The Paradox of Tradition and Modernity in Female Education in the Islamic Republic of Iran

Comparative Education Review

Volumn 47, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 269-286+421

  Mehran, Golnar ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN ONTARIO   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0346947019     PISSN: 00104086     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/378248     Document Type: Review

References (58)

1. Munir Bashshur, "Arab Women and Education," in Arab Women and Education, Monograph Series of the Institute for Women's Studies in the Arab World no. 2 (Beirut: Beirut University College, 1980); F. Ozbay, "The Impact of Education on Women in Rural and Urban Turkey," in Women in Turkish Society, ed. N. Abadan-Unat (Leiden: Brill, 1981); Marie T. Jones, "Educating Girls in Tunisia: Issues Generated by the Drive for Universal Enrollment," in Women's Education in the Third World: Comparative Perspectives, ed. Gail P. Kelly and Carolyn M. Elliot (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1982); H. A. S. Khattab, "Female Education in Egypt: Changing Attitudes over 100 Years," in Muslim Women, ed. F. Hussain (New York: St. Martin's, 1984); Byron Massialas and Samir Jarrar, Arab Education in Transition (New York: Garland, 1991); Nagat El-Sanabary, "Middle East and North Africa," in Women's Education in Developing Countries: Barriers, Benefits and Policies, ed. Elizabeth M. King and M. Anne Hill (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); May Rihani, Learning for the Twenty-First Century: Strategies for Female Education in the Middle East and North Africa (Amman: UNICEF, 1993); Augustin Velloso, "Women, Society, and Education in Palestine," International Review of Education 42 (1996): 524-30.
2. Munir Bashshur, "Arab Women and Education," in Arab Women and Education, Monograph Series of the Institute for Women's Studies in the Arab World no. 2 (Beirut: Beirut University College, 1980); F. Ozbay, "The Impact of Education on Women in Rural and Urban Turkey," in Women in Turkish Society, ed. N. Abadan-Unat (Leiden: Brill, 1981); Marie T. Jones, "Educating Girls in Tunisia: Issues Generated by the Drive for Universal Enrollment," in Women's Education in the Third World: Comparative Perspectives, ed. Gail P. Kelly and Carolyn M. Elliot (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1982); H. A. S. Khattab, "Female Education in Egypt: Changing Attitudes over 100 Years," in Muslim Women, ed. F. Hussain (New York: St. Martin's, 1984); Byron Massialas and Samir Jarrar, Arab Education in Transition (New York: Garland, 1991); Nagat El-Sanabary, "Middle East and North Africa," in Women's Education in Developing Countries: Barriers, Benefits and Policies, ed. Elizabeth M. King and M. Anne Hill (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); May Rihani, Learning for the Twenty-First Century: Strategies for Female Education in the Middle East and North Africa (Amman: UNICEF, 1993); Augustin Velloso, "Women, Society, and Education in Palestine," International Review of Education 42 (1996): 524-30.
3. Munir Bashshur, "Arab Women and Education," in Arab Women and Education, Monograph Series of the Institute for Women's Studies in the Arab World no. 2 (Beirut: Beirut University College, 1980); F. Ozbay, "The Impact of Education on Women in Rural and Urban Turkey," in Women in Turkish Society, ed. N. Abadan-Unat (Leiden: Brill, 1981); Marie T. Jones, "Educating Girls in Tunisia: Issues Generated by the Drive for Universal Enrollment," in Women's Education in the Third World: Comparative Perspectives, ed. Gail P. Kelly and Carolyn M. Elliot (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1982); H. A. S. Khattab, "Female Education in Egypt: Changing Attitudes over 100 Years," in Muslim Women, ed. F. Hussain (New York: St. Martin's, 1984); Byron Massialas and Samir Jarrar, Arab Education in Transition (New York: Garland, 1991); Nagat El-Sanabary, "Middle East and North Africa," in Women's Education in Developing Countries: Barriers, Benefits and Policies, ed. Elizabeth M. King and M. Anne Hill (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); May Rihani, Learning for the Twenty-First Century: Strategies for Female Education in the Middle East and North Africa (Amman: UNICEF, 1993); Augustin Velloso, "Women, Society, and Education in Palestine," International Review of Education 42 (1996): 524-30.
