China's military in transition: Politics, professionalism, procurement and power projection

China Quarterly

Volumn , Issue 146, 1996, Pages 265-298

  Shambaugh, David ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0346914993     PISSN: 03057410     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0305741000045033     Document Type: Article

References (209)

1. See, for example, Nicholas Kristof, "The real Chinese threat," New York Times, 27 August 1995; Stephen Strassner, "Armed to the teeth," Newsweek, 12 July 1995; Nayan Chanda et al., "Fear of the dragon," Far Eastern Economic Review, 13 April 1995; Barry Wain, "China tones up its military muscle," Asian Wall Street Journal, 18 February 1995; William C. Triplett, "Inside China's scary new military industrial complex," Washington Post, 8 May 1994; James Walsh, "A leaner, meaner fighting machine," Time, 10 May 1993; Jim Mann and David Holley, "China builds military: neighbors, U.S. uneasy," Los Angeles Times, 13 September 1992.
2. See, for example, Nicholas Kristof, "The real Chinese threat," New York Times, 27 August 1995; Stephen Strassner, "Armed to the teeth," Newsweek, 12 July 1995; Nayan Chanda et al., "Fear of the dragon," Far Eastern Economic Review, 13 April 1995; Barry Wain, "China tones up its military muscle," Asian Wall Street Journal, 18 February 1995; William C. Triplett, "Inside China's scary new military industrial complex," Washington Post, 8 May 1994; James Walsh, "A leaner, meaner fighting machine," Time, 10 May 1993; Jim Mann and David Holley, "China builds military: neighbors, U.S. uneasy," Los Angeles Times, 13 September 1992.
3. See, for example, Nicholas Kristof, "The real Chinese threat," New York Times, 27 August 1995; Stephen Strassner, "Armed to the teeth," Newsweek, 12 July 1995; Nayan Chanda et al., "Fear of the dragon," Far Eastern Economic Review, 13 April 1995; Barry Wain, "China tones up its military muscle," Asian Wall Street Journal, 18 February 1995; William C. Triplett, "Inside China's scary new military industrial complex," Washington Post, 8 May 1994; James Walsh, "A leaner, meaner fighting machine," Time, 10 May 1993; Jim Mann and David Holley, "China builds military: neighbors, U.S. uneasy," Los Angeles Times, 13 September 1992.
4. See, for example, Nicholas Kristof, "The real Chinese threat," New York Times, 27 August 1995; Stephen Strassner, "Armed to the teeth," Newsweek, 12 July 1995; Nayan Chanda et al., "Fear of the dragon," Far Eastern Economic Review, 13 April 1995; Barry Wain, "China tones up its military muscle," Asian Wall Street Journal, 18 February 1995; William C. Triplett, "Inside China's scary new military industrial complex," Washington Post, 8 May 1994; James Walsh, "A leaner, meaner fighting machine," Time, 10 May 1993; Jim Mann and David Holley, "China builds military: neighbors, U.S. uneasy," Los Angeles Times, 13 September 1992.
5. See, for example, Nicholas Kristof, "The real Chinese threat," New York Times, 27 August 1995; Stephen Strassner, "Armed to the teeth," Newsweek, 12 July 1995; Nayan Chanda et al., "Fear of the dragon," Far Eastern Economic Review, 13 April 1995; Barry Wain, "China tones up its military muscle," Asian Wall Street Journal, 18 February 1995; William C. Triplett, "Inside China's scary new military industrial complex," Washington Post, 8 May 1994; James Walsh, "A leaner, meaner fighting machine," Time, 10 May 1993; Jim Mann and David Holley, "China builds military: neighbors, U.S. uneasy," Los Angeles Times, 13 September 1992.
6. See, for example, Nicholas Kristof, "The real Chinese threat," New York Times, 27 August 1995; Stephen Strassner, "Armed to the teeth," Newsweek, 12 July 1995; Nayan Chanda et al., "Fear of the dragon," Far Eastern Economic Review, 13 April 1995; Barry Wain, "China tones up its military muscle," Asian Wall Street Journal, 18 February 1995; William C. Triplett, "Inside China's scary new military industrial complex," Washington Post, 8 May 1994; James Walsh, "A leaner, meaner fighting machine," Time, 10 May 1993; Jim Mann and David Holley, "China builds military: neighbors, U.S. uneasy," Los Angeles Times, 13 September 1992.
7. See, for example, Nicholas Kristof, "The real Chinese threat," New York Times, 27 August 1995; Stephen Strassner, "Armed to the teeth," Newsweek, 12 July 1995; Nayan Chanda et al., "Fear of the dragon," Far Eastern Economic Review, 13 April 1995; Barry Wain, "China tones up its military muscle," Asian Wall Street Journal, 18 February 1995; William C. Triplett, "Inside China's scary new military industrial complex," Washington Post, 8 May 1994; James Walsh, "A leaner, meaner fighting machine," Time, 10 May 1993; Jim Mann and David Holley, "China builds military: neighbors, U.S. uneasy," Los Angeles Times, 13 September 1992.
8. See, for example, Denny Roy, "Hegemon on the horizon? China's threat to East Asian security," International Security (Summer 1994), pp. 149-168; David Shambaugh, "Growing strong: China's challenge to Asian security," Survival (Summer 1994), pp. 43-59; Chong Pin-Lin, "The stealthy advance of China's People's Liberation Army," The American Enterprise (January-February 1994), pp. 29-35; Chong Pin-Lin, "China's military modernization: perceptions, progress, prospects," Security Studies (Summer, 1994), pp. 718-753; P. Singh, "Concern at the Chinese buildup," Asian Defense Journal (February 1993), p. 88; Lloyd R. Vasey, China's Growing Military Power and Implications for East Asia (Honolulu: Pacific Forum CSIS, 1993).
9. See, for example, Denny Roy, "Hegemon on the horizon? China's threat to East Asian security," International Security (Summer 1994), pp. 149-168; David Shambaugh, "Growing strong: China's challenge to Asian security," Survival (Summer 1994), pp. 43-59; Chong Pin-Lin, "The stealthy advance of China's People's Liberation Army," The American Enterprise (January-February 1994), pp. 29-35; Chong Pin-Lin, "China's military modernization: perceptions, progress, prospects," Security Studies (Summer, 1994), pp. 718-753; P. Singh, "Concern at the Chinese buildup," Asian Defense Journal (February 1993), p. 88; Lloyd R. Vasey, China's Growing Military Power and Implications for East Asia (Honolulu: Pacific Forum CSIS, 1993).
10. See, for example, Denny Roy, "Hegemon on the horizon? China's threat to East Asian security," International Security (Summer 1994), pp. 149-168; David Shambaugh, "Growing strong: China's challenge to Asian security," Survival (Summer 1994), pp. 43-59; Chong Pin-Lin, "The stealthy advance of China's People's Liberation Army," The American Enterprise (January-February 1994), pp. 29-35; Chong Pin-Lin, "China's military modernization: perceptions, progress, prospects," Security Studies (Summer, 1994), pp. 718-753; P. Singh, "Concern at the Chinese buildup," Asian Defense Journal (February 1993), p. 88; Lloyd R. Vasey, China's Growing Military Power and Implications for East Asia (Honolulu: Pacific Forum CSIS, 1993).
11. See, for example, Denny Roy, "Hegemon on the horizon? China's threat to East Asian security," International Security (Summer 1994), pp. 149-168; David Shambaugh, "Growing strong: China's challenge to Asian security," Survival (Summer 1994), pp. 43-59; Chong Pin-Lin, "The stealthy advance of China's People's Liberation Army," The American Enterprise (January-February 1994), pp. 29-35; Chong Pin-Lin, "China's military modernization: perceptions, progress, prospects," Security Studies (Summer, 1994), pp. 718-753; P. Singh, "Concern at the Chinese buildup," Asian Defense Journal (February 1993), p. 88; Lloyd R. Vasey, China's Growing Military Power and Implications for East Asia (Honolulu: Pacific Forum CSIS, 1993).
12. See, for example, Denny Roy, "Hegemon on the horizon? China's threat to East Asian security," International Security (Summer 1994), pp. 149-168; David Shambaugh, "Growing strong: China's challenge to Asian security," Survival (Summer 1994), pp. 43-59; Chong Pin-Lin, "The stealthy advance of China's People's Liberation Army," The American Enterprise (January-February 1994), pp. 29-35; Chong Pin-Lin, "China's military modernization: perceptions, progress, prospects," Security Studies (Summer, 1994), pp. 718-753; P. Singh, "Concern at the Chinese buildup," Asian Defense Journal (February 1993), p. 88; Lloyd R. Vasey, China's Growing Military Power and Implications for East Asia (Honolulu: Pacific Forum CSIS, 1993).
13. See, for example, Denny Roy, "Hegemon on the horizon? China's threat to East Asian security," International Security (Summer 1994), pp. 149-168; David Shambaugh, "Growing strong: China's challenge to Asian security," Survival (Summer 1994), pp. 43-59; Chong Pin-Lin, "The stealthy advance of China's People's Liberation Army," The American Enterprise (January-February 1994), pp. 29-35; Chong Pin-Lin, "China's military modernization: perceptions, progress, prospects," Security Studies (Summer, 1994), pp. 718-753; P. Singh, "Concern at the Chinese buildup," Asian Defense Journal (February 1993), p. 88; Lloyd R. Vasey, China's Growing Military Power and Implications for East Asia (Honolulu: Pacific Forum CSIS, 1993).
14. See, for example, John Caldwell, China's Conventional Military Capabilities, 1994-2004: An Assessment (Washington, D.C.: CSIS, 1994); Alfred D. Wilhelm, Jr. and Paul H.B. Godwin, Assessing China's Military Potential: The Importance of Transparency (Washington, D.C.: Atlantic Council, 1995); Paul H.B. Godwin and John J. Schulz, "Arming the dragon for the 21st century: China's defense modernization program," Arms Control Today (December 1993), pp. 3-9; Robert Sutter, China's Rising Military Power and Influence: Issues and Options for the U.S. (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, 1996); and Michael D. Swaine, The Modernization of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (Seattle: National Bureau of Asian Research, 1994).
15. See, for example, John Caldwell, China's Conventional Military Capabilities, 1994-2004: An Assessment (Washington, D.C.: CSIS, 1994); Alfred D. Wilhelm, Jr. and Paul H.B. Godwin, Assessing China's Military Potential: The Importance of Transparency (Washington, D.C.: Atlantic Council, 1995); Paul H.B. Godwin and John J. Schulz, "Arming the dragon for the 21st century: China's defense modernization program," Arms Control Today (December 1993), pp. 3-9; Robert Sutter, China's Rising Military Power and Influence: Issues and Options for the U.S. (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, 1996); and Michael D. Swaine, The Modernization of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (Seattle: National Bureau of Asian Research, 1994).
16. See, for example, John Caldwell, China's Conventional Military Capabilities, 1994-2004: An Assessment (Washington, D.C.: CSIS, 1994); Alfred D. Wilhelm, Jr. and Paul H.B. Godwin, Assessing China's Military Potential: The Importance of Transparency (Washington, D.C.: Atlantic Council, 1995); Paul H.B. Godwin and John J. Schulz, "Arming the dragon for the 21st century: China's defense modernization program," Arms Control Today (December 1993), pp. 3-9; Robert Sutter, China's Rising Military Power and Influence: Issues and Options for the U.S. (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, 1996); and Michael D. Swaine, The Modernization of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (Seattle: National Bureau of Asian Research, 1994).
17. See, for example, John Caldwell, China's Conventional Military Capabilities, 1994-2004: An Assessment (Washington, D.C.: CSIS, 1994); Alfred D. Wilhelm, Jr. and Paul H.B. Godwin, Assessing China's Military Potential: The Importance of Transparency (Washington, D.C.: Atlantic Council, 1995); Paul H.B. Godwin and John J. Schulz, "Arming the dragon for the 21st century: China's defense modernization program," Arms Control Today (December 1993), pp. 3-9; Robert Sutter, China's Rising Military Power and Influence: Issues and Options for the U.S. (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, 1996); and Michael D. Swaine, The Modernization of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (Seattle: National Bureau of Asian Research, 1994).
18. See, for example, John Caldwell, China's Conventional Military Capabilities, 1994-2004: An Assessment (Washington, D.C.: CSIS, 1994); Alfred D. Wilhelm, Jr. and Paul H.B. Godwin, Assessing China's Military Potential: The Importance of Transparency (Washington, D.C.: Atlantic Council, 1995); Paul H.B. Godwin and John J. Schulz, "Arming the dragon for the 21st century: China's defense modernization program," Arms Control Today (December 1993), pp. 3-9; Robert Sutter, China's Rising Military Power and Influence: Issues and Options for the U.S. (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, 1996); and Michael D. Swaine, The Modernization of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (Seattle: National Bureau of Asian Research, 1994).
19. See, for example, United States General Accounting Office, National Security: Impact of China's Military Modernization in the Pacific Region (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1995); and Department of Defense Office of International Security Affairs, United States Security Strategy for the East Asia-Pacific Region (Washington, D.C.: The Pentagon, 1995).
20. See, for example, United States General Accounting Office, National Security: Impact of China's Military Modernization in the Pacific Region (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1995); and Department of Defense Office of International Security Affairs, United States Security Strategy for the East Asia-Pacific Region (Washington, D.C.: The Pentagon, 1995).
