Scepticism and animal rationality: The fortune of Chrysippus' dog in the history of western thought

Archiv fur Geschichte der Philosophie

Volumn 79, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 27-57

  Floridi, Luciano ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0346538254     PISSN: 00039101     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1515/agph.1997.79.1.27     Document Type: Review

References (127)

1. G. Frege, "On Sense and Meaning", in Translations from the Philosophical Writings, ed. by Peter Geach and Max Black (Oxford: Blackwell, 1952) p. 59
2. C. Doyle, "The Adventure of the Creeping Man", in The Penguin Complete Adventures of Sherlock Holmes (London: Penguin, 1988) p. 1071. All following references are to this edition
3. C. Doyle, "The Return of Sherlock Holmes: The Adventure of the Missing Three-Quarter", p. 633
4. C. Doyle, "The Case Book of Sherlock Holmes: The Adventure of Shoscombe Old Place", p. 1108. The original text reads "her" instead of "his"
5. See Roberto Barbolini, Il Detective Sublime, Sul Romanzo Poliziesco (Roma-Napoli: Theoria, 1988)
6. David Hume, A Treatise on Human Nature, ed. by P. H. Nidditch (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978) Book II, Part III, Sect. X, "Of Curiosity, or the Love of Truth"
7. On Ripa's life see now Chiara Stefani, "Cesare Ripa, New Biographical Evidence", Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 53 (1990) pp. 307-312
8. Ripa's Iconologia (Siena, 1613) pp. 387 f. , my translation of the following passage: "Donna con l'ali alla testa [. . . ] mostrando [. . . ] col dito indice della sinistra, un Cane, il quale stia con la testa bassa per tera in atto di cercare la fiera. L'ale [. . . ] significano l'elevazione dell'intelletto, perché alzandosi egli [. . . ] viene in cognizione delle cose alte, e celesti. [. . . ] Del significato del Cane, Sesto Pirhonese Filosofo nel primo lib. cap. 14 dice, che il cane [. . . ] denota investigatione, percioche quando seguita una fiera, ed arrivato ad un luogo, dove sono tre strade, e non havendo veduto per qual via sia andata; esso odorata, ch'abbia la prima strada, odora la seconda, e se in nessuna di esse sente, che sia andata, non odora la terza, ma risoluto corre argomentando, che necessariamente sia andata per essa. " The quotation comes from the fourth edition
9. Mason Tung has recently provided a study of sixteen editions and several reprints of Ripa's Iconologia, with a concordance of the various entries, see his Two Concordances to Ripa's Iconologia (New York: AMS Press, 1993)
10. Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism, I, 69 f. , Greek ed. with Eng. tr. by R. G. Bury (Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard U. P. , 1933) p. 43, my alterations
11. Another, more synthetic reference to Chrysippus' dog is in Sextus Empiricus, Against the Logicians II, 271-275 (Adv. Math. VIII), Greek ed. with Eng. tr. by R. G. Bury, (Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard U. P. , 1935) p. 379
12. A version of the syllogism is in the Outlines II, 150, on which see Otto Apelt, "Zu Sextus Empiricus", Rheinisches Museum 39 (1884) pp. 27-33
13. For a translation of the relevant passages, see Julia Annas and Jonathan Barnes, The Modes of Scepticism: Ancient Texts and Modern Interpretations (Cambridge: Cambridge U. P. , 1985), pp. 31-53 on "Humans and other Animals"
14. and now Outlines of Scepticism, Eng. tr. by Julia Annas and Jonathan Barnes (Cambridge: Cambridge U. P. , 1994), in which the two translators devote some space to Chrysippus' dog
15. For a philological analysis of the whole passage, with further bibliographical references, see Fernanda Decleva Caizzi, "L'elogio del cane. Sesto Empirico, Schizzi Pirroniani I 62-78", Elenchos 14 (1993), pp. 305-330. On p. 329 Decleva Caizzi argues that the text in question provides evidence in favour of a floruit of Sextus datable to 150-170
16. I have analysed the rediscovery of Sextus Empiricus in the Renaissance in "Sextus Empiricus in the Renaissance", Journal of the History of Ideas 56. 1 (1995), pp. 63-85
17. On the first edition of the Latin edition of the Outlines and the "cognizione delle cose alte", as Ripa expresses himself, see my "The Grafted Branches of the Sceptical Tree: 'Noli altum sapere' and Henri Estienne's Latin Edition of Sexti Empirici Pyrrhoniarum Hypotyposeon libri III", Nouvelles de la République des Lettres 11 (1992), pp. 127-166. I hope to deal with the manuscript and editorial tradition of Sextus' works exhaustively in the article "Sextus Empiricus" for the Catalogus Translationum et Commentariorum
18. nor Gerlind Werner in her Ripas "Iconologia": Quellen, Methode, Ziele (Utrecht: Haentjens, Dekker & Gumbert, 1977) concentrate on the two entries 'Investigazione' and 'Dubbio'