4. Munir Bashshur, "Arab Women and Education," in Arab Women and Education, Monograph Series of the Institute for Women's Studies in the Arab World no. 2 (Beirut: Beirut University College, 1980); F. Ozbay, "The Impact of Education on Women in Rural and Urban Turkey," in Women in Turkish Society, ed. N. Abadan-Unat (Leiden: Brill, 1981); Marie T. Jones, "Educating Girls in Tunisia: Issues Generated by the Drive for Universal Enrollment," in Women's Education in the Third World: Comparative Perspectives, ed. Gail P. Kelly and Carolyn M. Elliot (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1982); H. A. S. Khattab, "Female Education in Egypt: Changing Attitudes over 100 Years," in Muslim Women, ed. F. Hussain (New York: St. Martin's, 1984); Byron Massialas and Samir Jarrar, Arab Education in Transition (New York: Garland, 1991); Nagat El-Sanabary, "Middle East and North Africa," in Women's Education in Developing Countries: Barriers, Benefits and Policies, ed. Elizabeth M. King and M. Anne Hill (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); May Rihani, Learning for the Twenty-First Century: Strategies for Female Education in the Middle East and North Africa (Amman: UNICEF, 1993); Augustin Velloso, "Women, Society, and Education in Palestine," International Review of Education 42 (1996): 524-30.
5. Munir Bashshur, "Arab Women and Education," in Arab Women and Education, Monograph Series of the Institute for Women's Studies in the Arab World no. 2 (Beirut: Beirut University College, 1980); F. Ozbay, "The Impact of Education on Women in Rural and Urban Turkey," in Women in Turkish Society, ed. N. Abadan-Unat (Leiden: Brill, 1981); Marie T. Jones, "Educating Girls in Tunisia: Issues Generated by the Drive for Universal Enrollment," in Women's Education in the Third World: Comparative Perspectives, ed. Gail P. Kelly and Carolyn M. Elliot (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1982); H. A. S. Khattab, "Female Education in Egypt: Changing Attitudes over 100 Years," in Muslim Women, ed. F. Hussain (New York: St. Martin's, 1984); Byron Massialas and Samir Jarrar, Arab Education in Transition (New York: Garland, 1991); Nagat El-Sanabary, "Middle East and North Africa," in Women's Education in Developing Countries: Barriers, Benefits and Policies, ed. Elizabeth M. King and M. Anne Hill (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); May Rihani, Learning for the Twenty-First Century: Strategies for Female Education in the Middle East and North Africa (Amman: UNICEF, 1993); Augustin Velloso, "Women, Society, and Education in Palestine," International Review of Education 42 (1996): 524-30.
6. Munir Bashshur, "Arab Women and Education," in Arab Women and Education, Monograph Series of the Institute for Women's Studies in the Arab World no. 2 (Beirut: Beirut University College, 1980); F. Ozbay, "The Impact of Education on Women in Rural and Urban Turkey," in Women in Turkish Society, ed. N. Abadan-Unat (Leiden: Brill, 1981); Marie T. Jones, "Educating Girls in Tunisia: Issues Generated by the Drive for Universal Enrollment," in Women's Education in the Third World: Comparative Perspectives, ed. Gail P. Kelly and Carolyn M. Elliot (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1982); H. A. S. Khattab, "Female Education in Egypt: Changing Attitudes over 100 Years," in Muslim Women, ed. F. Hussain (New York: St. Martin's, 1984); Byron Massialas and Samir Jarrar, Arab Education in Transition (New York: Garland, 1991); Nagat El-Sanabary, "Middle East and North Africa," in Women's Education in Developing Countries: Barriers, Benefits and Policies, ed. Elizabeth M. King and M. Anne Hill (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); May Rihani, Learning for the Twenty-First Century: Strategies for Female Education in the Middle East and North Africa (Amman: UNICEF, 1993); Augustin Velloso, "Women, Society, and Education in Palestine," International Review of Education 42 (1996): 524-30.
7. Munir Bashshur, "Arab Women and Education," in Arab Women and Education, Monograph Series of the Institute for Women's Studies in the Arab World no. 2 (Beirut: Beirut University College, 1980); F. Ozbay, "The Impact of Education on Women in Rural and Urban Turkey," in Women in Turkish Society, ed. N. Abadan-Unat (Leiden: Brill, 1981); Marie T. Jones, "Educating Girls in Tunisia: Issues Generated by the Drive for Universal Enrollment," in Women's Education in the Third World: Comparative Perspectives, ed. Gail P. Kelly and Carolyn M. Elliot (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1982); H. A. S. Khattab, "Female Education in Egypt: Changing Attitudes over 100 Years," in Muslim Women, ed. F. Hussain (New York: St. Martin's, 1984); Byron Massialas and Samir Jarrar, Arab Education in Transition (New York: Garland, 1991); Nagat El-Sanabary, "Middle East and North Africa," in Women's Education in Developing Countries: Barriers, Benefits and Policies, ed. Elizabeth M. King and M. Anne Hill (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); May Rihani, Learning for the Twenty-First Century: Strategies for Female Education in the Middle East and North Africa (Amman: UNICEF, 1993); Augustin Velloso, "Women, Society, and Education in Palestine," International Review of Education 42 (1996): 524-30.