21. This view is commonplace in meetings with PLA officers and officials. See, for example, Robert S. MacNamara, David E. Jeremiah, James P. McCarthy, William R. Richardson, Jimmy D. Ross, David M. Lampton, David L. Shambaugh and June Mei, Sino-American Military Relations: Mutual Responsibilities in the Post-Cold War World (New York: National Committee on U.S.-China Relations, China Policy Series No. 9, 1994).
22. For an analysis of the pros and cons, see David Shambaugh, "China's military: real or paper tiger?" The Washington Quarterly (Spring 1996), pp. 19-36.
23. The classic typology, of course, is Samuel P. Huntington, The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1957).
24. This is a very large literature. Fora useful, if dated, summary see Amos Perlmutter, The Military and Politics in Modern Times (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977).
25. Amos Perlmutter and William M. Leogrande, "The Party in uniform: toward a theory of civil-military relations in Communist political systems," The American Political Science Review (December 1982), pp. 778-789. The study of party-army relations in Communist systems has also spawned a large literature; for a useful, if dated, overview see Dale R. Herspring and Ivan Volgyes, Civil-Military Relations in Communist Systems (Boulder: Westview Press, 1978).
26. Amos Perlmutter and William M. Leogrande, "The Party in uniform: toward a theory of civil-military relations in Communist political systems," The American Political Science Review (December 1982), pp. 778-789. The study of party-army relations in Communist systems has also spawned a large literature; for a useful, if dated, overview see Dale R. Herspring and Ivan Volgyes, Civil-Military Relations in Communist Systems (Boulder: Westview Press, 1978).
27. For an recent survey of the literature see Jeremy T. Paltiel, "PLA allegiance on parade: civil-military relations in transition," The China Quarterly, No. 143 (September 1995), pp. 784-800.
28. Joffe has, of course, himself been a major contributor to this literature. See his Party and Army: Professionalism and Political Control in the Chinese Officer Corps, 1949-1964 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard East Asian Monographs, 1967); "The Chinese army under Lin Biao: prelude to intervention," in John M. H. Lindbeck (ed.), China: Management of a Revolutionary Society (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1971), pp. 343-374; "The Chinese army in the Cultural Revolution: the politics of intervention," Current Scene (December 1970), pp. 1-25; The Chinese Army After Mao (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987); "The Chinese army: coping with the consequences of Tiananmen," in William A. Joseph (ed.), China Briefing, 1991 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 37-55; and "The Chinese army and the economy: the effects of involvement," Survival (Summer 1995), pp. 24-43.
29. Joffe has, of course, himself been a major contributor to this literature. See his Party and Army: Professionalism and Political Control in the Chinese Officer Corps, 1949-1964 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard East Asian Monographs, 1967); "The Chinese army under Lin Biao: prelude to intervention," in John M. H. Lindbeck (ed.), China: Management of a Revolutionary Society (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1971), pp. 343-374; "The Chinese army in the Cultural Revolution: the politics of intervention," Current Scene (December 1970), pp. 1-25; The Chinese Army After Mao (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987); "The Chinese army: coping with the consequences of Tiananmen," in William A. Joseph (ed.), China Briefing, 1991 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 37-55; and "The Chinese army and the economy: the effects of involvement," Survival (Summer 1995), pp. 24-43.
30. Joffe has, of course, himself been a major contributor to this literature. See his Party and Army: Professionalism and Political Control in the Chinese Officer Corps, 1949-1964 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard East Asian Monographs, 1967); "The Chinese army under Lin Biao: prelude to intervention," in John M. H. Lindbeck (ed.), China: Management of a Revolutionary Society (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1971), pp. 343-374; "The Chinese army in the Cultural Revolution: the politics of intervention," Current Scene (December 1970), pp. 1-25; The Chinese Army After Mao (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987); "The Chinese army: coping with the consequences of Tiananmen," in William A. Joseph (ed.), China Briefing, 1991 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 37-55; and "The Chinese army and the economy: the effects of involvement," Survival (Summer 1995), pp. 24-43.
31. Joffe has, of course, himself been a major contributor to this literature. See his Party and Army: Professionalism and Political Control in the Chinese Officer Corps, 1949-1964 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard East Asian Monographs, 1967); "The Chinese army under Lin Biao: prelude to intervention," in John M. H. Lindbeck (ed.), China: Management of a Revolutionary Society (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1971), pp. 343-374; "The Chinese army in the Cultural Revolution: the politics of intervention," Current Scene (December 1970), pp. 1-25; The Chinese Army After Mao (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987); "The Chinese army: coping with the consequences of Tiananmen," in William A. Joseph (ed.), China Briefing, 1991 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 37-55; and "The Chinese army and the economy: the effects of involvement," Survival (Summer 1995), pp. 24-43.
32. Joffe has, of course, himself been a major contributor to this literature. See his Party and Army: Professionalism and Political Control in the Chinese Officer Corps, 1949-1964 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard East Asian Monographs, 1967); "The Chinese army under Lin Biao: prelude to intervention," in John M. H. Lindbeck (ed.), China: Management of a Revolutionary Society (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1971), pp. 343-374; "The Chinese army in the Cultural Revolution: the politics of intervention," Current Scene (December 1970), pp. 1-25; The Chinese Army After Mao (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987); "The Chinese army: coping with the consequences of Tiananmen," in William A. Joseph (ed.), China Briefing, 1991 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 37-55; and "The Chinese army and the economy: the effects of involvement," Survival (Summer 1995), pp. 24-43.
33. Joffe has, of course, himself been a major contributor to this literature. See his Party and Army: Professionalism and Political Control in the Chinese Officer Corps, 1949-1964 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard East Asian Monographs, 1967); "The Chinese army under Lin Biao: prelude to intervention," in John M. H. Lindbeck (ed.), China: Management of a Revolutionary Society (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1971), pp. 343-374; "The Chinese army in the Cultural Revolution: the politics of intervention," Current Scene (December 1970), pp. 1-25; The Chinese Army After Mao (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987); "The Chinese army: coping with the consequences of Tiananmen," in William A. Joseph (ed.), China Briefing, 1991 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 37-55; and "The Chinese army and the economy: the effects of involvement," Survival (Summer 1995), pp. 24-43.
34. For two excellent assessments see Li Cheng and Lynn T. White III, "The army in the succession to Deng Xiaoping: familiar fealties and technocratic trends," Asian Survey (August 1993), pp. 757-786; and Michael D. Swaine, The Military and Political Succession in China: Leadership, Institutions, Beliefs (Santa Monica: The RAND Corporation, 1992).
35. For two excellent assessments see Li Cheng and Lynn T. White III, "The army in the succession to Deng Xiaoping: familiar fealties and technocratic trends," Asian Survey (August 1993), pp. 757-786; and Michael D. Swaine, The Military and Political Succession in China: Leadership, Institutions, Beliefs (Santa Monica: The RAND Corporation, 1992).
36. Peter Evans, Deitrich Reuschemeyer and Theda Skocpol (eds.), Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
37. I have attempted to do this in a preliminary way elsewhere. See David Shambaugh, "The building of the civil-military state in China, 1949-1965: bringing the soldier back in," in Timothy Cheek and Tony Saich (eds.), The Construction of State Socialism in China, 1949-1965 (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1996). Hans van de Ven also attempts to do this in his "Militaries and militarism in Republican China," The China Quarterly (June 1997), forthcoming.
38. I have attempted to do this in a preliminary way elsewhere. See David Shambaugh, "The building of the civil-military state in China, 1949-1965: bringing the soldier back in," in Timothy Cheek and Tony Saich (eds.), The Construction of State Socialism in China, 1949-1965 (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1996). Hans van de Ven also attempts to do this in his "Militaries and militarism in Republican China," The China Quarterly (June 1997), forthcoming.
39. This section draws upon my chapter "China's commander-in-chief: Jiang Zemin and the PLA," in Mark Weisenbaum (ed.), Chinese Military Modernization (London: Routledge, Kegan Paul, 1996).
40. For further biographical analysis of this cohort by demographic characteristics, military background and career patterns, and level of education see Li Cheng and White, "The army in the succession to Deng Xiaoping."
41. Also see James Mulvenon, "Education, retirement and functional specialization: evaluation of three professionalizing trends in the Chinese People's Liberation Army," unpublished manuscript, November 1995.
42. Shambaugh, "China's commander-in-chief." Also see Ken E. Gause, "Jiang Zemin and the PLA," Jane's Intelligence Review (June 1995), pp. 277-281.
43. Shambaugh, "China's commander-in-chief." Also see Ken E. Gause, "Jiang Zemin and the PLA," Jane's Intelligence Review (June 1995), pp. 277-281.
44. I am grateful to John Corbett for pointing out these dates.
45. Among many such reports, see Ren Huiwen, "CCP makes new policy decision on army participation in government and political affairs," Xin bao (Hong Kong), 11 December 1992, in Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Daily Report: China (hereafter FBIS-CHI), 14 December 1992, pp. 28-29.
46. Among many such reports, see Ren Huiwen, "CCP makes new policy decision on army participation in government and political affairs," Xin bao (Hong Kong), 11 December 1992, in Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Daily Report: China (hereafter FBIS-CHI), 14 December 1992, pp. 28-29.
47. For an extended analysis of PLA lobbying see John Garver, "The PLA as an interest group in Chinese foreign policy," in Weisenbaum, Chinese Military Modernization.
48. This is a personal impression gained during a meeting with Admiral Liu in May 1994.
49. Interview with Japanese Foreign Ministry, April 1994.
50. This is not true of the PLA as a whole. Apparently a group of major generals and senior colonels support the publication of a Defence White Paper and increased transparency, but their proposals are being blocked by higher-ranking generals and the old guard who have an excessive and overly-protective sense of secrecy and suspicion of multilateral security regimes. Interviews with PLA officers, November 1993 and May 1994. In late 1995 China's State Council released a White Paper on China: Arms Control and Disarmament (Beijing: Information Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China, November 1995), but this amounted to little more than a recapitulation of a familiar mantra and did little to alleviate foreign concerns.
51. See Lo Ping, "Military attacks Ministry of Foreign Affairs," Zhengming, 1 July 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 26 July 1994, pp. 33-36; Willy Wo-lap Lam, "Senior generals involved in foreign affairs," South China Morning Post, 25 June 1994, p. 10.
52. See Lo Ping, "Military attacks Ministry of Foreign Affairs," Zhengming, 1 July 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 26 July 1994, pp. 33-36; Willy Wo-lap Lam, "Senior generals involved in foreign affairs," South China Morning Post, 25 June 1994, p. 10.
53. See Lo Ping, "Military attacks Ministry of Foreign Affairs," Zhengming, 1 July 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 26 July 1994, pp. 33-36; Willy Wo-lap Lam, "Senior generals involved in foreign affairs," South China Morning Post, 25 June 1994, p. 10.
54. While widely reported in the Hong Kong media, such PLA criticism of the Foreign Ministry has been confirmed in numerous interviews I have had with military and civilian personnel since 1991.
55. Discussions in Beijing, July 1995. Also see David Shambaugh, "The United States and China: a new Cold War?" Current History (September 1995).
56. See David Shambaugh, "Accommodating a frustrated power: the domestic sources of China's external posture," paper presented at the 26th Sino-American Conference on Contemporary China, July 1995.
57. Mao Zedong, "Problems of war and strategy," Selected Works, Vol. II (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1975), p. 224.
58. The early stages of this campaign are traced in detail in David Shambaugh, "The soldier and the state in China: the political work system in the People's Liberation Army," The China Quarterly, No. 127 (September 1991), pp. 527-568.
59. Zhongguo jiefangjun guofang daxue he zong zhengzhibu (eds.), Dangdai Zhongguojundui de zhengzhi gongzuo (Political Work in the Contemporary Chinese Military) (Beijing: Dangdai Zhongguo chubanshe, 1995); Zong zhengzhibu ganbubu he junshi kexueyuan junzhi yanjiubu (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun ganbu zhidu gaiyao (Survey of the Cadre System in the People's Liberation Army) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989 (neibu)), translated in Chinese Law & Government (July-August and September-October 1995); Wang Wensong and Zhang Huning, Deng Xiaoping xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang gongzuo (Ideological Work in Deng Xiaoping's New Era of Military Construction) (Beijing: Guofang daxue chubanshe, 1993); Song Shuanglai (ed.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo xinlun (New Theories of Political Work in the Military) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1991); Li Wei and Li Qiang (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun zhengzhi gongzuo shijian (The Experience of Political Work in the Chinese People's Liberation) (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 1992); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiu (Research on Political Work in the Military during the New Era) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1987); Tian Shuliang, Ma Qingyun and Yang Jiaqi, Zhengzhi gongzuo xin silu (New Avenues in Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989); Jiefangjun bao shepinglunqu (ed.), Jiaqiang renmin jundui de zhengzhi jianshe (Accelerate Political Building in the People's Military) (Beijing: Changzheng chubanshe, 1990); n.a., Guanyu xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de jueding: heding ben (Decision Concerning Political Work in the Military During the New Era: Compendium) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1987); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de gaige (Reform of Military Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1988); Chengdu junqu junshi xueshu yanjiu zhidao weiyuanhui, Xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang yanjiu (Research on Building Ideology in the Military During the New Era) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1988); Commentator, "Make great efforts to strengthen the building of the armed forces ideologically and politically," Jiefangjun bao, 27 December 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 12 January 1995, pp. 32-34; Commentator, "Ideological and political work to be placed above all other tasks in the armed forces," Jiefangjun bao, 1 January 1995, in BBC, Summary of World Broadcasts: Far East (hereafter SWB/FE), 18 January 1995, pp. G-6/7.
