Structural stability of andesite volcanoes and lava domes

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences

Volumn 358, Issue 1770, 2000, Pages 1663-1703

  Voight, Barry ^a  

^a PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Edifice failure; Lava domes; Limited equilibrium analyses; Numerical modelling; Stability analysis; Volcano collapse

Indexed keywords

EID: 0346672641     PISSN: 1364503X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2000.0609     Document Type: Article

References (138)

1. Alidibirov, M. & Dingwell, D. B. 1996 Magma fragmentation by rapid decompression. Nature 380, 146-148.
2. Alidibirov, M., Dingwell, D. B., Stevenson, R. J., Hess, K.-U., Webb, S. L. & Zinke, J. 1997 Physical properties of the 1980 Mount St Helens cryptodorne magma. Bull. Volcanol. 59, 103-111.
3. Barton, N. R. & Bandis, S. C. 1982 Effects of block size on the shear behaviour of jointed rock. In 23rd US Symp. Rock Mechanics, pp. 739-760.
4. Barton, N. R. & Bandis, S. C. 1990 Review of predictive capabilities of JRC-JCS model in engineering practice. In Proc. Int. Symp. Rock Joints (ed. N. Barton & O. Stephansson), pp. 603-610. Rotterdam: Balkema.
5. Beget, J. & Kienle, J. 1992 Cyclic formation of debris avalanches at Mount St Augustine volcano. Nature 356, 701-704.
6. Belousov, A. B. 1995 The Shiveluch volcanic eruption of 12 November 1964: explosive eruption provoked by failure of the edifice. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 66, 357-365.
7. Belousov, A. B., Belousova, M. & Voight, B. 1999 Multiple edifice failures, debris avalanches, and associated eruptions in the Holocene history of Shiveluch volcano, Kamchatka, Russia. Bull. Volcanol. 61, 324-342
8. Bieniawski, Z. T. 1989 Engineering rock mass classifications. Wiley.
9. Bishop, A. W. 1955 The use of the slip circle in the stability analysis of slopes. Géotechnique 5, 7-17.
10. Brown, C. B. & King, I. P. 1966 Automatic embankment analysis: equilibrium and stability conditions. Géotechnique 16, 209-219.
11. Byrne, P. M., Jitno, H. & Salgado, R. 1992 Earthquake-induced displacements of soil-structure systems. In Proc. 10th World Conf. Earthquake Engng, Madrid, vol. 3, pp. 1407-1412.
12. Carslaw, H. S. & Jaeger, J. C. 1959 Conduction of heat in solids, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press.
13. Cundall, P. A. 1980 UDEC - a generalized distinct element program for modeling jointed rock. US Army, Contract DAJA37-79-C-0548; NTIS no. AD-A087-610/2.
14. Cundall, P. A. 1990 Numerical modeling of jointed and faulted rock. In Mechanics of jointed and faulted rock, pp. 11-18. Rotterdam: Balkema.
15. Cundall, P. A. & Board, M. 1988 A microcomputer program for modeling large-strain plasticity problems. In Numerical methods in geomechanics (ed. G. Swoboda). pp. 2101-2108. Rotterdam: Balkema.
16. Dade W. B. & Huppert, H. E. 1998 Long-runout rockfalls. Geology 26, 803-806.
17. Decker, R. W. 1981 The 1980 activity: a case study in volcanic eruption forecasting. Prof. Paper US Geol. Surv. 1250, 815-820.
18. Desai, C. S. & Abel, J. F. 1972 Introduction to the finite element method. New York: Van Nostrand.
19. De Silva, S. L. & Francis, P. W. 1991 Volcanoes of the Central Andes. Springer.
20. Dingwell, D. B. 1998 Recent experimental progress in the physical description of silicic magma relevant to explosive volcanism. In The physics of explosive volcanism (ed. J. S. Gilbert & R. J. S. Sparks), vol. 145, pp. 9-26. London: Geological Society.
21. Donnadieu, F. & Merle, O. 1998 Experiments on the indentation process during cryptodome intrusions: new insights into Mount St Helens deformation. Geology 26, 79-82.
22. Drescher, A. & Mroz, Z. 1997 A refined superior sand model. Proc. 6th Int. Symp. Num. Models Geomech., NUMOG 6, pp. 21-26. Balkema: Rotterdam.