8. Munir Bashshur, "Arab Women and Education," in Arab Women and Education, Monograph Series of the Institute for Women's Studies in the Arab World no. 2 (Beirut: Beirut University College, 1980); F. Ozbay, "The Impact of Education on Women in Rural and Urban Turkey," in Women in Turkish Society, ed. N. Abadan-Unat (Leiden: Brill, 1981); Marie T. Jones, "Educating Girls in Tunisia: Issues Generated by the Drive for Universal Enrollment," in Women's Education in the Third World: Comparative Perspectives, ed. Gail P. Kelly and Carolyn M. Elliot (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1982); H. A. S. Khattab, "Female Education in Egypt: Changing Attitudes over 100 Years," in Muslim Women, ed. F. Hussain (New York: St. Martin's, 1984); Byron Massialas and Samir Jarrar, Arab Education in Transition (New York: Garland, 1991); Nagat El-Sanabary, "Middle East and North Africa," in Women's Education in Developing Countries: Barriers, Benefits and Policies, ed. Elizabeth M. King and M. Anne Hill (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); May Rihani, Learning for the Twenty-First Century: Strategies for Female Education in the Middle East and North Africa (Amman: UNICEF, 1993); Augustin Velloso, "Women, Society, and Education in Palestine," International Review of Education 42 (1996): 524-30.
9. UNESCO, Education for All - Year 2000 Assessment: Statistical Document (Paris: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2000).
10. World Bank, Engendering Development: Through Gender Equality in Rights, Resources, and Voice (Washington D.C.: World Bank, 2001), p. 236, and Education Sector Strategy (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1999), p. 12.
11. World Bank, Engendering Development: Through Gender Equality in Rights, Resources, and Voice (Washington D.C.: World Bank, 2001), p. 236, and Education Sector Strategy (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1999), p. 12.
12. The phrase is attributed to Prophet Mohammad.
13. Golnar Mehran, "The Creation of the New Muslim Woman: Female Education in the Islamic Republic of Iran," Convergence 24, no. 4 (1991): 42-52.
14. Mohammad Khatami, "Women and Men Are Different, but the Woman Is Not the Second Sex and the Man Is Not Superior," Zan-e ruz (Today's woman), no. 1629 (1997), pp. 8-10.
15. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Herder & Herder, 1971), and Education: The Practice of Freedom (London: Writers and Readers Publishing Co-operative, 1973); Paulo Freire and Ira Shor, A Pedagogy for Liberation (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1987); S. Jackson, "Crossing Borders and Changing Pedagogies: From Giroux and Freire to Feminist Theories of Education," Gender and Education 9 (1997): 457-67; Swarna Jayaweera, "Higher Education and the Economic and Social Empowerment of Women - the Asian Experience," Compare 27 (1997): 244-62; Nelly Stromquist, "Women and Illiteracy: The Interplay of Gender Subordination and Poverty," Comparative Education Review 34, no. 1 (1990): 95-111, and "Education for the Empowerment of Women: Two Latin American Experiences," in Education and Development: Lessons from the Third World, ed. Vincent D. Oyley, Adrian Blunt, and Ray Barnhardt (Calgary: Deselig, 1995); G. Weiner, Feminisms in Education (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1994).
16. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Herder & Herder, 1971), and Education: The Practice of Freedom (London: Writers and Readers Publishing Co-operative, 1973); Paulo Freire and Ira Shor, A Pedagogy for Liberation (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1987); S. Jackson, "Crossing Borders and Changing Pedagogies: From Giroux and Freire to Feminist Theories of Education," Gender and Education 9 (1997): 457-67; Swarna Jayaweera, "Higher Education and the Economic and Social Empowerment of Women - the Asian Experience," Compare 27 (1997): 244-62; Nelly Stromquist, "Women and Illiteracy: The Interplay of Gender Subordination and Poverty," Comparative Education Review 34, no. 1 (1990): 95-111, and "Education for the Empowerment of Women: Two Latin American Experiences," in Education and Development: Lessons from the Third World, ed. Vincent D. Oyley, Adrian Blunt, and Ray Barnhardt (Calgary: Deselig, 1995); G. Weiner, Feminisms in Education (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1994).
17. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Herder & Herder, 1971), and Education: The Practice of Freedom (London: Writers and Readers Publishing Co-operative, 1973); Paulo Freire and Ira Shor, A Pedagogy for Liberation (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1987); S. Jackson, "Crossing Borders and Changing Pedagogies: From Giroux and Freire to Feminist Theories of Education," Gender and Education 9 (1997): 457-67; Swarna Jayaweera, "Higher Education and the Economic and Social Empowerment of Women - the Asian Experience," Compare 27 (1997): 244-62; Nelly Stromquist, "Women and Illiteracy: The Interplay of Gender Subordination and Poverty," Comparative Education Review 34, no. 1 (1990): 95-111, and "Education for the Empowerment of Women: Two Latin American Experiences," in Education and Development: Lessons from the Third World, ed. Vincent D. Oyley, Adrian Blunt, and Ray Barnhardt (Calgary: Deselig, 1995); G. Weiner, Feminisms in Education (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1994).
18. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Herder & Herder, 1971), and Education: The Practice of Freedom (London: Writers and Readers Publishing Co-operative, 1973); Paulo Freire and Ira Shor, A Pedagogy for Liberation (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1987); S. Jackson, "Crossing Borders and Changing Pedagogies: From Giroux and Freire to Feminist Theories of Education," Gender and Education 9 (1997): 457-67; Swarna Jayaweera, "Higher Education and the Economic and Social Empowerment of Women - the Asian Experience," Compare 27 (1997): 244-62; Nelly Stromquist, "Women and Illiteracy: The Interplay of Gender Subordination and Poverty," Comparative Education Review 34, no. 1 (1990): 95-111, and "Education for the Empowerment of Women: Two Latin American Experiences," in Education and Development: Lessons from the Third World, ed. Vincent D. Oyley, Adrian Blunt, and Ray Barnhardt (Calgary: Deselig, 1995); G. Weiner, Feminisms in Education (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1994).
19. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Herder & Herder, 1971), and Education: The Practice of Freedom (London: Writers and Readers Publishing Co-operative, 1973); Paulo Freire and Ira Shor, A Pedagogy for Liberation (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1987); S. Jackson, "Crossing Borders and Changing Pedagogies: From Giroux and Freire to Feminist Theories of Education," Gender and Education 9 (1997): 457-67; Swarna Jayaweera, "Higher Education and the Economic and Social Empowerment of Women - the Asian Experience," Compare 27 (1997): 244-62; Nelly Stromquist, "Women and Illiteracy: The Interplay of Gender Subordination and Poverty," Comparative Education Review 34, no. 1 (1990): 95-111, and "Education for the Empowerment of Women: Two Latin American Experiences," in Education and Development: Lessons from the Third World, ed. Vincent D. Oyley, Adrian Blunt, and Ray Barnhardt (Calgary: Deselig, 1995); G. Weiner, Feminisms in Education (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1994).
20. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Herder & Herder, 1971), and Education: The Practice of Freedom (London: Writers and Readers Publishing Co-operative, 1973); Paulo Freire and Ira Shor, A Pedagogy for Liberation (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1987); S. Jackson, "Crossing Borders and Changing Pedagogies: From Giroux and Freire to Feminist Theories of Education," Gender and Education 9 (1997): 457-67; Swarna Jayaweera, "Higher Education and the Economic and Social Empowerment of Women - the Asian Experience," Compare 27 (1997): 244-62; Nelly Stromquist, "Women and Illiteracy: The Interplay of Gender Subordination and Poverty," Comparative Education Review 34, no. 1 (1990): 95-111, and "Education for the Empowerment of Women: Two Latin American Experiences," in Education and Development: Lessons from the Third World, ed. Vincent D. Oyley, Adrian Blunt, and Ray Barnhardt (Calgary: Deselig, 1995); G. Weiner, Feminisms in Education (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1994).
21. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Herder & Herder, 1971), and Education: The Practice of Freedom (London: Writers and Readers Publishing Co-operative, 1973); Paulo Freire and Ira Shor, A Pedagogy for Liberation (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1987); S. Jackson, "Crossing Borders and Changing Pedagogies: From Giroux and Freire to Feminist Theories of Education," Gender and Education 9 (1997): 457-67; Swarna Jayaweera, "Higher Education and the Economic and Social Empowerment of Women - the Asian Experience," Compare 27 (1997): 244-62; Nelly Stromquist, "Women and Illiteracy: The Interplay of Gender Subordination and Poverty," Comparative Education Review 34, no. 1 (1990): 95-111, and "Education for the Empowerment of Women: Two Latin American Experiences," in Education and Development: Lessons from the Third World, ed. Vincent D. Oyley, Adrian Blunt, and Ray Barnhardt (Calgary: Deselig, 1995); G. Weiner, Feminisms in Education (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1994).
22. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Herder & Herder, 1971), and Education: The Practice of Freedom (London: Writers and Readers Publishing Co-operative, 1973); Paulo Freire and Ira Shor, A Pedagogy for Liberation (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1987); S. Jackson, "Crossing Borders and Changing Pedagogies: From Giroux and Freire to Feminist Theories of Education," Gender and Education 9 (1997): 457-67; Swarna Jayaweera, "Higher Education and the Economic and Social Empowerment of Women - the Asian Experience," Compare 27 (1997): 244-62; Nelly Stromquist, "Women and Illiteracy: The Interplay of Gender Subordination and Poverty," Comparative Education Review 34, no. 1 (1990): 95-111, and "Education for the Empowerment of Women: Two Latin American Experiences," in Education and Development: Lessons from the Third World, ed. Vincent D. Oyley, Adrian Blunt, and Ray Barnhardt (Calgary: Deselig, 1995); G. Weiner, Feminisms in Education (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1994).
23. Human Development Report of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 1999 (Tehran: Plan and Budget Organization; New York: United Nations, 1999), pp. 99, 147.
24. Ibid., p. 60.
25. The nature of postrevolutionary Iranian society and the dual role assigned to women have been more fully treated in Golnar Mehran, "A Study of the Facilitating Factors in Girls' Education in Post-revolutionary Iran," in True and False Images of Islam in Cultural Frictions, National Institute for Research Advancement Report no. 19990127 (Tokyo: NIRA, 2000), and "A Study of the Iranian Success Story in Girls' Education" (paper presented at the World Bank Mediterranean Development Forum in Marrakech, Morocco, September 3-6, 1998).
26. The nature of postrevolutionary Iranian society and the dual role assigned to women have been more fully treated in Golnar Mehran, "A Study of the Facilitating Factors in Girls' Education in Post-revolutionary Iran," in True and False Images of Islam in Cultural Frictions, National Institute for Research Advancement Report no. 19990127 (Tokyo: NIRA, 2000), and "A Study of the Iranian Success Story in Girls' Education" (paper presented at the World Bank Mediterranean Development Forum in Marrakech, Morocco, September 3-6, 1998).
27. Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran.
28. Women's Bureau of the Presidential Office, Islamic Republic of Iran: National Report on Women (Tehran: Women's Bureau of the Presidential Office, 1997), p. 58.
29. Ibid., p. 72.
30. Islamic Republic of Iran, Barnameh-ye sevvom tose'eh eqiesadi, ejtema'i va farhangi jomhuri-ye Islami Iran, 1379-1383 (The third economic, social, and cultural development plan of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 2000-2004) (Tehran: Plan and Budget Organization, 2000), p. 122.
31. Mehran, "A Study of Facilitating Factors," p. 11.
32. Women's Bureau of the Presidential Office, p. 75.
33. Islamic Republic of Iran, Barnameh-ye avval tose'eh eqtesadi, ejtema'i va farhangi joumhuri-ye Islami Iran, 1368-1372 (The first economic, social, and cultural development plan of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 1989-1993) (Tehran: Plan and Budget Organization, 1989), pp. 27, 37.
34. Islamic Republic of Iran, Barnameh-ye dovvom tose'eh eqtesadi, ejtema'i va farhangi jomhuri-ye Islami Iran, 1373-1377 (The second economic, social, and cultural development plan of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 1994-1998) (Tehran: Plan and Budget Organization, 1993), p. 7-2.
35. Paraphrased from Ministry of Education, Islamic Republic of Iran, Tarh-e kolliyat-e nezam amuzesh va parvaresh-e jomhuri-ye Islami Iran (The plan for the general system of education in the Islamic Republic of Iran) (Tehran: Council of Fundamental Transformation in the System of Education, 1988), pp. 57, 64-66, 72-73, 82.