60. See Zhongguo jiefangjun guofang daxue he zong zhengzhibu (eds.), Dangdai Zhongguojundui de zhengzhi gongzuo (Political Work in the Contemporary Chinese Military) (Beijing: Dangdai Zhongguo chubanshe, 1995); Zong zhengzhibu ganbubu he junshi kexueyuan junzhi yanjiubu (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun ganbu zhidu gaiyao (Survey of the Cadre System in the People's Liberation Army) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989 (neibu)), translated in Chinese Law & Government (July-August and September-October 1995); Wang Wensong and Zhang Huning, Deng Xiaoping xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang gongzuo (Ideological Work in Deng Xiaoping's New Era of Military Construction) (Beijing: Guofang daxue chubanshe, 1993); Song Shuanglai (ed.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo xinlun (New Theories of Political Work in the Military) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1991); Li Wei and Li Qiang (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun zhengzhi gongzuo shijian (The Experience of Political Work in the Chinese People's Liberation) (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 1992); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiu (Research on Political Work in the Military during the New Era) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1987); Tian Shuliang, Ma Qingyun and Yang Jiaqi, Zhengzhi gongzuo xin silu (New Avenues in Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989); Jiefangjun bao shepinglunqu (ed.), Jiaqiang renmin jundui de zhengzhi jianshe (Accelerate Political Building in the People's Military) (Beijing: Changzheng chubanshe, 1990); n.a., Guanyu xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de jueding: heding ben (Decision Concerning Political Work in the Military During the New Era: Compendium) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1987); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de gaige (Reform of Military Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1988); Chengdu junqu junshi xueshu yanjiu zhidao weiyuanhui, Xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang yanjiu (Research on Building Ideology in the Military During the New Era) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1988); Commentator, "Make great efforts to strengthen the building of the armed forces ideologically and politically," Jiefangjun bao, 27 December 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 12 January 1995, pp. 32-34; Commentator, "Ideological and political work to be placed above all other tasks in the armed forces," Jiefangjun bao, 1 January 1995, in BBC, Summary of World Broadcasts: Far East (hereafter SWB/FE), 18 January 1995, pp. G-6/7.
61. See Zhongguo jiefangjun guofang daxue he zong zhengzhibu (eds.), Dangdai Zhongguojundui de zhengzhi gongzuo (Political Work in the Contemporary Chinese Military) (Beijing: Dangdai Zhongguo chubanshe, 1995); Zong zhengzhibu ganbubu he junshi kexueyuan junzhi yanjiubu (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun ganbu zhidu gaiyao (Survey of the Cadre System in the People's Liberation Army) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989 (neibu)), translated in Chinese Law & Government (July-August and September-October 1995); Wang Wensong and Zhang Huning, Deng Xiaoping xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang gongzuo (Ideological Work in Deng Xiaoping's New Era of Military Construction) (Beijing: Guofang daxue chubanshe, 1993); Song Shuanglai (ed.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo xinlun (New Theories of Political Work in the Military) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1991); Li Wei and Li Qiang (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun zhengzhi gongzuo shijian (The Experience of Political Work in the Chinese People's Liberation) (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 1992); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiu (Research on Political Work in the Military during the New Era) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1987); Tian Shuliang, Ma Qingyun and Yang Jiaqi, Zhengzhi gongzuo xin silu (New Avenues in Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989); Jiefangjun bao shepinglunqu (ed.), Jiaqiang renmin jundui de zhengzhi jianshe (Accelerate Political Building in the People's Military) (Beijing: Changzheng chubanshe, 1990); n.a., Guanyu xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de jueding: heding ben (Decision Concerning Political Work in the Military During the New Era: Compendium) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1987); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de gaige (Reform of Military Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1988); Chengdu junqu junshi xueshu yanjiu zhidao weiyuanhui, Xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang yanjiu (Research on Building Ideology in the Military During the New Era) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1988); Commentator, "Make great efforts to strengthen the building of the armed forces ideologically and politically," Jiefangjun bao, 27 December 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 12 January 1995, pp. 32-34; Commentator, "Ideological and political work to be placed above all other tasks in the armed forces," Jiefangjun bao, 1 January 1995, in BBC, Summary of World Broadcasts: Far East (hereafter SWB/FE), 18 January 1995, pp. G-6/7.
62. See Zhongguo jiefangjun guofang daxue he zong zhengzhibu (eds.), Dangdai Zhongguojundui de zhengzhi gongzuo (Political Work in the Contemporary Chinese Military) (Beijing: Dangdai Zhongguo chubanshe, 1995); Zong zhengzhibu ganbubu he junshi kexueyuan junzhi yanjiubu (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun ganbu zhidu gaiyao (Survey of the Cadre System in the People's Liberation Army) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989 (neibu)), translated in Chinese Law & Government (July-August and September-October 1995); Wang Wensong and Zhang Huning, Deng Xiaoping xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang gongzuo (Ideological Work in Deng Xiaoping's New Era of Military Construction) (Beijing: Guofang daxue chubanshe, 1993); Song Shuanglai (ed.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo xinlun (New Theories of Political Work in the Military) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1991); Li Wei and Li Qiang (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun zhengzhi gongzuo shijian (The Experience of Political Work in the Chinese People's Liberation) (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 1992); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiu (Research on Political Work in the Military during the New Era) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1987); Tian Shuliang, Ma Qingyun and Yang Jiaqi, Zhengzhi gongzuo xin silu (New Avenues in Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989); Jiefangjun bao shepinglunqu (ed.), Jiaqiang renmin jundui de zhengzhi jianshe (Accelerate Political Building in the People's Military) (Beijing: Changzheng chubanshe, 1990); n.a., Guanyu xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de jueding: heding ben (Decision Concerning Political Work in the Military During the New Era: Compendium) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1987); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de gaige (Reform of Military Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1988); Chengdu junqu junshi xueshu yanjiu zhidao weiyuanhui, Xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang yanjiu (Research on Building Ideology in the Military During the New Era) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1988); Commentator, "Make great efforts to strengthen the building of the armed forces ideologically and politically," Jiefangjun bao, 27 December 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 12 January 1995, pp. 32-34; Commentator, "Ideological and political work to be placed above all other tasks in the armed forces," Jiefangjun bao, 1 January 1995, in BBC, Summary of World Broadcasts: Far East (hereafter SWB/FE), 18 January 1995, pp. G-6/7.
63. See Zhongguo jiefangjun guofang daxue he zong zhengzhibu (eds.), Dangdai Zhongguojundui de zhengzhi gongzuo (Political Work in the Contemporary Chinese Military) (Beijing: Dangdai Zhongguo chubanshe, 1995); Zong zhengzhibu ganbubu he junshi kexueyuan junzhi yanjiubu (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun ganbu zhidu gaiyao (Survey of the Cadre System in the People's Liberation Army) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989 (neibu)), translated in Chinese Law & Government (July-August and September-October 1995); Wang Wensong and Zhang Huning, Deng Xiaoping xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang gongzuo (Ideological Work in Deng Xiaoping's New Era of Military Construction) (Beijing: Guofang daxue chubanshe, 1993); Song Shuanglai (ed.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo xinlun (New Theories of Political Work in the Military) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1991); Li Wei and Li Qiang (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun zhengzhi gongzuo shijian (The Experience of Political Work in the Chinese People's Liberation) (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 1992); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiu (Research on Political Work in the Military during the New Era) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1987); Tian Shuliang, Ma Qingyun and Yang Jiaqi, Zhengzhi gongzuo xin silu (New Avenues in Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989); Jiefangjun bao shepinglunqu (ed.), Jiaqiang renmin jundui de zhengzhi jianshe (Accelerate Political Building in the People's Military) (Beijing: Changzheng chubanshe, 1990); n.a., Guanyu xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de jueding: heding ben (Decision Concerning Political Work in the Military During the New Era: Compendium) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1987); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de gaige (Reform of Military Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1988); Chengdu junqu junshi xueshu yanjiu zhidao weiyuanhui, Xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang yanjiu (Research on Building Ideology in the Military During the New Era) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1988); Commentator, "Make great efforts to strengthen the building of the armed forces ideologically and politically," Jiefangjun bao, 27 December 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 12 January 1995, pp. 32-34; Commentator, "Ideological and political work to be placed above all other tasks in the armed forces," Jiefangjun bao, 1 January 1995, in BBC, Summary of World Broadcasts: Far East (hereafter SWB/FE), 18 January 1995, pp. G-6/7.
64. See Zhongguo jiefangjun guofang daxue he zong zhengzhibu (eds.), Dangdai Zhongguojundui de zhengzhi gongzuo (Political Work in the Contemporary Chinese Military) (Beijing: Dangdai Zhongguo chubanshe, 1995); Zong zhengzhibu ganbubu he junshi kexueyuan junzhi yanjiubu (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun ganbu zhidu gaiyao (Survey of the Cadre System in the People's Liberation Army) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989 (neibu)), translated in Chinese Law & Government (July-August and September-October 1995); Wang Wensong and Zhang Huning, Deng Xiaoping xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang gongzuo (Ideological Work in Deng Xiaoping's New Era of Military Construction) (Beijing: Guofang daxue chubanshe, 1993); Song Shuanglai (ed.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo xinlun (New Theories of Political Work in the Military) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1991); Li Wei and Li Qiang (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun zhengzhi gongzuo shijian (The Experience of Political Work in the Chinese People's Liberation) (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 1992); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiu (Research on Political Work in the Military during the New Era) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1987); Tian Shuliang, Ma Qingyun and Yang Jiaqi, Zhengzhi gongzuo xin silu (New Avenues in Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989); Jiefangjun bao shepinglunqu (ed.), Jiaqiang renmin jundui de zhengzhi jianshe (Accelerate Political Building in the People's Military) (Beijing: Changzheng chubanshe, 1990); n.a., Guanyu xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de jueding: heding ben (Decision Concerning Political Work in the Military During the New Era: Compendium) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1987); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de gaige (Reform of Military Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1988); Chengdu junqu junshi xueshu yanjiu zhidao weiyuanhui, Xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang yanjiu (Research on Building Ideology in the Military During the New Era) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1988); Commentator, "Make great efforts to strengthen the building of the armed forces ideologically and politically," Jiefangjun bao, 27 December 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 12 January 1995, pp. 32-34; Commentator, "Ideological and political work to be placed above all other tasks in the armed forces," Jiefangjun bao, 1 January 1995, in BBC, Summary of World Broadcasts: Far East (hereafter SWB/FE), 18 January 1995, pp. G-6/7.
65. See Zhongguo jiefangjun guofang daxue he zong zhengzhibu (eds.), Dangdai Zhongguojundui de zhengzhi gongzuo (Political Work in the Contemporary Chinese Military) (Beijing: Dangdai Zhongguo chubanshe, 1995); Zong zhengzhibu ganbubu he junshi kexueyuan junzhi yanjiubu (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun ganbu zhidu gaiyao (Survey of the Cadre System in the People's Liberation Army) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989 (neibu)), translated in Chinese Law & Government (July-August and September-October 1995); Wang Wensong and Zhang Huning, Deng Xiaoping xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang gongzuo (Ideological Work in Deng Xiaoping's New Era of Military Construction) (Beijing: Guofang daxue chubanshe, 1993); Song Shuanglai (ed.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo xinlun (New Theories of Political Work in the Military) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1991); Li Wei and Li Qiang (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun zhengzhi gongzuo shijian (The Experience of Political Work in the Chinese People's Liberation) (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 1992); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiu (Research on Political Work in the Military during the New Era) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1987); Tian Shuliang, Ma Qingyun and Yang Jiaqi, Zhengzhi gongzuo xin silu (New Avenues in Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989); Jiefangjun bao shepinglunqu (ed.), Jiaqiang renmin jundui de zhengzhi jianshe (Accelerate Political Building in the People's Military) (Beijing: Changzheng chubanshe, 1990); n.a., Guanyu xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de jueding: heding ben (Decision Concerning Political Work in the Military During the New Era: Compendium) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1987); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de gaige (Reform of Military Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1988); Chengdu junqu junshi xueshu yanjiu zhidao weiyuanhui, Xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang yanjiu (Research on Building Ideology in the Military During the New Era) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1988); Commentator, "Make great efforts to strengthen the building of the armed forces ideologically and politically," Jiefangjun bao, 27 December 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 12 January 1995, pp. 32-34; Commentator, "Ideological and political work to be placed above all other tasks in the armed forces," Jiefangjun bao, 1 January 1995, in BBC, Summary of World Broadcasts: Far East (hereafter SWB/FE), 18 January 1995, pp. G-6/7.
