H. C. Ray and Racial Politics in the African American Extension Service Program in Arkansas, 1915-1929

Agricultural History

Volumn 72, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 429-445

  Zellar, Gary ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ARKANSAS   (United States)

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EID: 0346940937     PISSN: 00021482     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (124)

1. Census Bureau, The Negro Farmer in the United States (Washington: GPO, 1933), 39; Pete Daniel provides powerful insight into the racial and economic oppression that southern blacks labored under in The Shadow of Slavery: Peonage in the South, 1907-1969 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1972). Jack Temple Kirby also addresses the way white racism guided and maintained the economic exploitation of both black sharecroppers and landowners in the rural South and draws many of his examples from the experiences of black Arkansans in Rural Worlds Lost: The American South, 1920-1960 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987), see especially pp. 239-43.
2. Census Bureau, The Negro Farmer in the United States (Washington: GPO, 1933), 39; Pete Daniel provides powerful insight into the racial and economic oppression that southern blacks labored under in The Shadow of Slavery: Peonage in the South, 1907-1969 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1972). Jack Temple Kirby also addresses the way white racism guided and maintained the economic exploitation of both black sharecroppers and landowners in the rural South and draws many of his examples from the experiences of black Arkansans in Rural Worlds Lost: The American South, 1920-1960 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987), see especially pp. 239-43.
3. Census Bureau, The Negro Farmer in the United States (Washington: GPO, 1933), 39; Pete Daniel provides powerful insight into the racial and economic oppression that southern blacks labored under in The Shadow of Slavery: Peonage in the South, 1907-1969 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1972). Jack Temple Kirby also addresses the way white racism guided and maintained the economic exploitation of both black sharecroppers and landowners in the rural South and draws many of his examples from the experiences of black Arkansans in Rural Worlds Lost: The American South, 1920-1960 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987), see especially pp. 239-43.
4. Thomas Monroe Campbell, The Movable School Goes to the Negro Farmer (1937; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1969), 84-86; Allen Jones, "Improving Life for Blacks: The Tuskegee Negro Farmer's Conference, 1892-1915," Agricultural History 65 (Spring 1992), 108, 112-13.
5. Thomas Monroe Campbell, The Movable School Goes to the Negro Farmer (1937; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1969), 84-86; Allen Jones, "Improving Life for Blacks: The Tuskegee Negro Farmer's Conference, 1892-1915," Agricultural History 65 (Spring 1992), 108, 112-13.
6. Earl W. Crosby, "Limited Success Against Long Odds: The Black County Agent," Agricultural History 57 (July 1983): 281; O. B. Martin, "A Decade of Negro Agricultural Extension Work: 1914-1924," USDA, Miscellaneous Circular 72, 1926, 2; Campbell, Movable School, 147; W. B. Mercier, "Extension Work Among Negroes, 1920," USDA, Circular 190, 1921, 10.
7. Earl W. Crosby, "Limited Success Against Long Odds: The Black County Agent," Agricultural History 57 (July 1983): 281; O. B. Martin, "A Decade of Negro Agricultural Extension Work: 1914-1924," USDA, Miscellaneous Circular 72, 1926, 2; Campbell, Movable School, 147; W. B. Mercier, "Extension Work Among Negroes, 1920," USDA, Circular 190, 1921, 10.
8. Earl W. Crosby, "Limited Success Against Long Odds: The Black County Agent," Agricultural History 57 (July 1983): 281; O. B. Martin, "A Decade of Negro Agricultural Extension Work: 1914-1924," USDA, Miscellaneous Circular 72, 1926, 2; Campbell, Movable School, 147; W. B. Mercier, "Extension Work Among Negroes, 1920," USDA, Circular 190, 1921, 10.
9. Earl W. Crosby, "Limited Success Against Long Odds: The Black County Agent," Agricultural History 57 (July 1983): 281; O. B. Martin, "A Decade of Negro Agricultural Extension Work: 1914-1924," USDA, Miscellaneous Circular 72, 1926, 2; Campbell, Movable School, 147; W. B. Mercier, "Extension Work Among Negroes, 1920," USDA, Circular 190, 1921, 10.
10. USDA, Annual Narrative and Statistical Reports of the Cooperative Agricultural Extension Demonstration Program, Arkansas, Microfilm Publication T848, "Miss. Co.," 1925, Mary J. McCain, RG 15, National Archives, Washington D.C. (hereafter T848, report title, year, author, and reel number); Pete Daniel, Breaking the Land: The Transformation of Cotton, Tobacco and Rice Cultures Since 1880 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985), 12; Crosby, "Limited Success," 282; Kevin K. Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), xiv, 40-41.