23. Duncan, J. M. 1992 State-of-the-art: static stability and deformation analysis. Am. Soc. Civil Engng Geotech. (Spec. Publ.) 31, 222-265.
24. Duncan, J. M. 1996 State-of-the-art: limit equilibrium and finite-element analysis of slopes. J. Geotech. Engng ASCE 122, 577-596.
25. Duncan, J. M. & Wright, S. G. 1980 The accuracy of equilibrium methods of slope stability analysis. Eng. Geol. 16, 5-17.
26. Elsworth, D. & Voight, B. 1995 Dike intrusion as a trigger for large earthquakes and the failure of volcano flanks. J. Geophys. Res. 100, 6005-6024.
27. Ewart, J. & Voight, B. 1980 Finite element deformation models, Mount St Helens volcano, Washington: preliminary results. Technical report to US Geological Survey, Investigation for Mount St Helens Eruption. File report: Cascades Volcano Observatory, Washington (report summary submitted by letter to USGS, 16 May 1980).
28. Fink, J. H. & Kieffer, S. W. 1993 Estimates of pyroclastic flow velocities resulting from explosive disintegration of lava domes. Nature 363, 612-614.
29. Finn, W. D. L. 1988 Dynamic analysis in geotechnical engineering. Geotech. ASCE (Spec. Publ.) 20, 523-591.
30. Finn, W. D. L., Yogendrakumar, M., Yoshida, M. & Yoshida, N. 1986 TARA-3: a program to compute the response of 2-D embankments and soil-structure interaction systems to seismic loadings. Vancouver: University of British Columbia.
31. Francis, P. W. 1993 Volcanoes: a planetary perspective. Oxford: Clarendon.
32. Francis, P. W. & Self, S. 1987 Collapsing volcanoes. Sci. Am. 287, 90-99.
33. Francis, P. W. & Wells, G. L. 1988 Landslide thematic mapper observations of debris avalanche deposits in the Central Andes. Bull. Volcanol. 50, 258-278.
34. Francis, P. W., Gardeweg, M., Ramirez, C. F. & Rothery, D. A. 1985 Catastrophic debris avalanche deposit of Socompa volcano, northern Chile. Geology 13, 600-603.
35. Fredlund, D. G. 1984 Analytical methods for slope stability analysis. Proc. 4th Int. Symp. Landslides, Toronto, vol. 1, pp. 229-250.
36. Glicken, H. 1986 Rockslide-debris avalanche of May 18, 1980, Mount St Helens volcano, Washington. PhD thesis, University of California, Santa Barbara.
37. Goodman, R., Taylor, R. & Brekke, T. 1968 A model for the mechanics of jointed rock. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div. ASCE 94, 637-659.
38. Gorshkov, G. S. 1959 Gigantic eruption of the volcano Bezymianny. Bull. Volcanol. 21, 77-109.
39. Hart, R. D., Cundall, P. A. & Lemos, J. 1988 Formulation of a three dimensional distinct element model. Part II. Mechanical calculations of motion and interaction of a system composed of many polyhedral blocks. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 25, 117-126.
40. Hess, K.-U. & Dingwell, D. B. 1996 Viscous hydrous leucogranite melts: a non-Arrhenian model. Am. Min. 81, 1297-1301.
41. Hoek, E. 1983 Strength of jointed rock masses. Géotechnique 33, 187-223.
42. Hoek, E. & Brown, E. T. 1980 Empirical strength criterion for rock masses. J. Geotech. Engng Div. ASCE 106, 1013-1035.
43. Hoek, E. & Brown, E. T. 1988 The Hoek-Brown failure criterion - a 1988 update. Proc. 15th Canadian Rock Mech. Symp, Toronto.
44. Hoek, E., Wood, D. & Shah, S. 1992 A modified Hoek-Brown criterion for jointed rock masses. Int. Symp. Soc. Rock Mech., Eurock '92, pp. 209-214. London: British Geological Society.
45. Hoek, E., Kaiser, P. K. & Bawden, W. F. 1994 Support of underground excavations in hard rock. Rotterdam: Balkema.
46. Hungr, O. 1987 An extension of Bishop's simplified method of slope stability analysis to three dimensions. Géotechnique 37, 113-117.