66. See Zhongguo jiefangjun guofang daxue he zong zhengzhibu (eds.), Dangdai Zhongguojundui de zhengzhi gongzuo (Political Work in the Contemporary Chinese Military) (Beijing: Dangdai Zhongguo chubanshe, 1995); Zong zhengzhibu ganbubu he junshi kexueyuan junzhi yanjiubu (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun ganbu zhidu gaiyao (Survey of the Cadre System in the People's Liberation Army) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989 (neibu)), translated in Chinese Law & Government (July-August and September-October 1995); Wang Wensong and Zhang Huning, Deng Xiaoping xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang gongzuo (Ideological Work in Deng Xiaoping's New Era of Military Construction) (Beijing: Guofang daxue chubanshe, 1993); Song Shuanglai (ed.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo xinlun (New Theories of Political Work in the Military) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1991); Li Wei and Li Qiang (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun zhengzhi gongzuo shijian (The Experience of Political Work in the Chinese People's Liberation) (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 1992); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiu (Research on Political Work in the Military during the New Era) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1987); Tian Shuliang, Ma Qingyun and Yang Jiaqi, Zhengzhi gongzuo xin silu (New Avenues in Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989); Jiefangjun bao shepinglunqu (ed.), Jiaqiang renmin jundui de zhengzhi jianshe (Accelerate Political Building in the People's Military) (Beijing: Changzheng chubanshe, 1990); n.a., Guanyu xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de jueding: heding ben (Decision Concerning Political Work in the Military During the New Era: Compendium) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1987); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de gaige (Reform of Military Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1988); Chengdu junqu junshi xueshu yanjiu zhidao weiyuanhui, Xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang yanjiu (Research on Building Ideology in the Military During the New Era) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1988); Commentator, "Make great efforts to strengthen the building of the armed forces ideologically and politically," Jiefangjun bao, 27 December 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 12 January 1995, pp. 32-34; Commentator, "Ideological and political work to be placed above all other tasks in the armed forces," Jiefangjun bao, 1 January 1995, in BBC, Summary of World Broadcasts: Far East (hereafter SWB/FE), 18 January 1995, pp. G-6/7.
67. See Zhongguo jiefangjun guofang daxue he zong zhengzhibu (eds.), Dangdai Zhongguojundui de zhengzhi gongzuo (Political Work in the Contemporary Chinese Military) (Beijing: Dangdai Zhongguo chubanshe, 1995); Zong zhengzhibu ganbubu he junshi kexueyuan junzhi yanjiubu (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun ganbu zhidu gaiyao (Survey of the Cadre System in the People's Liberation Army) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989 (neibu)), translated in Chinese Law & Government (July-August and September-October 1995); Wang Wensong and Zhang Huning, Deng Xiaoping xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang gongzuo (Ideological Work in Deng Xiaoping's New Era of Military Construction) (Beijing: Guofang daxue chubanshe, 1993); Song Shuanglai (ed.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo xinlun (New Theories of Political Work in the Military) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1991); Li Wei and Li Qiang (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun zhengzhi gongzuo shijian (The Experience of Political Work in the Chinese People's Liberation) (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 1992); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiu (Research on Political Work in the Military during the New Era) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1987); Tian Shuliang, Ma Qingyun and Yang Jiaqi, Zhengzhi gongzuo xin silu (New Avenues in Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989); Jiefangjun bao shepinglunqu (ed.), Jiaqiang renmin jundui de zhengzhi jianshe (Accelerate Political Building in the People's Military) (Beijing: Changzheng chubanshe, 1990); n.a., Guanyu xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de jueding: heding ben (Decision Concerning Political Work in the Military During the New Era: Compendium) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1987); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de gaige (Reform of Military Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1988); Chengdu junqu junshi xueshu yanjiu zhidao weiyuanhui, Xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang yanjiu (Research on Building Ideology in the Military During the New Era) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1988); Commentator, "Make great efforts to strengthen the building of the armed forces ideologically and politically," Jiefangjun bao, 27 December 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 12 January 1995, pp. 32-34; Commentator, "Ideological and political work to be placed above all other tasks in the armed forces," Jiefangjun bao, 1 January 1995, in BBC, Summary of World Broadcasts: Far East (hereafter SWB/FE), 18 January 1995, pp. G-6/7.
68. See Zhongguo jiefangjun guofang daxue he zong zhengzhibu (eds.), Dangdai Zhongguojundui de zhengzhi gongzuo (Political Work in the Contemporary Chinese Military) (Beijing: Dangdai Zhongguo chubanshe, 1995); Zong zhengzhibu ganbubu he junshi kexueyuan junzhi yanjiubu (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun ganbu zhidu gaiyao (Survey of the Cadre System in the People's Liberation Army) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989 (neibu)), translated in Chinese Law & Government (July-August and September-October 1995); Wang Wensong and Zhang Huning, Deng Xiaoping xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang gongzuo (Ideological Work in Deng Xiaoping's New Era of Military Construction) (Beijing: Guofang daxue chubanshe, 1993); Song Shuanglai (ed.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo xinlun (New Theories of Political Work in the Military) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1991); Li Wei and Li Qiang (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun zhengzhi gongzuo shijian (The Experience of Political Work in the Chinese People's Liberation) (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 1992); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiu (Research on Political Work in the Military during the New Era) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1987); Tian Shuliang, Ma Qingyun and Yang Jiaqi, Zhengzhi gongzuo xin silu (New Avenues in Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989); Jiefangjun bao shepinglunqu (ed.), Jiaqiang renmin jundui de zhengzhi jianshe (Accelerate Political Building in the People's Military) (Beijing: Changzheng chubanshe, 1990); n.a., Guanyu xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de jueding: heding ben (Decision Concerning Political Work in the Military During the New Era: Compendium) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1987); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de gaige (Reform of Military Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1988); Chengdu junqu junshi xueshu yanjiu zhidao weiyuanhui, Xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang yanjiu (Research on Building Ideology in the Military During the New Era) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1988); Commentator, "Make great efforts to strengthen the building of the armed forces ideologically and politically," Jiefangjun bao, 27 December 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 12 January 1995, pp. 32-34; Commentator, "Ideological and political work to be placed above all other tasks in the armed forces," Jiefangjun bao, 1 January 1995, in BBC, Summary of World Broadcasts: Far East (hereafter SWB/FE), 18 January 1995, pp. G-6/7.
69. See Zhongguo jiefangjun guofang daxue he zong zhengzhibu (eds.), Dangdai Zhongguojundui de zhengzhi gongzuo (Political Work in the Contemporary Chinese Military) (Beijing: Dangdai Zhongguo chubanshe, 1995); Zong zhengzhibu ganbubu he junshi kexueyuan junzhi yanjiubu (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun ganbu zhidu gaiyao (Survey of the Cadre System in the People's Liberation Army) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989 (neibu)), translated in Chinese Law & Government (July-August and September-October 1995); Wang Wensong and Zhang Huning, Deng Xiaoping xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang gongzuo (Ideological Work in Deng Xiaoping's New Era of Military Construction) (Beijing: Guofang daxue chubanshe, 1993); Song Shuanglai (ed.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo xinlun (New Theories of Political Work in the Military) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1991); Li Wei and Li Qiang (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun zhengzhi gongzuo shijian (The Experience of Political Work in the Chinese People's Liberation) (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 1992); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiu (Research on Political Work in the Military during the New Era) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1987); Tian Shuliang, Ma Qingyun and Yang Jiaqi, Zhengzhi gongzuo xin silu (New Avenues in Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989); Jiefangjun bao shepinglunqu (ed.), Jiaqiang renmin jundui de zhengzhi jianshe (Accelerate Political Building in the People's Military) (Beijing: Changzheng chubanshe, 1990); n.a., Guanyu xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de jueding: heding ben (Decision Concerning Political Work in the Military During the New Era: Compendium) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1987); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de gaige (Reform of Military Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1988); Chengdu junqu junshi xueshu yanjiu zhidao weiyuanhui, Xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang yanjiu (Research on Building Ideology in the Military During the New Era) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1988); Commentator, "Make great efforts to strengthen the building of the armed forces ideologically and politically," Jiefangjun bao, 27 December 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 12 January 1995, pp. 32-34; Commentator, "Ideological and political work to be placed above all other tasks in the armed forces," Jiefangjun bao, 1 January 1995, in BBC, Summary of World Broadcasts: Far East (hereafter SWB/FE), 18 January 1995, pp. G-6/7.
70. See Zhongguo jiefangjun guofang daxue he zong zhengzhibu (eds.), Dangdai Zhongguojundui de zhengzhi gongzuo (Political Work in the Contemporary Chinese Military) (Beijing: Dangdai Zhongguo chubanshe, 1995); Zong zhengzhibu ganbubu he junshi kexueyuan junzhi yanjiubu (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun ganbu zhidu gaiyao (Survey of the Cadre System in the People's Liberation Army) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989 (neibu)), translated in Chinese Law & Government (July-August and September-October 1995); Wang Wensong and Zhang Huning, Deng Xiaoping xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang gongzuo (Ideological Work in Deng Xiaoping's New Era of Military Construction) (Beijing: Guofang daxue chubanshe, 1993); Song Shuanglai (ed.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo xinlun (New Theories of Political Work in the Military) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe,
71. See Zhongguo jiefangjun guofang daxue he zong zhengzhibu (eds.), Dangdai Zhongguojundui de zhengzhi gongzuo (Political Work in the Contemporary Chinese Military) (Beijing: Dangdai Zhongguo chubanshe, 1995); Zong zhengzhibu ganbubu he junshi kexueyuan junzhi yanjiubu (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun ganbu zhidu gaiyao (Survey of the Cadre System in the People's Liberation Army) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989 (neibu)), translated in Chinese Law & Government (July-August and September-October 1995); Wang Wensong and Zhang Huning, Deng Xiaoping xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang gongzuo (Ideological Work in Deng Xiaoping's New Era of Military Construction) (Beijing: Guofang daxue chubanshe, 1993); Song Shuanglai (ed.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo xinlun (New Theories of Political Work in the Military) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1991); Li Wei and Li Qiang (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun zhengzhi gongzuo shijian (The Experience of Political Work in the Chinese People's Liberation) (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 1992); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiu (Research on Political Work in the Military during the New Era) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1987); Tian Shuliang, Ma Qingyun and Yang Jiaqi, Zhengzhi gongzuo xin silu (New Avenues in Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989); Jiefangjun bao shepinglunqu (ed.), Jiaqiang renmin jundui de zhengzhi jianshe (Accelerate Political Building in the People's Military) (Beijing: Changzheng chubanshe, 1990); n.a., Guanyu xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de jueding: heding ben (Decision Concerning Political Work in the Military During the New Era: Compendium) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1987); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de gaige (Reform of Military Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1988); Chengdu junqu junshi xueshu yanjiu zhidao weiyuanhui, Xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang yanjiu (Research on Building Ideology in the Military During the New Era) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1988); Commentator, "Make great efforts to strengthen the building of the armed forces ideologically and politically," Jiefangjun bao, 27 December 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 12 January 1995, pp. 32-34; Commentator, "Ideological and political work to be placed above all other tasks in the armed forces," Jiefangjun bao, 1 January 1995, in BBC, Summary of World Broadcasts: Far East (hereafter SWB/FE), 18 January 1995, pp. G-6/7.
72. See Zhongguo jiefangjun guofang daxue he zong zhengzhibu (eds.), Dangdai Zhongguojundui de zhengzhi gongzuo (Political Work in the Contemporary Chinese Military) (Beijing: Dangdai Zhongguo chubanshe, 1995); Zong zhengzhibu ganbubu he junshi kexueyuan junzhi yanjiubu (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun ganbu zhidu gaiyao (Survey of the Cadre System in the People's Liberation Army) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989 (neibu)), translated in Chinese Law & Government (July-August and September-October 1995); Wang Wensong and Zhang Huning, Deng Xiaoping xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang gongzuo (Ideological Work in Deng Xiaoping's New Era of Military Construction) (Beijing: Guofang daxue chubanshe, 1993); Song Shuanglai (ed.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo xinlun (New Theories of Political Work in the Military) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1991); Li Wei and Li Qiang (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun zhengzhi gongzuo shijian (The Experience of Political Work in the Chinese People's Liberation) (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 1992); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiu (Research on Political Work in the Military during the New Era) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1987); Tian Shuliang, Ma Qingyun and Yang Jiaqi, Zhengzhi gongzuo xin silu (New Avenues in Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989); Jiefangjun bao shepinglunqu (ed.), Jiaqiang renmin jundui de zhengzhi jianshe (Accelerate Political Building in the People's Military) (Beijing: Changzheng chubanshe, 1990); n.a., Guanyu xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de jueding: heding ben (Decision Concerning Political Work in the Military During the New Era: Compendium) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1987); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de gaige (Reform of Military Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1988); Chengdu junqu junshi xueshu yanjiu zhidao weiyuanhui, Xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang yanjiu (Research on Building Ideology in the Military During the New Era) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1988); Commentator, "Make great efforts to strengthen the building of the armed forces ideologically and politically," Jiefangjun bao, 27 December 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 12 January 1995, pp. 32-34; Commentator, "Ideological and political work to be placed above all other tasks in the armed forces," Jiefangjun bao, 1 January 1995, in BBC, Summary of World Broadcasts: Far East (hereafter SWB/FE), 18 January 1995, pp. G-6/7.