11. USDA, Annual Narrative and Statistical Reports of the Cooperative Agricultural Extension Demonstration Program, Arkansas, Microfilm Publication T848, "Miss. Co.," 1925, Mary J. McCain, RG 15, National Archives, Washington D.C. (hereafter T848, report title, year, author, and reel number); Pete Daniel, Breaking the Land: The Transformation of Cotton, Tobacco and Rice Cultures Since 1880 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985), 12; Crosby, "Limited Success," 282; Kevin K. Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), xiv, 40-41.
12. USDA, Annual Narrative and Statistical Reports of the Cooperative Agricultural Extension Demonstration Program, Arkansas, Microfilm Publication T848, "Miss. Co.," 1925, Mary J. McCain, RG 15, National Archives, Washington D.C. (hereafter T848, report title, year, author, and reel number); Pete Daniel, Breaking the Land: The Transformation of Cotton, Tobacco and Rice Cultures Since 1880 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985), 12; Crosby, "Limited Success," 282; Kevin K. Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), xiv, 40-41.
13. USDA, Annual Narrative and Statistical Reports of the Cooperative Agricultural Extension Demonstration Program, Arkansas, Microfilm Publication T848, "Miss. Co.," 1925, Mary J. McCain, RG 15, National Archives, Washington D.C. (hereafter T848, report title, year, author, and reel number); Pete Daniel, Breaking the Land: The Transformation of Cotton, Tobacco and Rice Cultures Since 1880 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985), 12; Crosby, "Limited Success," 282; Kevin K. Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), xiv, 40-41.
14. Crosby, "The Struggle for Existence: The Institutionalization of the Black County Agent System," Agricultural History 60 (Spring 1986): 123-24.
15. T848, "District, Negro," 1935, Ray, R. 40.
16. Frank Lincoln Mather, ed., Who's Who of the Colored Race, 1915 (1915; reprint, Detroit: Gale Research, 1976), 227; Arkansas Gazette, 26 April 1965, 6B: 3. Thanks to Dr. Todd Lewis for locating Ray's obituary citation at the Arkansas Historical Commission Archives in Little Rock. James G. Fleming and Christian E. Burckell, eds., Who's Who in Colored America, 7th ed. (New York: Christian E. Burckell, 1950), 430; T848, "District, Negro," 1935, Ray, R. 40.
17. Frank Lincoln Mather, ed., Who's Who of the Colored Race, 1915 (1915; reprint, Detroit: Gale Research, 1976), 227; Arkansas Gazette, 26 April 1965, 6B: 3. Thanks to Dr. Todd Lewis for locating Ray's obituary citation at the Arkansas Historical Commission Archives in Little Rock. James G. Fleming and Christian E. Burckell, eds., Who's Who in Colored America, 7th ed. (New York: Christian E. Burckell, 1950), 430; T848, "District, Negro," 1935, Ray, R. 40.
18. Frank Lincoln Mather, ed., Who's Who of the Colored Race, 1915 (1915; reprint, Detroit: Gale Research, 1976), 227; Arkansas Gazette, 26 April 1965, 6B: 3. Thanks to Dr. Todd Lewis for locating Ray's obituary citation at the Arkansas Historical Commission Archives in Little Rock. James G. Fleming and Christian E. Burckell, eds., Who's Who in Colored America, 7th ed. (New York: Christian E. Burckell, 1950), 430; T848, "District, Negro," 1935, Ray, R. 40.
19. Frank Lincoln Mather, ed., Who's Who of the Colored Race, 1915 (1915; reprint, Detroit: Gale Research, 1976), 227; Arkansas Gazette, 26 April 1965, 6B: 3. Thanks to Dr. Todd Lewis for locating Ray's obituary citation at the Arkansas Historical Commission Archives in Little Rock. James G. Fleming and Christian E. Burckell, eds., Who's Who in Colored America, 7th ed. (New York: Christian E. Burckell, 1950), 430; T848, "District, Negro," 1935, Ray, R. 40.
20. T848, "District, Negro," 1935, Ray, R. 40; "Historical," folder 6, box 7, University of Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service Records, 1914-1988, Special Collections, University of Arkansas Mullins Library, Fayetteville (hereafter Records, box number); T848, "Pulaski Co., Negro," 1915, Ray, R. 1; T848, "Director's Report," 1915, C. W. Watson, R. 1.
21. T848, "District, Negro," 1935, Ray, R. 40; "Historical," folder 6, box 7, University of Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service Records, 1914-1988, Special Collections, University of Arkansas Mullins Library, Fayetteville (hereafter Records, box number); T848, "Pulaski Co., Negro," 1915, Ray, R. 1; T848, "Director's Report," 1915, C. W. Watson, R. 1.