19. For an analysis of other occurrences of the figure of the dog in Ripa see F. F. De Daugnon, Il Cane nella storia e nel mondo simbolico (Crema, 1907, 2nd ed. ) pp. 30-33, who refers to the Iconologia edited by the abate Orlandi (1765). He notices the presence of a dog in 'Amicizia', 'Botanica', 'Confessione Sagramentale', 'Fedeltà', 'Gioventú', 'Memoria', 'Tregua', 'Lussuria', 'Miseria', but not in 'Investigazione'
20. Ripa, Iconologia, pp. 65 f. (Roma, 1593), my translation of the following passage: "Huomo ignudo, tutto pensoso, incontratosi in due, ovvero tre strade, mostri esser confuso, per non saper risolvere qual di dette vie debbia pigliare. Et questo è dubbio con speranza di bene, come l'altro con timoré di cattivo successo, & si fa ignudo, per essere irresoluto" 'Dubbio' is not illustrated in any of the five editions examined by Okayama, The Ripa Index. For an image of the entry one can consult Iconology, the English translation quoted above, vol. I, p. 85, fig. 157
21. See Wolfgang Harms, Homo Viator in Bivio, Studien zur Bildlichkeit des Weges (München: W. Fink Verlag, 1970). As one would expect, the text contains no reference to Chrysippus' dog or to the episode narrated by Sextus Empiricus
22. On the iconography of crossroads see Martin Puhvel, The Crossroads in Folklore and Myth (New York: Peter Lang, 1989), which contains no reference to Sextus
23. See E. Panofsky, Hercules am Scheidewege, Studien der Bibliothek Warburg XVIII (Leipzig, 1930)
24. and E. Tietze-Conrat, "Notes on Hercules at the Crossroads", The Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 14 (1951) pp. 305-309
25. Picinelli is the only other reference given by Iconclass relevant to our subject, cf. H. van de Waal, Iconclass, an Iconographic Classification System, comp. and ed. by L. D. Coupriee with E. Tholen and G. Vellekoop (Amsterdam, Oxford, New York: North-Holland Publishing Comp. , 1985), under 'doubt'
26. C. Doyle, "The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes: The Adventure of Copper Beeches", p. 331
27. Plato, Laws VII, 799cf. , Greek ed. with Eng. tr. by R. G. Bury (Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard U. P. , 1952) vol. IX, pp. 39-41
28. M. T. Cicero, De natura deorum and Academica, Eng. tr. by H. Rackham (London: Heinemann, 1972) 2. 158
29. Cicero speaks about the various forms of syllogism, but not about the intelligent dog, in Topica 57 and ff. , see Scripta quae manserunt omnia, recognovit C. F. Müller (Bibliotheca Scriptorum Graecorum Teubneriana, Leipzig, 1893) Pars I, vol. 2, p. 438 and ff
30. See Nicholas J. Zaganiaris, "Le Chien dans la mythologie et la littérature grécolatines", Platon 32-33 (1981) pp. 52-85, esp. pp. 71 f.
31. Jost Perfahl, Wiedersehen mit Argos und andere Nachrichten über Hunde in der Antike (Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1983), in which we find Aelianus' story of Chrysippus' dog (pp. 29 f. )
32. Carla Mainoldi, L'Image du loup et du chien dans la Grèce ancienne, d'Homère à Platon (Paris: ed. Ophrys, 1984)
33. and Beryl Rowland, Animals with Human Faces (Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 1973, rep. London: Allen & Unwin, 1974) pp. 58-66, who provides useful information on various ideas related to the theme of the dog. None of these texts contains, or refers to, any illustration of a dog in a trivium
34. For a representation of the philosophical dog, see Frans II Francken's Allegory of Good Fortune (1627)
35. both described in Patrik Reuterswaer, "The Dog in the Humanist's Study", Konsthistorisk Tidskrift 50 (1981) pp. 62 f. , fig. 16 and 17
36. Karl A. Neuhausen has studied the figure of the 'philosophical dog' in Plato in his "Platons philosophischer Hund bei Sextus Empiricus", Rheinisches Museum 118 (1975) pp. 240-264. According to him, Outlines I, 62-78 is directly connected to Plato's Rep. II 374e6-376c5. Neuhausen quotes and discusses Olympiodorus' interpretation on p. 260
37. Plato speaks of the philosophical dog in Republic II, 375a-376c, Greek ed. with Eng. tr. by P. Shorey (Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard U. P. , 1930) vol. I, p. 173. The dog changes his behaviour towards man depending on whether he knows him or not, thus he acts on the basis of knowledge and "shows a true love of wisdom"
38. On the topic see T. A. Sinclair, "Plato's Philosophic Dog", The Classical Review 62 (1948) pp. 61 f. : "[N]ature shows that a dog is philomathes, and if a dog, then according to the phusis theory, also a man; and if philomathes then also philosophes
39. There is a particular pleasure in hoisting your opponent with his own petard. " I owe to Prof. Dorothea Frede a suggestion concerning C. J. Classen, Untersuchungen zu Platons Jagdbildern (Berlin, 1960), a text which I hope to study in the future
