of Loyalty," Phys. Today 54 (December 2001), 35-41, gives a more complete account of Condon's "hounding by redbaiting congressmen." See also Philip M. Morse, "Edward Uhler Condon March 2, 1902-March 26, 1974," in National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoirs, Vol. 48 (Washington: National Academy of Sciences, 1977), 124-151.
123. Jessica Wang, "Edward Condon and the Cold War Politics of Loyalty," Phys. Today 54 (December 2001), 35-41, gives a more complete account of Condon's "hounding by redbaiting congressmen." See also Philip M. Morse, "Edward Uhler Condon March 2, 1902-March 26, 1974," in National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoirs, Vol. 48 (Washington: National Academy of Sciences, 1977), 124-151.
124. Lauritsen Papers 2.8, Caltech Archives.
125. Louis N. Ridenour, "Military Security and the Atomic Bomb," Fortune (November 1945), p. 171, et seq.
126. Joseph T. Klapper and Charles Y. Clock, "Trial by Newspaper," Scientific American 180 (February 1949), 16-21. Gerard Piel, publisher of Scientific American, initiated this project.
127. Louis N. Ridenour, "Military Security and the Atomic Bomb," Fortune (November 1945), p. 171, et seq.
128. Lauritsen to Ridenour, March 16, 1949, Lauritsen Papers 2.13, Caltech Archives.
129. I b i d
130. Ridenour to Lauritsen, March 29, 1949, Lauritsen Papers 2.13, Caltech Archives.
131. Allison to Lauritsen, April 14, 1949; copy of Allison and Fermi to Senator Robert A. Taft, September 13, 1945, Lauritsen Papers 2.13, Caltech Archives.
132. For a full account, see Richard Rhodes, Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995).
133. Quoted along with the GAC report in Herbert York, The Advisors: Oppenheimer, Teller, and the Superbomb (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1975), pp. 150-159.
134. S. S. Schweber, In the Shadow of the Bomb: Bethe, Oppenheimer, and the moral responsibility of the scientist (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), p. 233, n. 40. The published version was virtually unchanged from the one on the confiscated plates.
135. This visit is mentioned in Ridenour to Lauritsen, March 6, 1950, Lauritsen Papers 3.3. Caltech Archives.
136. Lauritsen to Ridenour, March 24, 1950, which is a reply to Ridenour to Lauritsen, March 20, 1950, Lauritsen Papers 3.3, Caltech Archives.
137. Louis N. Ridenour, "The Hydrogen Bomb," Scientific American 182 (March 1930), 11-15.
138. Lauritsen to Ridenour, March 24, 1950 (ref. 84).
139. Muste to Lauritsen, February 9, 1950, Lauritsen Papers 3.1, Caltech Archives.
140. Lauritsen to Muste, February 20, 1950, Lauritsen Papers 3.1, Caltech Archives.
141. "C.C. Lauritsen: Contributions to National Defense," July 1, 1962, Lauritsen Papers 12.4, Caltech Archives. This document identifies 44 different committees, panels, advisory boards, and studies of which he was a member or for which he was a consultant since 1949. He continued such work until his death in 1968.
142. Typescript of a talk by Lauritsen at Caltech in 1951 describing his trip to Korea, Lauritsen Papers 11.10, Caltech Archives, p. 3.
143. I b i d.
144. I b i d.
145. Testimony of Charles C. Lauritsen, in In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer: Transcript of Hearing before Personnel Security Board, Washington, D. C. April 12, 1954, through May 6, 1954 (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1954), p. 583. Herbert York describes the purpose of the LROP as "to once again examine the relationship of nuclear weapons to foreign policy, and military tactics and strategy"; see York, The Advisors (ref. 81), p. 114. This description seems more applicable to Project Vista than to the LROP; the more limited purpose described by Lauritsen matches the name LROP better. In his curriculum vitae, Lauritsen calls this group the Ad Hoc Panel on Technical Estimates for Committee on Atomic Energy.