73. See Zhongguo jiefangjun guofang daxue he zong zhengzhibu (eds.), Dangdai Zhongguojundui de zhengzhi gongzuo (Political Work in the Contemporary Chinese Military) (Beijing: Dangdai Zhongguo chubanshe, 1995); Zong zhengzhibu ganbubu he junshi kexueyuan junzhi yanjiubu (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun ganbu zhidu gaiyao (Survey of the Cadre System in the People's Liberation Army) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989 (neibu)), translated in Chinese Law & Government (July-August and September-October 1995); Wang Wensong and Zhang Huning, Deng Xiaoping xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang gongzuo (Ideological Work in Deng Xiaoping's New Era of Military Construction) (Beijing: Guofang daxue chubanshe, 1993); Song Shuanglai (ed.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo xinlun (New Theories of Political Work in the Military) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1991); Li Wei and Li Qiang (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun zhengzhi gongzuo shijian (The Experience of Political Work in the Chinese People's Liberation) (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 1992); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiu (Research on Political Work in the Military during the New Era) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1987); Tian Shuliang, Ma Qingyun and Yang Jiaqi, Zhengzhi gongzuo xin silu (New Avenues in Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989); Jiefangjun bao shepinglunqu (ed.), Jiaqiang renmin jundui de zhengzhi jianshe (Accelerate Political Building in the People's Military) (Beijing: Changzheng chubanshe, 1990); n.a., Guanyu xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de jueding: heding ben (Decision Concerning Political Work in the Military During the New Era: Compendium) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1987); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de gaige (Reform of Military Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1988); Chengdu junqu junshi xueshu yanjiu zhidao weiyuanhui, Xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang yanjiu (Research on Building Ideology in the Military During the New Era) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1988); Commentator, "Make great efforts to strengthen the building of the armed forces ideologically and politically," Jiefangjun bao, 27 December 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 12 January 1995, pp. 32-34; Commentator, "Ideological and political work to be placed above all other tasks in the armed forces," Jiefangjun bao, 1 January 1995, in BBC, Summary of World Broadcasts: Far East (hereafter SWB/FE), 18 January 1995, pp. G-6/7.
74. See Zhongguo jiefangjun guofang daxue he zong zhengzhibu (eds.), Dangdai Zhongguojundui de zhengzhi gongzuo (Political Work in the Contemporary Chinese Military) (Beijing: Dangdai Zhongguo chubanshe, 1995); Zong zhengzhibu ganbubu he junshi kexueyuan junzhi yanjiubu (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun ganbu zhidu gaiyao (Survey of the Cadre System in the People's Liberation Army) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989 (neibu)), translated in Chinese Law & Government (July-August and September-October 1995); Wang Wensong and Zhang Huning, Deng Xiaoping xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang gongzuo (Ideological Work in Deng Xiaoping's New Era of Military Construction) (Beijing: Guofang daxue chubanshe, 1993); Song Shuanglai (ed.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo xinlun (New Theories of Political Work in the Military) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1991); Li Wei and Li Qiang (eds.), Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun zhengzhi gongzuo shijian (The Experience of Political Work in the Chinese People's Liberation) (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 1992); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiu (Research on Political Work in the Military during the New Era) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1987); Tian Shuliang, Ma Qingyun and Yang Jiaqi, Zhengzhi gongzuo xin silu (New Avenues in Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1989); Jiefangjun bao shepinglunqu (ed.), Jiaqiang renmin jundui de zhengzhi jianshe (Accelerate Political Building in the People's Military) (Beijing: Changzheng chubanshe, 1990); n.a., Guanyu xin shiqi jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de jueding: heding ben (Decision Concerning Political Work in the Military During the New Era: Compendium) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1987); Junshi kexueyuan jundui zhengzhi gongzuo yanjiusuo (eds.), Jundui zhengzhi gongzuo de gaige (Reform of Military Political Work) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1988); Chengdu junqu junshi xueshu yanjiu zhidao weiyuanhui, Xin shiqi jundui jianshe sixiang yanjiu (Research on Building Ideology in the Military During the New Era) (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1988); Commentator, "Make great efforts to strengthen the building of the armed forces ideologically and politically," Jiefangjun bao, 27 December 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 12 January 1995, pp. 32-34; Commentator, "Ideological and political work to be placed above all other tasks in the armed forces," Jiefangjun bao, 1 January 1995, in BBC, Summary of World Broadcasts: Far East (hereafter SWB/FE), 18 January 1995, pp. G-6/7.
75. See Ning Shilong, Xin shiqi jundui dang de jianshe (Party Building in the Military During the New Era) (Nanchang: Jiangxi renmin chubanshe, 1991); Lan Shikui, Dang dui jundui juedui lingdao lilun yu shixian (Theory and Practice of the Military's Absolute Loyalty to the Party (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1993); Gong Fangling and Du Xin, Jundui dangwei gongzuo gailun (Survey of Party Committee Work in the Military) (Beijing: Junshi yiwen chubanshe, 1991); Tang Wu and Zhu Ruiqing, "Central Military Commission promulgates decision on further augmenting Party building in the army," Jiefangjun bao, 7 January 1995, in FBIS-CHI, 31 January 1995, pp. 15-18.
76. See Ning Shilong, Xin shiqi jundui dang de jianshe (Party Building in the Military During the New Era) (Nanchang: Jiangxi renmin chubanshe, 1991); Lan Shikui, Dang dui jundui juedui lingdao lilun yu shixian (Theory and Practice of the Military's Absolute Loyalty to the Party (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1993); Gong Fangling and Du Xin, Jundui dangwei gongzuo gailun (Survey of Party Committee Work in the Military) (Beijing: Junshi yiwen chubanshe, 1991); Tang Wu and Zhu Ruiqing, "Central Military Commission promulgates decision on further augmenting Party building in the army," Jiefangjun bao, 7 January 1995, in FBIS-CHI, 31 January 1995, pp. 15-18.
77. See Ning Shilong, Xin shiqi jundui dang de jianshe (Party Building in the Military During the New Era) (Nanchang: Jiangxi renmin chubanshe, 1991); Lan Shikui, Dang dui jundui juedui lingdao lilun yu shixian (Theory and Practice of the Military's Absolute Loyalty to the Party (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1993); Gong Fangling and Du Xin, Jundui dangwei gongzuo gailun (Survey of Party Committee Work in the Military) (Beijing: Junshi yiwen chubanshe, 1991); Tang Wu and Zhu Ruiqing, "Central Military Commission promulgates decision on further augmenting Party building in the army," Jiefangjun bao, 7 January 1995, in FBIS-CHI, 31 January 1995, pp. 15-18.
78. See Ning Shilong, Xin shiqi jundui dang de jianshe (Party Building in the Military During the New Era) (Nanchang: Jiangxi renmin chubanshe, 1991); Lan Shikui, Dang dui jundui juedui lingdao lilun yu shixian (Theory and Practice of the Military's Absolute Loyalty to the Party (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1993); Gong Fangling and Du Xin, Jundui dangwei gongzuo gailun (Survey of Party Committee Work in the Military) (Beijing: Junshi yiwen chubanshe, 1991); Tang Wu and Zhu Ruiqing, "Central Military Commission promulgates decision on further augmenting Party building in the army," Jiefangjun bao, 7 January 1995, in FBIS-CHI, 31 January 1995, pp. 15-18.
79. See Ning Shilong, Xin shiqi jundui dang de jianshe (Party Building in the Military During the New Era) (Nanchang: Jiangxi renmin chubanshe, 1991); Lan Shikui, Dang dui jundui juedui lingdao lilun yu shixian (Theory and Practice of the Military's Absolute Loyalty to the Party (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1993); Gong Fangling and Du Xin, Jundui dangwei gongzuo gailun (Survey of Party Committee Work in the Military) (Beijing: Junshi yiwen chubanshe, 1991); Tang Wu and Zhu Ruiqing, "Central Military Commission promulgates decision on further augmenting Party building in the army," Jiefangjun bao, 7 January 1995, in FBIS-CHI, 31 January 1995, pp. 15-18.
80. An excellent and comprehensive source is Deng Yingyi et al., Jundui dang de jilu jiancha gongzuo gailun (Survey of Party Discipline Inspection Work in Military) (Beijing: Changzheng chubanshe, 1988 (neibu)).
81. Shambaugh, "The soldier and the state in China." Despite this embryonic effort, given the plethora of materials now available (cf. nn. 30-31), the political work system in the PLA remains a subject ripe for research and a useful prism through which to view Party-army relations.
82. See June Teufel Dreyer, "Corruption in the People's Liberation Army: for good or evil?" in James Lilley (ed.), 5th Annual AEI Conference on the People's Liberation Army (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1994); and David S. G. Goodman, "Corruption in the People's Liberation Army: structural imperatives in the transformation of the party-state," paper presented to the conference on Chinese Economic Reform: The Impact on Security Policy, Hong Kong, July 1994.
83. See June Teufel Dreyer, "Corruption in the People's Liberation Army: for good or evil?" in James Lilley (ed.), 5th Annual AEI Conference on the People's Liberation Army (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1994); and David S. G. Goodman, "Corruption in the People's Liberation Army: structural imperatives in the transformation of the party-state," paper presented to the conference on Chinese Economic Reform: The Impact on Security Policy, Hong Kong, July 1994.
84. See Joffe, "The Chinese army and the economy"; Thomas Bickford, "The Chinese military and its business operations: the PLA as entrepreneur," Asian Survey (May 1994), pp. 460-474; Stacey Solomone, "The PLA's commercial activities in the economy: effects and consequences," Issues and Studies (March 1995), pp. 20-43; Tai Ming Cheung, "Profits over professionalism: the People's Liberation Army's economic activities and their impact on military unity," in Richard H. Yang et al. (eds.), Chinese Regionalism: The Security Dimension (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994). pp. 85-110; Arthur S. Ding, "The nature and impact of the PLA's business activities," Issues and Studies (August 1993), pp. 19-23.
85. See Joffe, "The Chinese army and the economy"; Thomas Bickford, "The Chinese military and its business operations: the PLA as entrepreneur," Asian Survey (May 1994), pp. 460-474; Stacey Solomone, "The PLA's commercial activities in the economy: effects and consequences," Issues and Studies (March 1995), pp. 20-43; Tai Ming Cheung, "Profits over professionalism: the People's Liberation Army's economic activities and their impact on military unity," in Richard H. Yang et al. (eds.), Chinese Regionalism: The Security Dimension (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994). pp. 85-110; Arthur S. Ding, "The nature and impact of the PLA's business activities," Issues and Studies (August 1993), pp. 19-23.
86. See Joffe, "The Chinese army and the economy"; Thomas Bickford, "The Chinese military and its business operations: the PLA as entrepreneur," Asian Survey (May 1994), pp. 460-474; Stacey Solomone, "The PLA's commercial activities in the economy: effects and consequences," Issues and Studies (March 1995), pp. 20-43; Tai Ming Cheung, "Profits over professionalism: the People's Liberation Army's economic activities and their impact on military unity," in Richard H. Yang et al. (eds.), Chinese Regionalism: The Security Dimension (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994). pp. 85-110; Arthur S. Ding, "The nature and impact of the PLA's business activities," Issues and Studies (August 1993), pp. 19-23.
87. See Joffe, "The Chinese army and the economy"; Thomas Bickford, "The Chinese military and its business operations: the PLA as entrepreneur," Asian Survey (May 1994), pp. 460-474; Stacey Solomone, "The PLA's commercial activities in the economy: effects and consequences," Issues and Studies (March 1995), pp. 20-43; Tai Ming Cheung, "Profits over professionalism: the People's Liberation Army's economic activities and their impact on military unity," in Richard H. Yang et al. (eds.), Chinese Regionalism: The Security Dimension (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994). pp. 85-110; Arthur S. Ding, "The nature and impact of the PLA's business activities," Issues and Studies (August 1993), pp. 19-23.
88. See Joffe, "The Chinese army and the economy"; Thomas Bickford, "The Chinese military and its business operations: the PLA as entrepreneur," Asian Survey (May 1994), pp. 460-474; Stacey Solomone, "The PLA's commercial activities in the economy: effects and consequences," Issues and Studies (March 1995), pp. 20-43; Tai Ming Cheung, "Profits over professionalism: the People's Liberation Army's economic activities and their impact on military unity," in Richard H. Yang et al. (eds.), Chinese Regionalism: The Security Dimension (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994). pp. 85-110; Arthur S. Ding, "The nature and impact of the PLA's business activities," Issues and Studies (August 1993), pp. 19-23.
89. See Richard A. Bitzinger and Chong-Pin Lin, The Defense Budget of the People's Republic of China (Washington, D.C.: The Defense Budget Project, 1994): "World military expenditure: China," in SIPRI Yearbook 1994 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 441-47; "China's military expenditure," in International Institute of Strategic Studies, The Military Balance 1995-1996 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 270-75; Chong-Pin Lin, "Limits to professionalism: the extramilitary roles of the People's Liberation Army in modernization," Security Studies (Summer 1992), pp. 659-689.
90. See Richard A. Bitzinger and Chong-Pin Lin, The Defense Budget of the People's Republic of China (Washington, D.C.: The Defense Budget Project, 1994): "World military expenditure: China," in SIPRI Yearbook 1994 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 441-47; "China's military expenditure," in International Institute of Strategic Studies, The Military Balance 1995-1996 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 270-75; Chong-Pin Lin, "Limits to professionalism: the extramilitary roles of the People's Liberation Army in modernization," Security Studies (Summer 1992), pp. 659-689.
91. See Richard A. Bitzinger and Chong-Pin Lin, The Defense Budget of the People's Republic of China (Washington, D.C.: The Defense Budget Project, 1994): "World military expenditure: China," in SIPRI Yearbook 1994 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 441-47; "China's military expenditure," in International Institute of Strategic Studies, The Military Balance 1995-1996 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 270-75; Chong-Pin Lin, "Limits to professionalism: the extramilitary roles of the People's Liberation Army in modernization," Security Studies (Summer 1992), pp. 659-689.