36. Ministry of Education, Islamic Republic of Iran, Ahdaf-e doreh-ye rahnema'i tahsili (The goals of guidance cycle education) (Tehran: High Council of Education, 2000).
37. Golnar Mehran, "Cultural Revolution and Educational Transformation in the Islamic Republic of Iran," World Education News and Reviews (1992), pp. 9-17.
38. UNICEF, The State of Women: Islamic Republic of Iran (Tehran: UNICEF, 1998), p. 46.
39. Burton Bollag, "Single Iranian Women Win Limited Rights to Government Support for Study Abroad," Chronicle of Higher Education (March 14, 2001).
40. UNESCO and the Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies, Portrayal of Women in Primary School Textbooks (before and after the Revolution) (Tehran: UNESCO, 1994).
41. Golnar Mehran, "Socialization of Schoolchildren in the Islamic Republic of Iran," Iranian Studies 22, no. 1 (1989): 35-50.
42. Jacquiline R. Touba, ''Cultural Effects on Sex Role Images in Elementary School Books in Iran: A Content Analysis after the Revolution," International Journal of Sociology of the Family 17 (1987): 143-58; Saeed Paivandi, "L'Alphabétisation des femmes en Iran: Des progrés, mais les inégalites persistent," Convergence 27, nos. 2-3 (1994): 68-78.
43. Jacquiline R. Touba, ''Cultural Effects on Sex Role Images in Elementary School Books in Iran: A Content Analysis after the Revolution," International Journal of Sociology of the Family 17 (1987): 143-58; Saeed Paivandi, "L'Alphabétisation des femmes en Iran: Des progrés, mais les inégalites persistent," Convergence 27, nos. 2-3 (1994): 68-78.
44. Ministry of Education, Islamic Republic of Iran, Educational System of the Islamic Republic of Iran (Tehran: Ministry of Education, 1984), p. 27.
45. Tahereh Alavi Hojjat, "Women in Higher Education in Iran," in The Gender Gap in Higher Education, ed. S. Stiver Lie, L. Malik, and D. Harris (London: Kogan Page, 1994).
46. Ministry of Education, Islamic Republic of Iran, Amar-e amuzesh va parvaresh, sal-e tahsili, 1379-1380 (Educational statistics, 2000-2001 academic year) (Tehran: Ministry of Education, 2001). Prior to the 1979 revolution, the name of the country was Iran. After the revolution, the name was changed to the Islamic Republic of Iran.
47. Ministry of Education, Iran, Educational System of Iran (Tehran: Ministry of Education, 1979).
48. Ministry of Higher Education, Islamic Republic of Iran, Amar-e amuzesh-e 'ali, 1378-1379 (Higher education statistics, 1999-2000) (Tehran: Institute for Research and Planning in Higher Education, 2000).
49. Ministry of Education, Islamic Republic of Iran, Amar-e amuzesh va parvaresh, sal-e tahsili, 1377-1378 (Educational statistics, 1998-1999 academic year) (Tehran: Ministry of Education, 1999).
50. Ministry of Higher Education.
51. Literacy Movement Organization, Savad amuzi dar yek negah (Literacy education at a glance) (Tehran: Office of Public Relations, 1997).
52. Bureau of Women's Affairs, Ministry of Education, Hoquq-e ensani-ye zan (Woman's human rights) (Tehran: Ministry of Education, 2002), p. 23.
53. Human Development Report (n. 8 above), p. 25.
54. Elizabeth M. King and M. Anne Hill, eds., Women's Education in Developing Countries: Barriers, Benefits, and Policies (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); Nelly P. Stromquist, Increasing Girls' and Women's Participation in Basic Education (Paris: UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning, 1997).
55. Elizabeth M. King and M. Anne Hill, eds., Women's Education in Developing Countries: Barriers, Benefits, and Policies (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); Nelly P. Stromquist, Increasing Girls' and Women's Participation in Basic Education (Paris: UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning, 1997).
56. Mas'ud La'li, Khatami az cheh miguyad? (What is Khatami talking about?) (Tehran: Ekhlas, 1999), p. 239.
57. Mohammad Khatami, Zanan va javanan (Women and youth) (Tehran: Tarh-e No, 2000).
58. Paraphrased from Center for Women's Participation, Office of the President, National Report on Women's Status in the Islamic Republic of Iran (Tehran: Center for Women's Participation, 2001), pp. 15, 17-19.