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After compiling a preliminary list of candidate cultural variants, representatives of all sites with long-term data on wild orangutans convened in San Anselmo, California, from 14 to 17 February 2002 to discuss these variants and to identify new ones through plenary discussion of site descriptions and video footage from multiple sites. We used the same criteria as employed in the chimpanzee comparison, including those for prevalence at a given site (2, 3).
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Included sites had more than 4 years of intensive observations of at least 25 individual orangutans and 10,000 contact hours. Observation intensity is based on numbers of observation hours and total duration of the study as (i) less than 25,000 hours or (ii) more than 25,000 hours. We excluded (i) universals, which are behavior patterns that were found at all sites or were absent for obvious ecological reasons; (ii) variant feeding techniques on the same species of fruit (unless one involved tools), because different morphologies and subtle ecological influences producing independent convergence within sites are difficult to exclude without detailed examination; and (iii) variants with localized distributions that most likely reflect ecological conditions (e.g., lathering of fruit pulp or seeds in the fur of arms, drinking water from natural containers such as pitcher plants, making ground nests, wading through standing water, etc.).
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Sponsored by the LS.B. Leakey Foundation. For contributions to the database, we thank D. Agee, M. Brown, I. Foitova, E. Fox, N. Ghaffar, I. bin'Muhammad, A. Johnson, T. Laman, J. Mitani, T. M. Setia, H. Peters, D. Priatna, and S. Wich. We thank the Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) and the directorate general of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation Service in the Ministry of Forestry for permission for the various projects. For substantial or long-term support of orangutan field work, we thank the Wildlife Conservation Society; the National Geographic Society; NSF; the Netherlands Organization for Tropical Research; the LS.B. Leakey Foundation; the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research; the Pittsburgh Zoo; the Conservation, Food, and Health Foundation; the Great Ape Conservation Fund; and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. We thank C. Boesch, D. Brockman, R. Deaner, J. Galef, M. Huffman, J. Mitani, A. Russon, M. van Noordwijk, and C. Vinyard for help with this paper.
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