22. T848, "District, Negro," 1935, Ray, R. 40; "Historical," folder 6, box 7, University of Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service Records, 1914-1988, Special Collections, University of Arkansas Mullins Library, Fayetteville (hereafter Records, box number); T848, "Pulaski Co., Negro," 1915, Ray, R. 1; T848, "Director's Report," 1915, C. W. Watson, R. 1.
23. T848, "District, Negro," 1935, Ray, R. 40; "Historical," folder 6, box 7, University of Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service Records, 1914-1988, Special Collections, University of Arkansas Mullins Library, Fayetteville (hereafter Records, box number); T848, "Pulaski Co., Negro," 1915, Ray, R. 1; T848, "Director's Report," 1915, C. W. Watson, R. 1.
24. T848, "Director's Report," 1915, C. W. Watson, R. 1.
25. Todd E. Lewis, "Mob Justice in the American Congo: Judge Lynch in Arkansas During the Decade After WW I," Arkansas Historical Quarterly 52 (Summer 1993): 156-57, 162-65; Forrest City Times-Herald, 21 April 1923, 1; (Oklahoma City, Okla.) Black Dispatch, 16 June 1927, 3.
26. Todd E. Lewis, "Mob Justice in the American Congo: Judge Lynch in Arkansas During the Decade After WW I," Arkansas Historical Quarterly 52 (Summer 1993): 156-57, 162-65; Forrest City Times-Herald, 21 April 1923, 1; (Oklahoma City, Okla.) Black Dispatch, 16 June 1927, 3.
27. Todd E. Lewis, "Mob Justice in the American Congo: Judge Lynch in Arkansas During the Decade After WW I," Arkansas Historical Quarterly 52 (Summer 1993): 156-57, 162-65; Forrest City Times-Herald, 21 April 1923, 1; (Oklahoma City, Okla.) Black Dispatch, 16 June 1927, 3.
28. T. R. Betton, "A Brief History of Agricultural Extension Among Negroes in Arkansas" (n.p.: 1962), 1-3, in Records, folder 3, box 8, "Negro."
29. Betton, "Brief History," 3; T848, "District, Negro," 1917, Ray, R. 1; "District, Negro," 1918, Ray, R. 2; "District, Negro," 1920, Ray, R. 4.
30. Betton, "Brief History," 3; T848, "District, Negro," 1917, Ray, R. 1; "District, Negro," 1918, Ray, R. 2; "District, Negro," 1920, Ray, R. 4.
31. Betton, "Brief History," 3; T848, "District, Negro," 1917, Ray, R. 1; "District, Negro," 1918, Ray, R. 2; "District, Negro," 1920, Ray, R. 4.
32. Betton, "Brief History," 3; T848, "District, Negro," 1917, Ray, R. 1; "District, Negro," 1918, Ray, R. 2; "District, Negro," 1920, Ray, R. 4.
33. T848, "District, Negro," 1920, Ray, R. 4.
34. T848, "District, Negro," 1920, Ray, R. 4; "Director's Report," 1920, M. T. Payne, R. 4; Campbell, The Movable School, 84-86; Crosby, "Limited Success," 277.
35. T848, "District, Negro," 1920, Ray, R. 4; "Director's Report," 1920, M. T. Payne, R. 4; Campbell, The Movable School, 84-86; Crosby, "Limited Success," 277.
36. T848, "District, Negro," 1920, Ray, R. 4; "Director's Report," 1920, M. T. Payne, R. 4; Campbell, The Movable School, 84-86; Crosby, "Limited Success," 277.
37. T848, "District, Negro," 1920, Ray, R. 4; "Director's Report," 1920, M. T. Payne, R. 4; Campbell, The Movable School, 84-86; Crosby, "Limited Success," 277.
38. T848, "District, Negro," 1921, Ray, R. 6.
39. T848, "District, Negro," 1926, Ray, R. 16; "Director's Report," 1929, T. Roy Reid, R. 24. For an incisive look at the development of the segregated Extension Service program in Arkansas in the post-World War II era and how its emphasis on the live-at-home strategy failed to prepare black farmers for the move into commercial agriculture, see Jeannie M. Whayne, "The Segregated Farm Program in Poinsett County, Arkansas," Mississippi Quarterly 45 (1992): 421-38. Whayne's A New Plantation South: Land, Labor and Federal Favor in Twentieth Century Arkansas (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1996) treats the evolution of the plantation system in Arkansas from the post-Civil War period through the 1970s.
40. T848, "District, Negro," 1926, Ray, R. 16; "Director's Report," 1929, T. Roy Reid, R. 24. For an incisive look at the development of the segregated Extension Service program in Arkansas in the post-World War II era and how its emphasis on the live-at-home strategy failed to prepare black farmers for the move into commercial agriculture, see Jeannie M. Whayne, "The Segregated Farm Program in Poinsett County, Arkansas," Mississippi Quarterly 45 (1992): 421-38. Whayne's A New Plantation South: Land, Labor and Federal Favor in Twentieth Century Arkansas (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1996) treats the evolution of the plantation system in Arkansas from the post-Civil War period through the 1970s.