92. See Richard A. Bitzinger and Chong-Pin Lin, The Defense Budget of the People's Republic of China (Washington, D.C.: The Defense Budget Project, 1994): "World military expenditure: China," in SIPRI Yearbook 1994 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 441-47; "China's military expenditure," in International Institute of Strategic Studies, The Military Balance 1995-1996 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 270-75; Chong-Pin Lin, "Limits to professionalism: the extramilitary roles of the People's Liberation Army in modernization," Security Studies (Summer 1992), pp. 659-689.
93. See John W. Lewis, Hua Di and Xue Litai, "Beijing's defense establishment: solving the arms export enigma," International Security. Vol. 15, No. 4 (1991); Eric Hyer, "China's arms merchants: profits in command," The China Quarterly, No. 132 (December 1992), pp. 1101-18. The most comprehensive study of China's arms exports is R. Bates Gill, Chinese Arms Transfers (New York: Praeger, 1992). Gill and Taeho Kim have also written the most comprehensive assessment of China's arms imports: see Bates Gill and Taeho Kim, China's Arms Acquisitions from Abroad: A Quest for "Superb and Secret Weapons" (Oxford: Oxford University Press, for SIPRI, 1995).
94. See John W. Lewis, Hua Di and Xue Litai, "Beijing's defense establishment: solving the arms export enigma," International Security. Vol. 15, No. 4 (1991); Eric Hyer, "China's arms merchants: profits in command," The China Quarterly, No. 132 (December 1992), pp. 1101-18. The most comprehensive study of China's arms exports is R. Bates Gill, Chinese Arms Transfers (New York: Praeger, 1992). Gill and Taeho Kim have also written the most comprehensive assessment of China's arms imports: see Bates Gill and Taeho Kim, China's Arms Acquisitions from Abroad: A Quest for "Superb and Secret Weapons" (Oxford: Oxford University Press, for SIPRI, 1995).
95. See John W. Lewis, Hua Di and Xue Litai, "Beijing's defense establishment: solving the arms export enigma," International Security. Vol. 15, No. 4 (1991); Eric Hyer, "China's arms merchants: profits in command," The China Quarterly, No. 132 (December 1992), pp. 1101-18. The most comprehensive study of China's arms exports is R. Bates Gill, Chinese Arms Transfers (New York: Praeger, 1992). Gill and Taeho Kim have also written the most comprehensive assessment of China's arms imports: see Bates Gill and Taeho Kim, China's Arms Acquisitions from Abroad: A Quest for "Superb and Secret Weapons" (Oxford: Oxford University Press, for SIPRI, 1995).
96. See John W. Lewis, Hua Di and Xue Litai, "Beijing's defense establishment: solving the arms export enigma," International Security. Vol. 15, No. 4 (1991); Eric Hyer, "China's arms merchants: profits in command," The China Quarterly, No. 132 (December 1992), pp. 1101-18. The most comprehensive study of China's arms exports is R. Bates Gill, Chinese Arms Transfers (New York: Praeger, 1992). Gill and Taeho Kim have also written the most comprehensive assessment of China's arms imports: see Bates Gill and Taeho Kim, China's Arms Acquisitions from Abroad: A Quest for "Superb and Secret Weapons" (Oxford: Oxford University Press, for SIPRI, 1995).
97. See Paul Humes Folta, From Swords to Plowshares? Defense Industry Reform in the PRC (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992); Mel Gurtov, "Swords into market shares: China's conversion of military industry to civilian production," The China Quarterly, No. 134 (June 1993). pp. 213-241; Tai Ming Cheung, "Elusive ploughshares: Chinese defense plants turn to civilian production," Far Eastern Economic Review, 14 October 1993, pp. 70-71.
98. See Paul Humes Folta, From Swords to Plowshares? Defense Industry Reform in the PRC (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992); Mel Gurtov, "Swords into market shares: China's conversion of military industry to civilian production," The China Quarterly, No. 134 (June 1993). pp. 213-241; Tai Ming Cheung, "Elusive ploughshares: Chinese defense plants turn to civilian production," Far Eastern Economic Review, 14 October 1993, pp. 70-71.
99. See Paul Humes Folta, From Swords to Plowshares? Defense Industry Reform in the PRC (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992); Mel Gurtov, "Swords into market shares: China's conversion of military industry to civilian production," The China Quarterly, No. 134 (June 1993). pp. 213-241; Tai Ming Cheung, "Elusive ploughshares: Chinese defense plants turn to civilian production," Far Eastern Economic Review, 14 October 1993, pp. 70-71.
100. "China New Model Army," The Economist, 11 June 1994, pp. 71-72; and "Soldiering pays," The Economist, 9 July 1994, pp. 69-70.
101. "China New Model Army," The Economist, 11 June 1994, pp. 71-72; and "Soldiering pays," The Economist, 9 July 1994, pp. 69-70.
102. Directorate of Intelligence (Central Intelligence Agency), China's Economy in 1992 and 1993: Grappling with the Risks of Rapid Growth (Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 1993), p. 9. Interestingly, an internal study conducted by the Military Development Institute of the PLA National Defence University in 1993 came up with the same figure for 1992 (converted to dollars). Interview with knowledgeable PLA officer, 29 October 1993.
103. Personal communication from knowledgeable Bermuda banker, 4 April 1995.
104. Tai Ming Cheung, "The tainted millions: corruption raises its ugly head in the army," Far Eastern Economic Review, 12 August 1993, p. 13; Chris Dobson, "Beijing's enemy within the ranks," South China Morning Post Weekly, 30 April-1 May 1994, p. 11.
105. Tai Ming Cheung, "The tainted millions: corruption raises its ugly head in the army," Far Eastern Economic Review, 12 August 1993, p. 13; Chris Dobson, "Beijing's enemy within the ranks," South China Morning Post Weekly, 30 April-1 May 1994, p. 11.
106. See, for example, Ji Wen and Zhu Ruiqing, "Yu Yongbo stresses greater determination in pushing anti-corruption work in army at all-army conference on discipline inspection," Jiefangjun bao, 25 January 1995, in FBIS-CHI, 22 February 1995, pp. 28-30; Ji Wen and Zhu Ruiqing, "Increase strength, perfect mechanisms - all-army conference on discipline inspection stresses further promoting the building of party style and clean administration in the army," Jiefangjun bao, 21 January 1995, in FBIS-CHI, 8 March 1995, pp. 42-43.
107. See, for example, Ji Wen and Zhu Ruiqing, "Yu Yongbo stresses greater determination in pushing anti-corruption work in army at all-army conference on discipline inspection," Jiefangjun bao, 25 January 1995, in FBIS-CHI, 22 February 1995, pp. 28-30; Ji Wen and Zhu Ruiqing, "Increase strength, perfect mechanisms - all-army conference on discipline inspection stresses further promoting the building of party style and clean administration in the army," Jiefangjun bao, 21 January 1995, in FBIS-CHI, 8 March 1995, pp. 42-43.
108. See, for example, Ji Wen and Zhu Ruiqing, "Yu Yongbo stresses greater determination in pushing anti-corruption work in army at all-army conference on discipline inspection," Jiefangjun bao, 25 January 1995, in FBIS-CHI, 22 February 1995, pp. 28-30; Ji Wen and Zhu Ruiqing, "Increase strength, perfect mechanisms - all-army conference on discipline inspection stresses further promoting the building of party style and clean administration in the army," Jiefangjun bao, 21 January 1995, in FBIS-CHI, 8 March 1995, pp. 42-43.
109. See, for example, Ji Wen and Zhu Ruiqing, "Yu Yongbo stresses greater determination in pushing anti-corruption work in army at all-army conference on discipline inspection," Jiefangjun bao, 25 January 1995, in FBIS-CHI, 22 February 1995, pp. 28-30; Ji Wen and Zhu Ruiqing, "Increase strength, perfect mechanisms - all-army conference on discipline inspection stresses further promoting the building of party style and clean administration in the army," Jiefangjun bao, 21 January 1995, in FBIS-CHI, 8 March 1995, pp. 42-43.
110. Leng Mou, "Central Military Commission strengthens management; Jiang Zemin calls for strict army administration," Guang jiao jing (Wide Angle) (Hong Kong), 16 October 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 4 November 1994, pp. 26-30.
111. Leng Mou, "Central Military Commission strengthens management; Jiang Zemin calls for strict army administration," Guang jiao jing (Wide Angle) (Hong Kong), 16 October 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 4 November 1994, pp. 26-30.
112. Ren Yanjun, "With approval of CMC Chairman Jiang Zemin, CMC Resolution on Improving Management and Education in the Armed Forces is promulgated for implementation," Jiefangjun bao, 11 December 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 20 December 1994, pp. 23-24.
113. Ren Yanjun, "With approval of CMC Chairman Jiang Zemin, CMC Resolution on Improving Management and Education in the Armed Forces is promulgated for implementation," Jiefangjun bao, 11 December 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 20 December 1994, pp. 23-24.
114. Deng Xiaoping, "Speech to the Expanded Conference of the Central Military Commission," Deng Xiaoping wenxuan (Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping), Vol. 3 (Beijing: People's Press, 1993), pp. 126-29.
115. I am grateful to Col. Yao Yunzhu for helping to trace doctrinal evolution in the PLA over the last decade. See Yao Yunzhu, "The evolution of military doctrine of the Chinese PLA from 1985 to 1995," Korean Journal of Defense Analysis, Vol. 7, No. 2 (Winter 1995), pp. 57-80. For Western analyses of the PLA's changing doctrine see Paul H.B. Godwin, "Changing concepts of doctrine, strategy, and operations in the Chinese People's Liberation Army, 1979-1987," The China Quarterly, No. 112 (December 1987), pp. 572-76; Godwin, "Chinese defense policy and military strategy in the 1990s," in Joint Economic Committee of the Congress of the United States, China's Economic Dilemmas in the 1990s (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1991): Godwin, "Chinese military strategy revised: local and limited war," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science (January 1992), pp. 191-201; David Shambaugh, "The insecurity of security: the PLA's evolving doctrine and threat perceptions towards 2000," The Journal of Northeast Asian Studies (Spring 1994), pp. 3-25; Shambaugh, "China's security in the post-Cold War era," Survival (Summer 1992), pp. 88-106; and Shambaugh, "Growing strong."
116. I am grateful to Col. Yao Yunzhu for helping to trace doctrinal evolution in the PLA over the last decade. See Yao Yunzhu, "The evolution of military doctrine of the Chinese PLA from 1985 to 1995," Korean Journal of Defense Analysis, Vol. 7, No. 2 (Winter 1995), pp. 57-80. For Western analyses of the PLA's changing doctrine see Paul H.B. Godwin, "Changing concepts of doctrine, strategy, and operations in the Chinese People's Liberation Army, 1979-1987," The China Quarterly, No. 112 (December 1987), pp. 572-76; Godwin, "Chinese defense policy and military strategy in the 1990s," in Joint Economic Committee of the Congress of the United States, China's Economic Dilemmas in the 1990s (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1991): Godwin, "Chinese military strategy revised: local and limited war," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science (January 1992), pp. 191-201; David Shambaugh, "The insecurity of security: the PLA's evolving doctrine and threat perceptions towards 2000," The Journal of Northeast Asian Studies (Spring 1994), pp. 3-25; Shambaugh, "China's security in the post-Cold War era," Survival (Summer 1992), pp. 88-106; and Shambaugh, "Growing strong."
117. I am grateful to Col. Yao Yunzhu for helping to trace doctrinal evolution in the PLA over the last decade. See Yao Yunzhu, "The evolution of military doctrine of the Chinese PLA from 1985 to 1995," Korean Journal of Defense Analysis, Vol. 7, No. 2 (Winter 1995), pp. 57-80. For Western analyses of the PLA's changing doctrine see Paul H.B. Godwin, "Changing concepts of doctrine, strategy, and operations in the Chinese People's Liberation Army, 1979-1987," The China Quarterly, No. 112 (December 1987), pp. 572-76; Godwin, "Chinese defense policy and military strategy in the 1990s," in Joint Economic Committee of the Congress of the United States, China's Economic Dilemmas in the 1990s (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1991): Godwin, "Chinese military strategy revised: local and limited war," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science (January 1992), pp. 191-201; David Shambaugh, "The insecurity of security: the PLA's evolving doctrine and threat perceptions towards 2000," The Journal of Northeast Asian Studies (Spring 1994), pp. 3-25; Shambaugh, "China's security in the post-Cold War era," Survival (Summer 1992), pp. 88-106; and Shambaugh, "Growing strong."
118. I am grateful to Col. Yao Yunzhu for helping to trace doctrinal evolution in the PLA over the last decade. See Yao Yunzhu, "The evolution of military doctrine of the Chinese PLA from 1985 to 1995," Korean Journal of Defense Analysis, Vol. 7, No. 2 (Winter 1995), pp. 57-80. For Western analyses of the PLA's changing doctrine see Paul H.B. Godwin, "Changing concepts of doctrine, strategy, and operations in the Chinese People's Liberation Army, 1979-1987," The China Quarterly, No. 112 (December 1987), pp. 572-76; Godwin, "Chinese defense policy and military strategy in the 1990s," in Joint Economic Committee of the Congress of the United States, China's Economic Dilemmas in the 1990s (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1991): Godwin, "Chinese military strategy revised: local and limited war," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science (January 1992), pp. 191-201; David Shambaugh, "The insecurity of security: the PLA's evolving doctrine and threat perceptions towards 2000," The Journal of Northeast Asian Studies (Spring 1994), pp. 3-25; Shambaugh, "China's security in the post-Cold War era," Survival (Summer 1992), pp. 88-106; and Shambaugh, "Growing strong."