146. Testimony of Charles C. Lauritsen, in In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer: Transcript of Hearing before Personnel Security Board, Washington, D. C. April 12, 1954, through May 6, 1954 (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1954), p. 583. Herbert York describes the purpose of the LROP as "to once again examine the relationship of nuclear weapons to foreign policy, and military tactics and strategy"; see York, The Advisors (ref. 81), p. 114. This description seems more applicable to Project Vista than to the LROP; the more limited purpose described by Lauritsen matches the name LROP better. In his curriculum vitae, Lauritsen calls this group the Ad Hoc Panel on Technical Estimates for Committee on Atomic Energy.
147. York, The Advisors (ref. 81), p. 116.
148. DuBridge to William A. Fowler, March 27, 1951, Lauritsen Papers 8.9, Caltech Archives.
149. David C. Elliot, "Project Vista: An early study of nuclear weapons in Europe," Discussion Paper No. 108, August 1987, 30 pp., of the California Seminar on International Security and Foreign Policy, Santa Monica, California 90406.
150. Jesse Greenstein, "Lee Alvin DuBridge September 21, 1901-January 23, 1994," National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoirs, Vol. 72 (Washington: National Academy of Sciences, 1997), 107.
151. James M. Gavin, War and Peace in the Space Age (New York: Harper, 1958), p. 132.
152. Seitz to Lauritsen, March 15, 1950, Lauritsen Papers 3.3, Caltech Archives. Seitz supports Lauritsen's idea for a study rather than the kind of study proposed by Leo Szilard.
153. For DuBridge's recollections of his years as President of Caltech and of Project Vista, see Judith R. Goodstein, "A Conversation with Lee Alvin DuBridge - Part I," Physics in Perspective 5 (2003), 174-205; "Part II," ibid., 281-309.
154. For DuBridge's recollections of his years as President of Caltech and of Project Vista, see Judith R. Goodstein, "A Conversation with Lee Alvin DuBridge - Part I," Physics in Perspective 5 (2003), 174-205; "Part II," ibid., 281-309.
155. DuBridge memo, January 12, 1951, Lauritsen Papers 8.9, Caltech Archives.
156. DuBridge to Fowler, March 27, 1951, Lauritsen Papers 8.9, Caltech Archives.
157. Gavin, War and Peace (ref. 98), p. 132.
158. Report of consulting activities 1957, Lauritsen Papers 12.5, Caltech Archives.
159. "Lauritsen: Contributions to National Defense" (ref. 89), p. 5.
160. Gavin, War and Peace (ref. 98), p. 134.
161. Testimony of Charles C. Lauritsen (ref. 93), p. 584.
162. Hanson W. Baldwin, "Experts Urge Tactical Air Might; Score Stress on Big Atom Bomber," The New York Times (June 5, 1952). In one article Murphy referred to the "ZORC conspiracy"; Z stood for Zacharias, an MIT physicist and defense consultant), O for Oppenheimer, R for Rabi, and C for Charlie (Lauritsen).
163. "The hidden struggle for the H-bomb: The story of Dr. Oppenheimer's persistent campaign to reverse U.S. military strategy," Fortune (May 1953), 109; Charles J.V. Murphy, "What Dr. Fuchs Couldn't Deliver: Mass production of A-weapons has changed the military equation," Fortune (September 1953), 95-96.
164. "The hidden struggle for the H-bomb: The story of Dr. Oppenheimer's persistent campaign to reverse U.S. military strategy," Fortune (May 1953), 109; Charles J.V. Murphy, "What Dr. Fuchs Couldn't Deliver: Mass production of A-weapons has changed the military equation," Fortune (September 1953), 95-96.
165. DuBridge to McCone, July 8, 1953, Lauritsen Papers 4.7, Caltech Archives.
166. For a thorough analysis, see Philip M. Stern, The Oppenheimer Case: Security on Trial (New York: Harper and Row, 1969).
167. In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer (ref. 93), passim.
168. Quarles to Lauritsen, September 20, 1954; Lauritsen to Quarles, September 23, 1954, Lauritsen Papers 4.14, Caltech Archives.
169. Lauritsen to Quarles, December 14, 1954; Quarles to Lauritsen, December 29, 1954, Lauritsen Papers 4.14, Caltech Archives.
170. Typescript of a talk given by Lauritsen at Caltech, Lauritsen Papers 11.10, Caltech Archives.