41. T848, "District, Negro," 1926, Ray, R. 16; "Director's Report," 1929, T. Roy Reid, R. 24. For an incisive look at the development of the segregated Extension Service program in Arkansas in the post-World War II era and how its emphasis on the live-at-home strategy failed to prepare black farmers for the move into commercial agriculture, see Jeannie M. Whayne, "The Segregated Farm Program in Poinsett County, Arkansas," Mississippi Quarterly 45 (1992): 421-38. Whayne's A New Plantation South: Land, Labor and Federal Favor in Twentieth Century Arkansas (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1996) treats the evolution of the plantation system in Arkansas from the post-Civil War period through the 1970s.
42. T848, "District, Negro," 1926, Ray, R. 16; "Director's Report," 1929, T. Roy Reid, R. 24. For an incisive look at the development of the segregated Extension Service program in Arkansas in the post-World War II era and how its emphasis on the live-at-home strategy failed to prepare black farmers for the move into commercial agriculture, see Jeannie M. Whayne, "The Segregated Farm Program in Poinsett County, Arkansas," Mississippi Quarterly 45 (1992): 421-38. Whayne's A New Plantation South: Land, Labor and Federal Favor in Twentieth Century Arkansas (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1996) treats the evolution of the plantation system in Arkansas from the post-Civil War period through the 1970s.
43. Historical Appraisals, Ashley and Conway Cos., Records, box 3; C. A. Vines, interview by Jeannie Whayne, Little Rock, Ark., 16 March 1996; T848, "Ashley Co.," 1920, T. D. Spears; "Drew Co.," William Harris; "Colombia Co.," Carl H. Ellis; "District, Negro," Ray, all 1920, R. 4; White agents reports from Ashley, Conway, Columbia, Drew, Faulkner, Lee, Phillips, Pulaski, and St. Francis Counties, 1920, Rs. 4 and 5.
44. Historical Appraisals, Ashley and Conway Cos., Records, box 3; C. A. Vines, interview by Jeannie Whayne, Little Rock, Ark., 16 March 1996; T848, "Ashley Co.," 1920, T. D. Spears; "Drew Co.," William Harris; "Colombia Co.," Carl H. Ellis; "District, Negro," Ray, all 1920, R. 4; White agents reports from Ashley, Conway, Columbia, Drew, Faulkner, Lee, Phillips, Pulaski, and St. Francis Counties, 1920, Rs. 4 and 5.
45. Historical Appraisals, Ashley and Conway Cos., Records, box 3; C. A. Vines, interview by Jeannie Whayne, Little Rock, Ark., 16 March 1996; T848, "Ashley Co.," 1920, T. D. Spears; "Drew Co.," William Harris; "Colombia Co.," Carl H. Ellis; "District, Negro," Ray, all 1920, R. 4; White agents reports from Ashley, Conway, Columbia, Drew, Faulkner, Lee, Phillips, Pulaski, and St. Francis Counties, 1920, Rs. 4 and 5.
46. Historical Appraisals, Ashley and Conway Cos., Records, box 3; C. A. Vines, interview by Jeannie Whayne, Little Rock, Ark., 16 March 1996; T848, "Ashley Co.," 1920, T. D. Spears; "Drew Co.," William Harris; "Colombia Co.," Carl H. Ellis; "District, Negro," Ray, all 1920, R. 4; White agents reports from Ashley, Conway, Columbia, Drew, Faulkner, Lee, Phillips, Pulaski, and St. Francis Counties, 1920, Rs. 4 and 5.
47. Historical Appraisals, Ashley and Conway Cos., Records, box 3; C. A. Vines, interview by Jeannie Whayne, Little Rock, Ark., 16 March 1996; T848, "Ashley Co.," 1920, T. D. Spears; "Drew Co.," William Harris; "Colombia Co.," Carl H. Ellis; "District, Negro," Ray, all 1920, R. 4; White agents reports from Ashley, Conway, Columbia, Drew, Faulkner, Lee, Phillips, Pulaski, and St. Francis Counties, 1920, Rs. 4 and 5.
48. Historical Appraisals, Ashley and Conway Cos., Records, box 3; C. A. Vines, interview by Jeannie Whayne, Little Rock, Ark., 16 March 1996; T848, "Ashley Co.," 1920, T. D. Spears; "Drew Co.," William Harris; "Colombia Co.," Carl H. Ellis; "District, Negro," Ray, all 1920, R. 4; White agents reports from Ashley, Conway, Columbia, Drew, Faulkner, Lee, Phillips, Pulaski, and St. Francis Counties, 1920, Rs. 4 and 5.