119. I am grateful to Col. Yao Yunzhu for helping to trace doctrinal evolution in the PLA over the last decade. See Yao Yunzhu, "The evolution of military doctrine of the Chinese PLA from 1985 to 1995," Korean Journal of Defense Analysis, Vol. 7, No. 2 (Winter 1995), pp. 57-80. For Western analyses of the PLA's changing doctrine see Paul H.B. Godwin, "Changing concepts of doctrine, strategy, and operations in the Chinese People's Liberation Army, 1979-1987," The China Quarterly, No. 112 (December 1987), pp. 572-76; Godwin, "Chinese defense policy and military strategy in the 1990s," in Joint Economic Committee of the Congress of the United States, China's Economic Dilemmas in the 1990s (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1991): Godwin, "Chinese military strategy revised: local and limited war," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science (January 1992), pp. 191-201; David Shambaugh, "The insecurity of security: the PLA's evolving doctrine and threat perceptions towards 2000," The Journal of Northeast Asian Studies (Spring 1994), pp. 3-25; Shambaugh, "China's security in the post-Cold War era," Survival (Summer 1992), pp. 88-106; and Shambaugh, "Growing strong."
120. I am grateful to Col. Yao Yunzhu for helping to trace doctrinal evolution in the PLA over the last decade. See Yao Yunzhu, "The evolution of military doctrine of the Chinese PLA from 1985 to 1995," Korean Journal of Defense Analysis, Vol. 7, No. 2 (Winter 1995), pp. 57-80. For Western analyses of the PLA's changing doctrine see Paul H.B. Godwin, "Changing concepts of doctrine, strategy, and operations in the Chinese People's Liberation Army, 1979-1987," The China Quarterly, No. 112 (December 1987), pp. 572-76; Godwin, "Chinese defense policy and military strategy in the 1990s," in Joint Economic Committee of the Congress of the United States, China's Economic Dilemmas in the 1990s (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1991): Godwin, "Chinese military strategy revised: local and limited war," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science (January 1992), pp. 191-201; David Shambaugh, "The insecurity of security: the PLA's evolving doctrine and threat perceptions towards 2000," The Journal of Northeast Asian Studies (Spring 1994), pp. 3-25; Shambaugh, "China's security in the post-Cold War era," Survival (Summer 1992), pp. 88-106; and Shambaugh, "Growing strong."
121. I am grateful to Col. Yao Yunzhu for helping to trace doctrinal evolution in the PLA over the last decade. See Yao Yunzhu, "The evolution of military doctrine of the Chinese PLA from 1985 to 1995," Korean Journal of Defense Analysis, Vol. 7, No. 2 (Winter 1995), pp. 57-80. For Western analyses of the PLA's changing doctrine see Paul H.B. Godwin, "Changing concepts of doctrine, strategy, and operations in the Chinese People's Liberation Army, 1979-1987," The China Quarterly, No. 112 (December 1987), pp. 572-76; Godwin, "Chinese defense policy and military strategy in the 1990s," in Joint Economic Committee of the Congress of the United States, China's Economic Dilemmas in the 1990s (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1991): Godwin, "Chinese military strategy revised: local and limited war," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science (January 1992), pp. 191-201; David Shambaugh, "The insecurity of security: the PLA's evolving doctrine and threat perceptions towards 2000," The Journal of Northeast Asian Studies (Spring 1994), pp. 3-25; Shambaugh, "China's security in the post-Cold War era," Survival (Summer 1992), pp. 88-106; and Shambaugh, "Growing strong."
122. Jiang Zemin, "Gaodu zhongshi he dali fazhan kexuejishu" ("High level advancement and great development of science and technology"), Jingji ribao, 8 August 1991, p. 1.
123. Liu Huaqing, "Unswervingly advance along the road of building a modern army with Chinese characteristics," Jiefangjun bao, 6 August 1993, in FBIS-CHI, 18 August 1993, p. 19.
124. Liu Huaqing, "Unswervingly advance along the road of building a modern army with Chinese characteristics," Jiefangjun bao, 6 August 1993, in FBIS-CHI, 18 August 1993, p. 19.
125. Arthur S. Ding, "The streamlining of the PLA," Issues and Studies (November 1992), p. 90.
126. Ibid. p. 93.
127. Jiang Siyi (ed.), Zhongguo renmin Jiefangjun da cidian (Great Dictionary of the Chinese People's Liberation Army) (Tianjin: Tianjin People's Press, 1992), pp. 1809, 1827, 1843. Data on demobilizations to the PAP derive from U.S. Government sources.
128. International Institute of Strategic Studies, The Military Balance, 1994-1995 (London: Brasseys, 1995), p. 170.
129. China News Analysis (Hong Kong) No. 1511 (June 1994), p. 6.
130. "PLA officers, soldiers become better trained," Xinhua Domestic Service, 24 September 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 29 September 1994, pp. 57-58.
131. "PLA officers, soldiers become better trained," Xinhua Domestic Service, 24 September 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 29 September 1994, pp. 57-58.
132. "Veteran General Zhang Zhen's students are all over the three armed services," Ming bao (Hong Kong), 9 November 1992, in FBIS-CHI, 13 November 1992, p. 40.
133. "Veteran General Zhang Zhen's students are all over the three armed services," Ming bao (Hong Kong), 9 November 1992, in FBIS-CHI, 13 November 1992, p. 40.
134. "PLA officers, soldiers become better trained," p. 58.
135. "National Defence University reforms education," Xinhua Domestic Service, 22 August 1992, in FBIS-CHI, 26 August 192, p. 42.
136. "National Defence University reforms education," Xinhua Domestic Service, 22 August 1992, in FBIS-CHI, 26 August 192, p. 42.
137. Ibid.
138. Xinhua Domestic Service dispatch, 17 July 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 19 July 1994, p. 32.
139. For an analysis of these and other changes in the organizational and command structure see Wang An, Jundui tiaoling yu guanli (Military Regulations and Management) (Beijing: Junshi kexue chubanshe, 1992, junnei faxing).
140. Pan Weike et al., "New trail blazed in joint manoeuvres by land, sea and air forces," Jiefangjun bao, 26 August 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 30 September 1994, p. 51.
141. Pan Weike et al., "New trail blazed in joint manoeuvres by land, sea and air forces," Jiefangjun bao, 26 August 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 30 September 1994, p. 51.
142. Tai Ming Cheung, "Quick response," Far Eastern Economic Review, 14 January 1993, pp. 19-20.
143. Jane's All the World Aircraft 1992-1993 (Surrey, UK: Janes Information Group, 1993), pp. 201-202.
144. David Donald and Jon Lake (eds.), Encyclopedia of World Military Aircraft, Vol. 1 (London: Aerospace Publishing, 1994), p. 211.
145. See the assessment in MacNamara et al., Sino-American Military Relations.
146. For general assessments of the PLA order-of-battle see United States General Accounting Office, Impact of China's Military Modernization in the Pacific Region; Caldwell, China's Conventional Military Capabilities, 1994-2004; John Caldwell and Paul H.B. Godwin. "China's force projection potential: an assessment of the PLA's conventional military capabilities, 1994-2005," paper presented at the Fifth American Enterprise Institute Conference on the People's Liberation Army, June 1994; Godwin and Schultz, "Arming the dragon for the 21 st century"; International Institute of Strategic Studies, The Military Balance, annual; Chong-Pin Lin, "Chinese military modernization"; Larry Wortzel, "China pursues traditional great power status," Orbis (Spring 1994), pp. 157-175; and You Ji, "Chinese military modernization in the 1990s," unpublished paper.
147. For general assessments of the PLA order-of-battle see United States General Accounting Office, Impact of China's Military Modernization in the Pacific Region; Caldwell, China's Conventional Military Capabilities, 1994-2004; John Caldwell and Paul H.B. Godwin. "China's force projection potential: an assessment of the PLA's conventional military capabilities, 1994-2005," paper presented at the Fifth American Enterprise Institute Conference on the People's Liberation Army, June 1994; Godwin and Schultz, "Arming the dragon for the 21 st century"; International Institute of Strategic Studies, The Military Balance, annual; Chong-Pin Lin, "Chinese military modernization"; Larry Wortzel, "China pursues traditional great power status," Orbis (Spring 1994), pp. 157-175; and You Ji, "Chinese military modernization in the 1990s," unpublished paper.
148. For general assessments of the PLA order-of-battle see United States General Accounting Office, Impact of China's Military Modernization in the Pacific Region; Caldwell, China's Conventional Military Capabilities, 1994-2004; John Caldwell and Paul H.B. Godwin. "China's force projection potential: an assessment of the PLA's conventional military capabilities, 1994-2005," paper presented at the Fifth American Enterprise Institute Conference on the People's Liberation Army, June 1994; Godwin and Schultz, "Arming the dragon for the 21 st century"; International Institute of Strategic Studies, The Military Balance, annual; Chong-Pin Lin, "Chinese military modernization"; Larry Wortzel, "China pursues traditional great power status," Orbis (Spring 1994), pp. 157-175; and You Ji, "Chinese military modernization in the 1990s," unpublished paper.
149. For general assessments of the PLA order-of-battle see United States General Accounting Office, Impact of China's Military Modernization in the Pacific Region; Caldwell, China's Conventional Military Capabilities, 1994-2004; John Caldwell and Paul H.B. Godwin. "China's force projection potential: an assessment of the PLA's conventional military capabilities, 1994-2005," paper presented at the Fifth American Enterprise Institute Conference on the People's Liberation Army, June 1994; Godwin and Schultz, "Arming the dragon for the 21 st century"; International Institute of Strategic Studies, The Military Balance, annual; Chong-Pin Lin, "Chinese military modernization"; Larry Wortzel, "China pursues traditional great power status," Orbis (Spring 1994), pp. 157-175; and You Ji, "Chinese military modernization in the 1990s," unpublished paper.
150. For general assessments of the PLA order-of-battle see United States General Accounting Office, Impact of China's Military Modernization in the Pacific Region; Caldwell, China's Conventional Military Capabilities, 1994-2004; John Caldwell and Paul H.B. Godwin. "China's force projection potential: an assessment of the PLA's conventional military capabilities, 1994-2005," paper presented at the Fifth American Enterprise Institute Conference on the People's Liberation Army, June 1994; Godwin and Schultz, "Arming the dragon for the 21 st century"; International Institute of Strategic Studies, The Military Balance, annual; Chong-Pin Lin, "Chinese military modernization"; Larry Wortzel, "China pursues traditional great power status," Orbis (Spring 1994), pp. 157-175; and You Ji, "Chinese military modernization in the 1990s," unpublished paper.
151. For general assessments of the PLA order-of-battle see United States General Accounting Office, Impact of China's Military Modernization in the Pacific Region; Caldwell, China's Conventional Military Capabilities, 1994-2004; John Caldwell and Paul H.B. Godwin. "China's force projection potential: an assessment of the PLA's conventional military capabilities, 1994-2005," paper presented at the Fifth American Enterprise Institute Conference on the People's Liberation Army, June 1994; Godwin and Schultz, "Arming the dragon for the 21 st century"; International Institute of Strategic Studies, The Military Balance, annual; Chong-Pin Lin, "Chinese military modernization"; Larry Wortzel, "China pursues traditional great power status," Orbis (Spring 1994), pp. 157-175; and You Ji, "Chinese military modernization in the 1990s," unpublished paper.
152. For general assessments of the PLA order-of-battle see United States General Accounting Office, Impact of China's Military Modernization in the Pacific Region; Caldwell, China's Conventional Military Capabilities, 1994-2004; John Caldwell and Paul H.B. Godwin. "China's force projection potential: an assessment of the PLA's conventional military capabilities, 1994-2005," paper presented at the Fifth American Enterprise Institute Conference on the People's Liberation Army, June 1994; Godwin and Schultz, "Arming the dragon for the 21 st century"; International Institute of Strategic Studies, The Military Balance, annual; Chong-Pin Lin, "Chinese military modernization"; Larry Wortzel, "China pursues traditional great power status," Orbis (Spring 1994), pp. 157-175; and You Ji, "Chinese military modernization in the 1990s," unpublished paper.
153. For general assessments of the PLA order-of-battle see United States General Accounting Office, Impact of China's Military Modernization in the Pacific Region; Caldwell, China's Conventional Military Capabilities, 1994-2004; John Caldwell and Paul H.B. Godwin. "China's force projection potential: an assessment of the PLA's conventional military capabilities, 1994-2005," paper presented at the Fifth American Enterprise Institute Conference on the People's Liberation Army, June 1994; Godwin and Schultz, "Arming the dragon for the 21 st century"; International Institute of Strategic Studies, The Military Balance, annual; Chong-Pin Lin, "Chinese military modernization"; Larry Wortzel, "China pursues traditional great power status," Orbis (Spring 1994), pp. 157-175; and You Ji, "Chinese military modernization in the 1990s," unpublished paper.
154. The best and most comprehensive source is Gill and Kim, China's Arms Acquisitions.
155. This assumes smooth development and production - an assumption which historically is not a safe one. The development of a variety of aircraft and guidance and propulsion systems, as well as submarine programmes have long been plagued by design and production difficulties.
156. General Jimmy D. Ross (U.S. Army Rtd.), lecture at the PLA National Defence University, 25 May 1994. This claim was not reassuring to the audience of PLA officers.