47. Hungr, O., Salgado, F. M. & Byrne, P. M. 1989 Evaluation of a three dimensional method of slope stability analysis. Can. Geotech. J. 26, 679-686.
48. Iverson, R. M. 1995 Can magma-injection and groundwater forces cause massive landslides on Hawaiian volcanoes? J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 66, 295-308.
49. Johnson, R. W. 1987 1888 slope failure of Ritter volcano: results from a bathymetric survey, and examples from other Papua New Guinea volcanoes. Bull. Volcanol. 49, 669-679.
50. Kienle, J., Kowalik, Z. & Murty, T. S. 1987 Tsunamis generated by eruptions from St Augustine volcano, Alaska. Science 236, 1445-1447.
51. Lacroix, A. 1904 La Montagne Pelée et ses éruptions. Paris: Masson.
52. Lipman, P. W. & Mullineaux, D. R. (eds) 1981 The 1980 eruptions of Mount St Helens, Washington. Prof. Paper US Geol. Surv. 1250.
53. Lipman, P. W., Moore, J. G. & Swanson, D. A. 1981 Bulging of the north flank before the May 18 eruption: geodetic data. Prof. Paper US Geol. Surv. 1250, 143-156.
54. McGuire, W. J., Kilburn, C. R. & Murray, J. 1995 Monitoring active volcanoes: strategies, procedures and techniques. London: UCL Press.
55. Miller, C. D., Mullineaux, D. R. & Crandell, D. R. 1981 Use of volcanic hazards assessments: a case study at an active volcano. Prof. Paper US Geol. Surv. 1250, 789-802.
56. Moore, J. G. & Albee, W. C. 1981 Topographic and structural changes, March-July 1980: photogrammatic data. Prof. Paper US Geol. Surv. 1250, 123-134.
57. Morgenstern, N. R. 1992 The evaluation of slope stability - a 25-year perspective. Am. Soc. Civil Engng Geotech. (Spec. Publ.) 31, 1-26.
58. Murray, J. B., Voight, B. & Glot, J.-P. 1994 Slope movement crisis on the east flank of Mt Etna volcano: models for eruption triggering and forecasting. Engng Geol. 38, 245-259.
59. Mustoe, G. (ed.) 1989 Proc. 1st US Conf. Discrete Element Methods. Golden, CO: Colorado School of Mines.
60. Naranjo, J. & Francis, P. W. 1987 High velocity debris avalanche at Lastarria volcano, north Chile. Bull. Volcanol. 49, 509-514.
61. Nash, D. F. T. 1987 A comparative review of limit equilibrium methods of stability analysis. In Slope stability (ed. M. G. Anderson & K. S. Richards), ch. 2. Wiley.
62. Newhall, C. G. & Melson, W. G. 1987 Explosive activity associated with growth of volcanic domes. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 17, 111-131.
63. Okada, H. 1983 Comparative study of earthquake swarms associated with major volcanic activities. In Arc volcanism: physics and tectonics (ed. D. Shimozuro & I. Yokoyama), pp. 43-61. Tokyo: Terra Science.
64. Oyagi, N. 1987 The 1984 Ontake-san landslide and its movement. Trans. Jap. Geomorphol. Un. 8, 127-144.
65. Pariseau, W. G. & Voight, B. 1979 Rockslides and avalanches: basic principles and perspectives in the realm of civil and mining operations. In Rockslides and avalanches, 2: engineering sites (ed. B. Voight), pp. 1-92. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
66. Pariseau, W. G., Voight, B. & Dahl, H. D. 1970 Finite element analyses of elastic-plastic problems in the mechanics of geologic media. Proc. 2nd Int. Congr. Soc. Rock Mech., Beograd, paper 3-45.
67. Paul, A., Gratier, J. P. & Boudon, J. 1987 A numerical model for simulating deformation of Mount St Helens volcano. J. Geophys. Res. 92, 10299-10312.
68. Pietruszczak, S. & Mroz, Z. 1981 Finite element analysis of deformation of strain-softening materials. Int. J. Num. Meth. Engng 17, 327-334.
69. Pouyet, P., Picaut, J., Costaz, J. L. & Dulac, J. 1983 'Bloc' program for elasto-plastic calculations of fissured media. In Proc. 7th Structural Mechanics Reactor Technology, Chicago.