49. Historical Appraisals, Ashley and Conway Cos., Records, box 3; C. A. Vines, interview by Jeannie Whayne, Little Rock, Ark., 16 March 1996; T848, "Ashley Co.," 1920, T. D. Spears; "Drew Co.," William Harris; "Colombia Co.," Carl H. Ellis; "District, Negro," Ray, all 1920, R. 4; White agents reports from Ashley, Conway, Columbia, Drew, Faulkner, Lee, Phillips, Pulaski, and St. Francis Counties, 1920, Rs. 4 and 5.
50. T848, "Lee Co.," 1920, J. D. Spears, R. 4; "Chicot Co.," 1921, J. D. Spears, R. 6; "Columbia Co.," 1920, Carl H. Ellis, R. 4; "Faulkner Co.," 1920, E. T. Mattison, R. 4; "Phillips Co.," 1922, William Harris, R. 9.
51. T848, "Lee Co.," 1920, J. D. Spears, R. 4; "Chicot Co.," 1921, J. D. Spears, R. 6; "Columbia Co.," 1920, Carl H. Ellis, R. 4; "Faulkner Co.," 1920, E. T. Mattison, R. 4; "Phillips Co.," 1922, William Harris, R. 9.
52. T848, "Lee Co.," 1920, J. D. Spears, R. 4; "Chicot Co.," 1921, J. D. Spears, R. 6; "Columbia Co.," 1920, Carl H. Ellis, R. 4; "Faulkner Co.," 1920, E. T. Mattison, R. 4; "Phillips Co.," 1922, William Harris, R. 9.
53. T848, "Lee Co.," 1920, J. D. Spears, R. 4; "Chicot Co.," 1921, J. D. Spears, R. 6; "Columbia Co.," 1920, Carl H. Ellis, R. 4; "Faulkner Co.," 1920, E. T. Mattison, R. 4; "Phillips Co.," 1922, William Harris, R. 9.
54. T848, "Lee Co.," 1920, J. D. Spears, R. 4; "Chicot Co.," 1921, J. D. Spears, R. 6; "Columbia Co.," 1920, Carl H. Ellis, R. 4; "Faulkner Co.," 1920, E. T. Mattison, R. 4; "Phillips Co.," 1922, William Harris, R. 9.
55. T848, "Ashley Co.," 1920, J. D. Spears, R. 4; "Lee Co.," 1924, R. E. Bryant, R. 12; "Pulaski Co.," 1920, J. M. Harris, R. 6; "Pope Co.," 1923, A. M. Mason, R. 12.
56. T848, "Ashley Co.," 1920, J. D. Spears, R. 4; "Lee Co.," 1924, R. E. Bryant, R. 12; "Pulaski Co.," 1920, J. M. Harris, R. 6; "Pope Co.," 1923, A. M. Mason, R. 12.
57. T848, "Ashley Co.," 1920, J. D. Spears, R. 4; "Lee Co.," 1924, R. E. Bryant, R. 12; "Pulaski Co.," 1920, J. M. Harris, R. 6; "Pope Co.," 1923, A. M. Mason, R. 12.
58. T848, "Ashley Co.," 1920, J. D. Spears, R. 4; "Lee Co.," 1924, R. E. Bryant, R. 12; "Pulaski Co.," 1920, J. M. Harris, R. 6; "Pope Co.," 1923, A. M. Mason, R. 12.
59. Campbell, Movable School, 88; T848, "District, Negro," 1921, Ray, R. 6.
60. Campbell, Movable School, 88; T848, "District, Negro," 1921, Ray, R. 6.
61. T848, "St. Francis Co.," 1920, H. B. Mitchell, R. 6; Census Bureau, Negro Farmer, 39; T848, "Chicot Co.," 1921, J. D. Spears, R. 7; "Mississippi Co.," 1923, C. C. Haraway, R. 13; "Chicot Co.," H. P. Wood, R. 4; "Lincoln Co.," 1921, W. A. Tussel, R. 7.
62. T848, "St. Francis Co.," 1920, H. B. Mitchell, R. 6; Census Bureau, Negro Farmer, 39; T848, "Chicot Co.," 1921, J. D. Spears, R. 7; "Mississippi Co.," 1923, C. C. Haraway, R. 13; "Chicot Co.," H. P. Wood, R. 4; "Lincoln Co.," 1921, W. A. Tussel, R. 7.
63. T848, "St. Francis Co.," 1920, H. B. Mitchell, R. 6; Census Bureau, Negro Farmer, 39; T848, "Chicot Co.," 1921, J. D. Spears, R. 7; "Mississippi Co.," 1923, C. C. Haraway, R. 13; "Chicot Co.," H. P. Wood, R. 4; "Lincoln Co.," 1921, W. A. Tussel, R. 7.