157. United States General Accounting Office, Impact of China's Military Modernization in the Pacific Region, p. 16.
158. For explorations of the issues involved in calculating Chinese military expenditure and estimates of defence spending see International Institute of Strategic Studies, "China's military expenditure"; "World military expenditure: China"; Bitzinger and Chong-Pin Lin, Off the Books; Wang Shaoguang, "China's defence expenditure," The China Quarterly, September 1996, forthcoming; James Harris et al., "Interpreting trends in Chinese defense spending," in United States Congress Joint Economic Committee, China's Economic Dilemmas in the 1990s (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1991), pp. 676-77; and David Shambaugh, "Wealth in search of power: the Chinese defense budget and revenue base," paper presented at the conference on "Economic Reform and Chinese Security," Hong Kong, July 1994.
159. For explorations of the issues involved in calculating Chinese military expenditure and estimates of defence spending see International Institute of Strategic Studies, "China's military expenditure"; "World military expenditure: China"; Bitzinger and Chong-Pin Lin, Off the Books; Wang Shaoguang, "China's defence expenditure," The China Quarterly, September 1996, forthcoming; James Harris et al., "Interpreting trends in Chinese defense spending," in United States Congress Joint Economic Committee, China's Economic Dilemmas in the 1990s (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1991), pp. 676-77; and David Shambaugh, "Wealth in search of power: the Chinese defense budget and revenue base," paper presented at the conference on "Economic Reform and Chinese Security," Hong Kong, July 1994.
160. For explorations of the issues involved in calculating Chinese military expenditure and estimates of defence spending see International Institute of Strategic Studies, "China's military expenditure"; "World military expenditure: China"; Bitzinger and Chong-Pin Lin, Off the Books; Wang Shaoguang, "China's defence expenditure," The China Quarterly, September 1996, forthcoming; James Harris et al., "Interpreting trends in Chinese defense spending," in United States Congress Joint Economic Committee, China's Economic Dilemmas in the 1990s (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1991), pp. 676-77; and David Shambaugh, "Wealth in search of power: the Chinese defense budget and revenue base," paper presented at the conference on "Economic Reform and Chinese Security," Hong Kong, July 1994.
161. For explorations of the issues involved in calculating Chinese military expenditure and estimates of defence spending see International Institute of Strategic Studies, "China's military expenditure"; "World military expenditure: China"; Bitzinger and Chong-Pin Lin, Off the Books; Wang Shaoguang, "China's defence expenditure," The China Quarterly, September 1996, forthcoming; James Harris et al., "Interpreting trends in Chinese defense spending," in United States Congress Joint Economic Committee, China's Economic Dilemmas in the 1990s (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1991), pp. 676-77; and David Shambaugh, "Wealth in search of power: the Chinese defense budget and revenue base," paper presented at the conference on "Economic Reform and Chinese Security," Hong Kong, July 1994.
162. For explorations of the issues involved in calculating Chinese military expenditure and estimates of defence spending see International Institute of Strategic Studies, "China's military expenditure"; "World military expenditure: China"; Bitzinger and Chong-Pin Lin, Off the Books; Wang Shaoguang, "China's defence expenditure," The China Quarterly, September 1996, forthcoming; James Harris et al., "Interpreting trends in
163. For explorations of the issues involved in calculating Chinese military expenditure and estimates of defence spending see International Institute of Strategic Studies, "China's military expenditure"; "World military expenditure: China"; Bitzinger and Chong-Pin Lin, Off the Books; Wang Shaoguang, "China's defence expenditure," The China Quarterly, September 1996, forthcoming; James Harris et al., "Interpreting trends in Chinese defense spending," in United States Congress Joint Economic Committee, China's Economic Dilemmas in the 1990s (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1991), pp. 676-77; and David Shambaugh, "Wealth in search of power: the Chinese defense budget and revenue base," paper presented at the conference on "Economic Reform and Chinese Security," Hong Kong, July 1994.
164. Wortzel, "China pursues traditional great power status," p. 167.
165. See Joseph Morgan, Porpoises Among the Whales: Small Navies in Asia and the Pacific (Honolulu: East-West Center Special Reports No. 2, 1994). Also see John Downing, "China's evolving maritime strategy: parts I and II," Jane's Intelligence Review (March and April 1996), pp. 129-133 and 186-191 respectively.
166. See Joseph Morgan, Porpoises Among the Whales: Small Navies in Asia and the Pacific (Honolulu: East-West Center Special Reports No. 2, 1994). Also see John Downing, "China's evolving maritime strategy: parts I and II," Jane's Intelligence Review (March and April 1996), pp. 129-133 and 186-191 respectively.
167. Guan Jingfu, "Commander of the PRC navy discloses latest movements of the PRC navy," Guang Jiao Jing, 16 November 1991, in Joint Publications Research Service, China Report, JPRS-CAR-92-013, 9 March 1992, p. 22.
168. Guan Jingfu, "Commander of the PRC navy discloses latest movements of the PRC navy," Guang Jiao Jing, 16 November 1991, in Joint Publications Research Service, China Report, JPRS-CAR-92-013, 9 March 1992, p. 22.
169. No author, Defense Journal (No. 1-2, 1992), p. 57.
170. Gordon Jacobs, "Chinese naval developments post-Gulf War," Jane's Intelligence Review (February 1993), p. 84.
171. The Military Balance, 1995-96, pp. 177-78.
172. Hugh Cowin, Warships (London: Bloomsbury Books, 1986), p. 78.
173. No author, "New ships for the PLAN," Jane's Defense Weekly, 18 January 1992, p. 88; Caldwell, China's Conventional Military Capabilities, p. 7.
174. No author, "New ships for the PLAN," Jane's Defense Weekly, 18 January 1992, p. 88; Caldwell, China's Conventional Military Capabilities, p. 7.
175. Acquired from Germany and the United States, respectively, prior to 1989.
176. Jane's Fighting Ships, 1992-93 (Surrey, UK: Janes Information Group, 1993), p. 113.
177. China built 50 of the Dauphin-II under licence from France. The Chinese designation is Z-9 or Z-9A.
178. Cowan, Warships, p. 129.
179. "New ships for the PLAN," p. 88.
180. "China's new naval missile," International Defense Review (July 1992), p. 636.
181. Duncan Lennox, "China's new anti-ship missile," Jane's Intelligence Review (November 1992), pp. 512-13. Also see Gordon Jacobs, "China's naval missiles," Asian Defense Journal (October 1990), pp. 65-74.
182. Duncan Lennox, "China's new anti-ship missile," Jane's Intelligence Review (November 1992), pp. 512-13. Also see Gordon Jacobs, "China's naval missiles," Asian Defense Journal (October 1990), pp. 65-74.
183. See John Wilson Lewis and Xue Litai, China's Strategic Seapower: The Politics of Force Modernization in the Nuclear Age (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995).
184. The Military Balance 1995-96, p. 177.
185. "New variant of Chinese SSNs revealed," World Aerospace & Defense Intelligence (8 October 1993), p. 17.
186. Janes Fighting Ships 1992-1993, p. 108.
187. Barbara Starr, "USA keeps an eye on slow 'Kilo' to China," Jane's Defense Weekly (25 February 1995), p. 3. Also see "Further on purchase of Russian submarines," Asahi Shinbum, 7 March 1995, in FBIS-CHI, 8 March 1995. p. 44.
188. Barbara Starr, "USA keeps an eye on slow 'Kilo' to China," Jane's Defense Weekly (25 February 1995), p. 3. Also see "Further on purchase of Russian submarines," Asahi Shinbum, 7 March 1995, in FBIS-CHI, 8 March 1995. p. 44.
189. Barbara Starr, "USA keeps an eye on slow 'Kilo' to China," Jane's Defense Weekly (25 February 1995), p. 3. Also see "Further on purchase of Russian submarines," Asahi Shinbum, 7 March 1995, in FBIS-CHI, 8 March 1995. p. 44.
190. John Jordan, "The 'Kilo' class submarine," Jane's Intelligence Weekly (September 1992), p. 429.
191. Michael Richardson, "U.S. Admiral warns of China's big new navy," International Herald Tribune, 8 March 1995, p. 1.
192. See Lin Mu, "The aviation dream of the Chinese people," Shidian (Beijing), 8 July 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 24 August 1994, pp. 35-38; and You Ji, "Chinese military modernization in the 1990s," citing unpublished Chinese sources.
193. See Lin Mu, "The aviation dream of the Chinese people," Shidian (Beijing), 8 July 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 24 August 1994, pp. 35-38; and You Ji, "Chinese military modernization in the 1990s," citing unpublished Chinese sources.
194. See Lin Mu, "The aviation dream of the Chinese people," Shidian (Beijing), 8 July 1994, in FBIS-CHI, 24 August 1994, pp. 35-38; and You Ji, "Chinese military modernization in the 1990s," citing unpublished Chinese sources.
195. See Kenneth W. Allen, People's Republic of China People's Liberation Army Air Force (Washington, D.C: Defense Intelligence Agency Report DIC-1300-445-91, 1991). For a more recent and definitive study see Kenneth W. Allen, Glenn Krumel and Jonathan D. Pollack, China's Air Force Enters the 21st Century (Santa Monica, CA: The RAND Corporation, 1995). For more dated assessments see R.M. Bueschel, Communist Chinese Air Power (New York: Praeger, 1968); and U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency, The Chinese Armed Forces Today (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1979).
196. See Kenneth W. Allen, People's Republic of China People's Liberation Army Air Force (Washington, D.C: Defense Intelligence Agency Report DIC-1300-445-91, 1991). For a more recent and definitive study see Kenneth W. Allen, Glenn Krumel and Jonathan D. Pollack, China's Air Force Enters the 21st Century (Santa Monica, CA: The RAND Corporation, 1995). For more dated assessments see R.M. Bueschel, Communist Chinese Air Power (New York: Praeger, 1968); and U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency, The Chinese Armed Forces Today (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1979).
197. See Kenneth W. Allen, People's Republic of China People's Liberation Army Air Force (Washington, D.C: Defense Intelligence Agency Report DIC-1300-445-91, 1991). For a more recent and definitive study see Kenneth W. Allen, Glenn Krumel and Jonathan D. Pollack, China's Air Force Enters the 21st Century (Santa Monica, CA: The RAND Corporation, 1995). For more dated assessments see R.M. Bueschel, Communist Chinese Air Power (New York: Praeger, 1968); and U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency, The Chinese Armed Forces Today (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1979).
198. See Kenneth W. Allen, People's Republic of China People's Liberation Army Air Force (Washington, D.C: Defense Intelligence Agency Report DIC-1300-445-91, 1991). For a more recent and definitive study see Kenneth W. Allen, Glenn Krumel and Jonathan D. Pollack, China's Air Force Enters the 21st Century (Santa Monica, CA: The RAND Corporation, 1995). For more dated assessments see R.M. Bueschel, Communist Chinese Air Power (New York: Praeger, 1968); and U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency, The Chinese Armed Forces Today (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1979).
199. Patrick Tyler, "China to buy 72 advanced fighter planes from Russia," New York Times, 7 February 1996, p. 3.
200. John Lake, Sukhoi Su-27 "Flanker": The Most Complete Guide to Russia's Superfighter (London: Aerospace Publishing, 1994), pp. 23-24; Sophearith Moeng (ed.), The Vital Guide to Military Aircraft (Shrewsbury, UK: Aerospace Publishing Ltd., 1994), p. 118.
201. John Lake, Sukhoi Su-27 "Flanker": The Most Complete Guide to Russia's Superfighter (London: Aerospace Publishing, 1994), pp. 23-24; Sophearith Moeng (ed.), The Vital Guide to Military Aircraft (Shrewsbury, UK: Aerospace Publishing Ltd., 1994), p. 118.
202. See Allen et al., China's Air Force Enters the 21st Century, ch. 7.
203. Israel has continuously refused to comment on the issue. Among the numerous reports of Israeli assistance see David A. Fulgham, "New Chinese fighter nears prototyping," Aviation Week and Space Technology, 13 March 1995, pp. 26-27; and "China pursuing two fighter plan," Aviation Week and Space Technology, 27 March 1995, pp. 44-45; Jim Mann, "U.S. says Israel gave combat jet planes to China," Los Angeles Times, 28 December 1994, p. 1.
204. Israel has continuously refused to comment on the issue. Among the numerous reports of Israeli assistance see David A. Fulgham, "New Chinese fighter nears prototyping," Aviation Week and Space Technology, 13 March 1995, pp. 26-27; and "China pursuing two fighter plan," Aviation Week and Space Technology, 27 March 1995, pp. 44-45; Jim Mann, "U.S. says Israel gave combat jet planes to China," Los Angeles Times, 28 December 1994, p. 1.
205. Israel has continuously refused to comment on the issue. Among the numerous reports of Israeli assistance see David A. Fulgham, "New Chinese fighter nears prototyping," Aviation Week and Space Technology, 13 March 1995, pp. 26-27; and "China pursuing two fighter plan," Aviation Week and Space Technology, 27 March 1995, pp. 44-45; Jim Mann, "U.S. says Israel gave combat jet planes to China," Los Angeles Times, 28 December 1994, p. 1.
206. I am indebted to Michael Swaine for this information.
207. Quoted in "China to build new fighter by 2000," World Aviation, Space & Electronics Air Letter, No. 12,915, 20 January 1994, p. 1.
208. See also David Shambaugh, "Taiwan's security," The China Quarterly (December 1996), forthcoming.
209. Among many reports see William Ashton, "Chinese bases in Burma - fact or fiction?" Jane's Intelligence Review (February 1995), pp. 84-87.