70. Reid, M. E., Christian, S. & Brien, D. L. 2000 Gravitational stability of three-dimensional stratovolcanic edifices. J. Geophys. Res. 105, 6043-6056.
71. Ritchie, L. J., Cole, P. & Sparks, R. S. J. 2000 Sedimentology of the pyroclastic density current deposits generated by the December 26, 1997 eruption at the Soufrière Hills volcano, Montserrat. Geol. Soc. (Spec. Publ.). (In the press.)
72. Robertson, R. (and 10 others) 1998 The explosive eruption of Soufrière Hills volcano, Montserrat, West Indies, September 17, 1996. Geophys. Res. Lett. 25, 3429-3433.
73. Sarma, S. K. 1979 Stability analysis of embankments and slopes. J. Geotech. Engng Div. ASCE 105, 1511-1524.
74. Sato, H., Fujii, T. & Nakada, S. 1992 Crumbling of dacite dome lava and generation of pyroclastic flows at Unzen volcano. Nature 360, 664-666.
75. Scarpa, R. & Tilling, R. I. 1996 Monitoring and mitigation of volcanic hazards. Springer.
76. Seed, H. B. 1979 Considerations in the earthquake-resistant design of earth and rockfill dams. Géotechnique 29, 215-263.
77. Sekiya, S. & Kikuchi, Y. 1889. The eruption of Bandai-san. Tokyo Imp. Univ. Coll. Sci. J. 3, 91-172.
78. Shah, S. 1992 A study of the behaviour of jointed rock masses. PhD thesis, University of Toronto.
79. Siebert, L. 1984 Large volcanic debris avalanches: characteristics of source areas, deposits, and associated eruptions. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 22, 163-197.
80. Siebert, L. 1996 Hazards of large volcanic debris avalanches and associated eruptive phenomena. In Monitoring and mitigation of volcano hazards (ed. R. Scarpa & R. I. Tilling), pp. 541-572. Springer.
81. Siebert, L., Glicken, H. & Ui, T. 1987 Volcanic hazards from Bezymianny- and Bandai-type eruptions. Bull. Volcanol. 49, 435-459.
82. Siebert, L., Beget, J. E. & Glicken, H. 1995 The 1883 and late prehistoric eruptions of Augustine volcano, Alaska. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 66, 367-395.
83. Sleep, N. H. 1999 Rate- and state-dependent friction of intact rock and gouge. J. Geophys. Res. 104, 17847-17855.
84. Slingerland, R. L. & Voight, B. 1979 Occurrences, properties, and predictive models of landslide-generated water waves. In Rockslides and avalanches, 2: engineering sites (ed. B. Voight), pp. 317-397. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
85. Sousa, J. & Voight, B. 1991 Continuum simulation of flow failure. Géotechnique 41, 515-538.
86. Sousa, J. & Voight, B. 1995 Multiple-pulsed debris avalanche emplacement at Mount St Helens in 1980: evidence from numerical continuum flow simulation. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 66, 227-250.
87. Sparks, R. S. J. (and 11 others) 2000 Generation of a debris avalanche and violent pyroclastic density current: the Boxing Day eruption of 26 December 1997 at the Soufrière Hills volcano, Montserrat. Geol. Soc. (Spec. Publ.). (In the press.)
88. Spencer, E. 1981 Slip circles and critical shear planes. J. Geotech. Engng Div. ASCE 107, 929-942.
89. Starfield, A. M. & Cundall, P. A. 1988 Towards a methodology for rock mechanics modeling. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Geomech. Abs. 25, 99-106.
90. Succarieh, M. F., Yan, L. & Elgamal, A. M. 1991 Modelling of observed deformation at La Villita dam. Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics, St Louis, vol. 2, pp. 1079-1086.
91. Taylor, G. A. 1958 The 1951 eruption of Mount Lamington, Papua. Aust. Bur. Min. Resources Geol. Geophys. Bull. 38, 1-117.
92. Terzaghi, K. 1950 Mechanisms of landslides. Engineering geology (Berkey) volume. Geological Society of America.
93. Tinti, S., Bortolucci, E. & Armigliato, A. 1999. Numerical simulation of the landslide-induced tsunami of 1988 on Vulcano Island, Italy. Bull Volcanol. 61, 121-137.