64. T848, "St. Francis Co.," 1920, H. B. Mitchell, R. 6; Census Bureau, Negro Farmer, 39; T848, "Chicot Co.," 1921, J. D. Spears, R. 7; "Mississippi Co.," 1923, C. C. Haraway, R. 13; "Chicot Co.," H. P. Wood, R. 4; "Lincoln Co.," 1921, W. A. Tussel, R. 7.
65. T848, "St. Francis Co.," 1920, H. B. Mitchell, R. 6; Census Bureau, Negro Farmer, 39; T848, "Chicot Co.," 1921, J. D. Spears, R. 7; "Mississippi Co.," 1923, C. C. Haraway, R. 13; "Chicot Co.," H. P. Wood, R. 4; "Lincoln Co.," 1921, W. A. Tussel, R. 7.
66. T848, "St. Francis Co.," 1920, H. B. Mitchell, R. 6; Census Bureau, Negro Farmer, 39; T848, "Chicot Co.," 1921, J. D. Spears, R. 7; "Mississippi Co.," 1923, C. C. Haraway, R. 13; "Chicot Co.," H. P. Wood, R. 4; "Lincoln Co.," 1921, W. A. Tussel, R. 7.
67. T848, "District, Negro," 1920, Ray, R. 4; 1922, R. 7; 1923, R. 9; 1925, R. 14; 1927, R. 18; 1935, R. 40.
68. T848, "District, Negro," 1920, Ray, R. 4; 1922, R. 7; 1923, R. 9; 1925, R. 14; 1927, R. 18; 1935, R. 40.
69. T848, "District, Negro," 1920, Ray, R. 4; 1922, R. 7; 1923, R. 9; 1925, R. 14; 1927, R. 18; 1935, R. 40.
70. T848, "District, Negro," 1920, Ray, R. 4; 1922, R. 7; 1923, R. 9; 1925, R. 14; 1927, R. 18; 1935, R. 40.
71. T848, "District, Negro," 1920, Ray, R. 4; 1922, R. 7; 1923, R. 9; 1925, R. 14; 1927, R. 18; 1935, R. 40.
72. T848, "District, Negro," 1920, Ray, R. 4; 1922, R. 7; 1923, R. 9; 1925, R. 14; 1927, R. 18; 1935, R. 40.
73. As mentioned above, Pete Daniel provides a powerful indictment of the tactics used by white planters to keep the black labor force in the South in The Shadow of Slavery; T848, "Pope Co.," 1923, A. M. Mason, R. 11 ; "Lee Co.," 1924, R. E. Bryant, R. 15; "Pulaski Co.," 1923, James W. Vines, R. 11.
74. As mentioned above, Pete Daniel provides a powerful indictment of the tactics used by white planters to keep the black labor force in the South in The Shadow of Slavery; T848, "Pope Co.," 1923, A. M. Mason, R. 11 ; "Lee Co.," 1924, R. E. Bryant, R. 15; "Pulaski Co.," 1923, James W. Vines, R. 11.
75. As mentioned above, Pete Daniel provides a powerful indictment of the tactics used by white planters to keep the black labor force in the South in The Shadow of Slavery; T848, "Pope Co.," 1923, A. M. Mason, R. 11 ; "Lee Co.," 1924, R. E. Bryant, R. 15; "Pulaski Co.," 1923, James W. Vines, R. 11.
76. As mentioned above, Pete Daniel provides a powerful indictment of the tactics used by white planters to keep the black labor force in the South in The Shadow of Slavery; T848, "Pope Co.," 1923, A. M. Mason, R. 11 ; "Lee Co.," 1924, R. E. Bryant, R. 15; "Pulaski Co.," 1923, James W. Vines, R. 11.
77. T848, "Lee Co.," 1924, R. E. Bryant, R. 15; "Pulaski Co.," 1923, Vines, R. 11.
78. T848, "Lee Co.," 1924, R. E. Bryant, R. 15; "Pulaski Co.," 1923, Vines, R. 11.
79. Helena (Ark.) World, 26 February 1923, 3: 1; 31 May 1923, 1: 5; Campbell, Movable School, 150-51.
80. Helena (Ark.) World, 26 February 1923, 3: 1; 31 May 1923, 1: 5; Campbell, Movable School, 150-51.
81. Helena (Ark.) World, 26 February 1923, 3: 1; 31 May 1923, 1: 5; Campbell, Movable School, 150-51.
82. Allen W. Jones, "Thomas M. Campbell: Black Agricultural Leader of the New South," Agricultural History 53 (January 1979): 49.
83. Helena (Ark.) World, 11 November 1923, 5: 1-7 and 4: 2-5; (Marianna, Ark.) Courier Index, 26 April 1923, 1: 1.
84. Helena (Ark.) World, 11 November 1923, 5: 1-7 and 4: 2-5; (Marianna, Ark.) Courier Index, 26 April 1923, 1: 1.
85. Daniel, Breaking the Land, 11-12; Crosby, "Limited Success," 281; T848, "District, Negro," 1923, Ray, R. 10.
86. Daniel, Breaking the Land, 11-12; Crosby, "Limited Success," 281; T848, "District, Negro," 1923, Ray, R. 10.
87. Daniel, Breaking the Land, 11-12; Crosby, "Limited Success," 281; T848, "District, Negro," 1923, Ray, R. 10.
88. American National Red Cross, Mississippi River Valley Flood: 1927 (Washington, D.C.: American National Red Cross, 1928): 40; J. B. Watson, "After the Flood, What Then?" Southern Workman 56 (July 1927): 296-97; Black Dispatch, 23 June 1927, 1: 5, 8: 2-3.
89. American National Red Cross, Mississippi River Valley Flood: 1927 (Washington, D.C.: American National Red Cross, 1928): 40; J. B. Watson, "After the Flood, What Then?" Southern Workman 56 (July 1927): 296-97; Black Dispatch, 23 June 1927, 1: 5, 8: 2-3.
90. American National Red Cross, Mississippi River Valley Flood: 1927 (Washington, D.C.: American National Red Cross, 1928): 40; J. B. Watson, "After the Flood, What Then?" Southern Workman 56 (July 1927): 296-97; Black Dispatch, 23 June 1927, 1: 5, 8: 2-3.
91. Pete Daniel, Deep'n As It Come: The Mississippi River Flood (1977; reprint, Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1996), 194; The Shadow of Slavery, 161, 168.
92. Pete Daniel, Deep'n As It Come: The Mississippi River Flood (1977; reprint, Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1996), 194; The Shadow of Slavery, 161, 168.
93. Black Dispatch, 22 December 1927, 8: 2; T848, "District, Negro," 1927, Ray, R. 18; "Lee Co.," 1927, T. D. Spears, R. 20; "Mississippi Co.," 1927, C. C. Haraway, R. 20; "Phillips Co.," 1927, William Harris, R. 20; "St. Francis Co.," 1927, Eugenia B. Christmas, R. 21.
94. Black Dispatch, 22 December 1927, 8: 2; T848, "District, Negro," 1927, Ray, R. 18; "Lee Co.," 1927, T. D. Spears, R. 20; "Mississippi Co.," 1927, C. C. Haraway, R. 20; "Phillips Co.," 1927, William Harris, R. 20; "St. Francis Co.," 1927, Eugenia B. Christmas, R. 21.
95. Black Dispatch, 22 December 1927, 8: 2; T848, "District, Negro," 1927, Ray, R. 18; "Lee Co.," 1927, T. D. Spears, R. 20; "Mississippi Co.," 1927, C. C. Haraway, R. 20; "Phillips Co.," 1927, William Harris, R. 20; "St. Francis Co.," 1927, Eugenia B. Christmas, R. 21.
96. Black Dispatch, 22 December 1927, 8: 2; T848, "District, Negro," 1927, Ray, R. 18; "Lee Co.," 1927, T. D. Spears, R. 20; "Mississippi Co.," 1927, C. C. Haraway, R. 20; "Phillips Co.," 1927, William Harris, R. 20; "St. Francis Co.," 1927, Eugenia B. Christmas, R. 21.
97. Black Dispatch, 22 December 1927, 8: 2; T848, "District, Negro," 1927, Ray, R. 18; "Lee Co.," 1927, T. D. Spears, R. 20; "Mississippi Co.," 1927, C. C. Haraway, R. 20; "Phillips Co.," 1927, William Harris, R. 20; "St. Francis Co.," 1927, Eugenia B. Christmas, R. 21.
98. Black Dispatch, 22 December 1927, 8: 2; T848, "District, Negro," 1927, Ray, R. 18; "Lee Co.," 1927, T. D. Spears, R. 20; "Mississippi Co.," 1927, C. C. Haraway, R. 20; "Phillips Co.," 1927, William Harris, R. 20; "St. Francis Co.," 1927, Eugenia B. Christmas, R. 21.
99. American National Red Cross, The Final Report of the Colored Advisory Commission: Mississippi Valley Flood Disaster, 1927 (Washington, D.C.: American National Red Cross, 1929), 31-32; T848, "District, Negro" and "Flood Relief Work," 1927, Ray, R. 18.
100. American National Red Cross, The Final Report of the Colored Advisory Commission: Mississippi Valley Flood Disaster, 1927 (Washington, D.C.: American National Red Cross, 1929), 31-32; T848, "District, Negro" and "Flood Relief Work," 1927, Ray, R. 18.