94. Ugai, K. & Leshchinsky, D. 1995 Three-dimensional limit equilibrium and finite element analyses: a comparison of results. Soils Found. 35, 1-7.
95. Ui, T. & Fujiwara, H. 1993 Debris avalanche database. In Scale and characteristics of volcanic disasters, prediction of natural disasters and prevention measures for society (ed. S. Aramaki), pp. 177-188. Ministry of Education and Scientific Research Funding (Mombusho), priority area research report no. A-4-5 (in Japanese).
96. Van Bemmelen, R. W. 1949 The geology of Indonesia. The Hague: Nijhoff.
97. Van Bemmelen, R. W. 1950 Gravitational tectogenesis in Indonesia. Geol. Mijnbou 12, 351-361.
98. Van Wyk de Vries, B. & Borgia, A. 1996 In Volcanic stability of the earth and other planets (ed. W. J. McGuire, A. P. Jones & J. Neuberg), vol. 110. London: Geological Society.
99. Van Wyk de Vries, B. & Francis, P. W. 1997 Catastrophic collapse at stratovolcanoes induced by gradual volcano spreading. Nature 387, 387-390.
100. Van Wyk de Vries, B., Self, S., Francis, P. & Keszthelyi, L. 1999 Development of the Socompa debris avalanche (N. Chile) from a spreading volcanic edifice. Eos 80, F1142.
101. Vermeer, P. A. (ed.) 1991 Plaxis: finite element code for soil and rock plasticity. Rotterdam: Balkema.
102. Vermeer, P. A. & De Borst, R. 1984 Non-associated plasticity for soils, concrete and rock. Heron 29, 5-62.
103. Voight, B. (ed.) 1979 Rockslides and avalanches, 2: engineering sites. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
104. Voight, B. 1980 Slope stability hazards, Mount St Helens volcano, Washington. Technical report of the US Geological Survey. File report: Cascades Volcano Observatory, Washington. (See the report included at the end of this paper.)
105. Voight, B. 1981 Time scale for the first moments of the May 18 eruption. Prof. Paper US Geol. Surv. 1250, 69-86.
106. Voight, B. 1988 A method for prediction of volcanic eruptions. Nature 332, 125-130.
107. Voight, B. 1989 A relation to describe rate-dependent material failure. Science 243, 200-203.
108. Voight, B. 1992 Causes of landslides: conventional factors and special considerations for geothermal sites and volcanic regions. Geothermal Resource Council Trans. 16, 529-533.
109. Voight, B. 1996 Strength of wall rock of English's Crater, Soufrière Hills volcano, Montserrat. In The Soufrière Hills eruption, Montserrat (Abstracts), p. 29. Geological Society, 27 November 1996.
110. Voight, B. & Dahl, H. D. 1970 Numerical continuum approaches to analysis of nonlinear rock deformation. Can. J. Earth Sci. 7, 814-830.
111. Voight, B. & Elsworth, D. 1997 Failure of volcano slopes. Géotechnique 47, 1-31.
112. Voight, B. & Elsworth, D. 2000 Stability and collapse of hazardous gas-pressurized lava domes. Geophys. Res. Lett. 48, 1-4.
113. Voight, B. & Kennedy, B. 1979 Slope failure of 1967-1969, Chuquicamata mine, Chile. In Rockslides and avalanches, 2: engineering sites (ed. B. Voight), pp. 595-632. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
114. Voight, B. & Sousa, J. 1994 Lessons from Ontake-san: a comparative analysis of debris avalanche dynamics. Eng. Geol. 38, 261-297.
115. Voight, B., Glicken, H., Janda, R. J. & Douglass, P. M. 1981 Catastrophic rockslide avalanche of May 18. Prof. Paper US Geol. Surv. 1250, 347-378.
116. Voight, B., Janda, R. J., Glicken, H. & Douglass, P. M. 1983 Nature and mechanics of the Mount St Helens rockslide-avalanche of 18 May 1980. Géotechnique 33, 243-273.
117. Voight, B., Janda, R. J., Glicken, H. & Douglass, P. M. 1985 Nature and mechanics of the Mount St Helens rockslide-avalanche of 18 May 1980. Reply to discussion. Géotechnique 35, 357-368.
118. Voight, B., Calvache, M. L & Ospina Herrera, O. 1987 High-altitude monitoring of rock mass stability near the summit of Volcano Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia. Proc. 6th Int. Cong. International Society of Rock Mechanics, Montreal, pp. 275-279.