101. T848, "District, Negro, Flood Relief Work," 1927, Ray, R. 18; Daniel, Deep'n As It Come, 194-95.
102. T848, "District, Negro, Flood Relief Work," 1927, Ray, R. 18; Daniel, Deep'n As It Come, 194-95.
103. T848, "Phillips Co.," 1927, William Harris, R. 20; "Lee Co.," T. D. Spears, R. 20; "Mississippi Co.," 1927, C. C. Haraway, R. 20; "St. Francis Co.," 1927, Eugenia B. Christmas, R. 21; Arkansas Gazette, 24 July 1927, 20: 7-8.
104. T848, "Phillips Co.," 1927, William Harris, R. 20; "Lee Co.," T. D. Spears, R. 20; "Mississippi Co.," 1927, C. C. Haraway, R. 20; "St. Francis Co.," 1927, Eugenia B. Christmas, R. 21; Arkansas Gazette, 24 July 1927, 20: 7-8.
105. T848, "Phillips Co.," 1927, William Harris, R. 20; "Lee Co.," T. D. Spears, R. 20; "Mississippi Co.," 1927, C. C. Haraway, R. 20; "St. Francis Co.," 1927, Eugenia B. Christmas, R. 21; Arkansas Gazette, 24 July 1927, 20: 7-8.
106. T848, "Phillips Co.," 1927, William Harris, R. 20; "Lee Co.," T. D. Spears, R. 20; "Mississippi Co.," 1927, C. C. Haraway, R. 20; "St. Francis Co.," 1927, Eugenia B. Christmas, R. 21; Arkansas Gazette, 24 July 1927, 20: 7-8.
107. T848, "Phillips Co.," 1927, William Harris, R. 20; "Lee Co.," T. D. Spears, R. 20; "Mississippi Co.," 1927, C. C. Haraway, R. 20; "St. Francis Co.," 1927, Eugenia B. Christmas, R. 21; Arkansas Gazette, 24 July 1927, 20: 7-8.
108. Black Dispatch, 22 December 1927, 8: 2; Black Dispatch, 12 January 1928, 1: 5; American National Red Cross, Final Report, 26; Crosby, "Limited Success," 277; Daniel, Deep'n As It Come, 194-95.
109. Black Dispatch, 22 December 1927, 8: 2; Black Dispatch, 12 January 1928, 1: 5; American National Red Cross, Final Report, 26; Crosby, "Limited Success," 277; Daniel, Deep'n As It Come, 194-95.
110. Black Dispatch, 22 December 1927, 8: 2; Black Dispatch, 12 January 1928, 1: 5; American National Red Cross, Final Report, 26; Crosby, "Limited Success," 277; Daniel, Deep'n As It Come, 194-95.
111. Black Dispatch, 22 December 1927, 8: 2; Black Dispatch, 12 January 1928, 1: 5; American National Red Cross, Final Report, 26; Crosby, "Limited Success," 277; Daniel, Deep'n As It Come, 194-95.
112. Black Dispatch, 22 December 1927, 8: 2; Black Dispatch, 12 January 1928, 1: 5; American National Red Cross, Final Report, 26; Crosby, "Limited Success," 277; Daniel, Deep'n As It Come, 194-95.
113. T848, "District, Negro," 1925, Ray, R. 15; 1928, R. 21.
114. T848, "District, Negro," 1925, Ray, R. 15; 1928, R. 21.
115. T848, "District, Negro," 1925, Ray, R. 15, 1928, R. 21; Crosby, "Roots," 236.
116. T848, "District, Negro," 1925, Ray, R. 15, 1928, R. 21; Crosby, "Roots," 236.
117. T848, "District, Negro," 1925, Ray, R. 15, 1928, R. 21; Crosby, "Roots," 236.
118. T848, "Movable School," 1929, R. 24; "Movable School," 1929, C. C. Haraway and Jennie Lou Woodward, R. 24; "District, Negro," 1920, Ray, R. 4.
119. T848, "Movable School," 1929, R. 24; "Movable School," 1929, C. C. Haraway and Jennie Lou Woodward, R. 24; "District, Negro," 1920, Ray, R. 4.
120. T848, "Movable School," 1929, R. 24; "Movable School," 1929, C. C. Haraway and Jennie Lou Woodward, R. 24; "District, Negro," 1920, Ray, R. 4.
121. T848, "Jefferson Co.," 1929, Albert Walthall, R. 25; T848, "District, Negro," 1935, Ray, R. 40.
122. T848, "Jefferson Co.," 1929, Albert Walthall, R. 25; T848, "District, Negro," 1935, Ray, R. 40.
123. I am indebted to Earl W. Crosby and Allen W. Jones for the insights contained throughout their work previously cited; Census Bureau, "Negro Farmer," 25, 39.
124. Crosby, "Limited Success," 277.