119. Voight, B., Orkan, N. & Young, K. 1989 Deformation and failure-time prediction in rock mechanics. In Proc. 34th US Symp. Rock Mechanics. Rotterdam: Balkema.
120. Voight, B., Hoblitt, R. P., Clarke, A. B., Lockhart, A. B., Miller, A. D., Lynch, L. & McMahon, J. 1998 Remarkable cyclic ground deformation monitored in real time on Montserrat and its use in eruption forecasting. Geophys. Res. Lett. 25, 3405-3408.
121. Voight, B. (and 24 others) 1999 Magma flow instability and cyclic activity at Soufrière Hills volcano, Montserrat, British West Indies. Science 283, 1138-1142.
122. Wadge, G., Francis, P. W. & Ramirez, C. F. 1995 The Socompa collapse and avalanche event. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 66, 309-336.
123. Wadge, G., Woods, A., Jackson, P., Bower, S., Williams, C. & Hulsemann, F. 1998 A hazard evaluation system for Montserrat. In Forecasts and warnings, ch. 3. UK Coordination Committee for IDNDR. London: Telford.
124. Wang, Y.-J. & Voight, B. 1969 A discrete element stress analysis model for discontinuous materials. In Proc. Int. Symp. Large Permanent Underground Openings, Oslo, artikkel 6. International Society of Rock Mechanics.
125. West, S. 1980 Earth sciences. Science News (20 December), p. 399.
126. Wiberg, N. E., Koponen, M. & Runesson, K. 1990 Finite element analysis of progressive failure in long slopes. Int. J. Num. Analyt. Methods Geomech. 14, 599-612.
127. Williams, H. & McBirney, A. R. 1979 Volcanology. San Francisco, CA: Freeman, Cooper.
128. Yamamoto, T., Nakamura, Y. & Glicken, H. 1999 Pyroclastic density current from the 1888 phreatic eruption of Bandai volcano, NE Japan. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 90, 191-207.
129. Young, S. R., Sparks, R. S. J., Aspinall, W. P., Lynch, L. L., Miller, A. D., Roberston, R. E. A. & Shepherd, J. B. 1998 Overview of the eruption of Soufrière Hills volcano, Montserrat, July 18, 1995, to December 1997. Geophys. Res. Lett. 25, 3389-3393.
130. Zienkiewicz, O. C., Humpheson, C. & Lewis, R. W. 1975 Associated and non-associated viscoplasticity and plasticity in soil mechanics. Géotechnique 25, 671-689.
131. Pariseau, W. G., and Voight, B., 1979, Rockslides and avalanches: Basic principles, and perspectives in the realm of civil and mining operations, p. 1-92, in Voight, B., Ed., Rockslides and Avalanches, 2. Engineering Sites. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 850 pp.
132. Radbruch-Hall, D. H., 1979, Gravitational creep of rock masses on slopes, p. 607-657, in Voight, B., Ed., Rockslides and Avalanches, 1. Natural Phenomena. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 833 pp.
133. Radbruch-Hall, D. H., Varnes, D. J., and Savage, W. Z., 1976, Gravitational spreading of steepsided ridges ('Sackung') in western United States. Bull. Int. Assoc. Eng. Geol., 14: 23-25.
134. Sekiya, S. and Kikuchi, Y., 1889, The eruption of Bandai-san, J. Coll. Sci. Tokyo Imp. Univ., 3: 91-172.
135. Slingerland, R. L. and Voight, B., 1979, Occurrences, properties, and prediction models of landslide-generated water waves, p. 317-397, in Voight, B., Ed., Rockslides and Avalanches, 2. Engineering Sites. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 850 pp.
136. Tabor, R. W., 1971, Origin of ridge top depressions by large-scale creep in the Olympic Mountains, Washington, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 82: 1811-1822.
137. Voight, B. and Kennedy, B. A., 1979, Slope failure of 1967-1969, Chuquicamata Mine, Chile, p. 595-632, in Voight, B., ed., Rockslides and Avalanches, 2. Engineering Sites. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 850 p.
138. Zischinsky, U., 1966, On the deformation of high slopes. 1st Congr. Int. Soc. Rock Mech., Lisbon, 2: 179-185.