40. For the fragments concerning Chrysippus' fifth syllogism see now Karlheinz Hülser, Die Fragmente zur Dialektik der Stoiker (Stuttgart: Frommann-Holzboog, 1988) Band 4, pp. 1596-1605, frag. 1154-1159, original texts with German translation. Hülser's improves on von Arnim's collection
41. C. Doyle, "Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes: The Reigate Puzzle", p. 404
42. 2), who discusses the example of the dog on p. 80
43. Michael Frede, Die Stoische Logik. Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, Philologisch-historische Klasse, Dritte Folge, Nr. 88 (Göttingen, 1974) pp. 155-157 on the dog
44. Mario Mignucci, Il Significato della Logica Stoica (Bologna: Patron, 1965)
45. J. B. Gould, The Philosophy of Chrysippus (Leiden: Brill, 1970) esp. chap. IV
46. Mariano Baldassari, Introduzione alla Logica Stoica (Como, 1984)
47. and finally W. Kneale and M. Kneale, The Development of Logic (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962) esp. p. 167
48. Sherlock Holmes to Watson in C. Doyle, "The Adventure of the Beryl Coronet", p. 315
49. See also S. O. Dickermann, "Some Stock Illustrations of Animal Intelligence in Greek Psychology", Translations and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 42 (1911), pp. 123-130
50. Philonis Alexandrini, De Animalibus adversus Alexandrum, The Armenian text with an introduction, translation and commentary by Abraham Terian (Ann Arbor: Scholar Press, 1981, French edition, shortened, Paris: éditions du Cerf, 1988), see par. 45 (pp. 86f. ) for Alexander's position and par. 84 (pp. 102f. ) for Philo's
51. The Alexander in question could either be Philo's younger brother or his (Alexander's) son, Tiberius Julius Alexander; the issue is discussed by Georg Tappe, De Philonis Libro [. . . ] (Göttingen, 1912)
52. see also Erwin R. Goodenough, An Introduction to Philo Judaeus, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Blackwell, 1962), p. 50, note 30
53. D. J. O'Connor, The Correspondence Theory of Truth (London: Hutchinson, 1975) chap. 5, quotation from p. 31
54. For a quotation and a more detailed discussion of Chrysippus' position with respect to Porphyrius see the latter's De l'Abstinence, texte établi et traduit par J. Bouffartigue et M. Patillon (Paris: Société d'édition "les belles lettres", 1979) vol. II, p. 152, note 2
55. Richard Sorabji provides a different explanation (cf. Animal Minds, pp. 21-26). He argues that by sketching the image of the dog at the trivium Chrysippus was perhaps conceding to the dog the capacity of behaving on the basis of his perceptual appearances. I find difficult to accept this possible explanation
56. A. Dyroff, "Zur Stoischen Tierpsychologie", Blätter für das bayerische Gymnasialschulwesen 33 (1897) pp. 399-404, and 34 (1898) pp. 416-430
57. See Enzo Lucchesi, L'usage de Philon dans l'œuvre exégétique de saint Ambroise - une "Quellenforschung" relative aux commentaires d'Ambroise sur la Genèse (Leiden: Brill, 1977)
58. Sancti Ambrosi, Hexaemeron Libri Sex De Opere Sexti Diei, in Opera Omnia, Tomi Primis Pars Prior ed. by J. P. Migne in Pat. Cur. Comp. s. L. (Paris, 1845) vol. 141, col. 250 f. According to Ambrose "nobody doubts that the dog is animated by a form of rationality". It is interesting to note that for his knowledge of the episode Ambrose is heavily relying upon Plutarch. He has the same comparison between the intelligent dog and "the philosophers, who, seated in front of geometrical figures, draw lines in the sand and, confronted with three propositions, have to discard two in order to discover the truth of the one that remains" ("Nonne totos dies conferunt philosophi propositiones sibi in pulvere dividentes, qui radio sibi describunt singulas, et ex tribus cum unam earum veram esse necesse sit, duas primo interficiunt tamquam mendacio congruentes, et sic in ea quae relicta est, vim veritatis inhaerere defiunt?"). The figure of the dog has acquired a slightly anti-intellectualist meaning
59. On the Characteristics of Animals VI. 59, Greek ed. with Eng. tr. by A. F. Scholfield (Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard U. P. , 1959) vol. II, pp. 82 f
60. On the problem of levels of linguistic activity in antiquity see R. Sorabji, "Myths about Non-propositional Thought", in M. Schofield and M. Craven Nussbaum (eds. ), Language and Logos (Cambridge: Cambridge U. P. , 1982), pp. 295-314
61. For Porphyrius' influence on Voltaire see Renato Galliani, "Voltaire, Porphyre et les animaux", in Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century (Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 1981) pp. 125-138
62. for his influence on Basilius see E. Gilson, History of Christian philosophy in the Middle Ages (London: Sheed and Ward, 1955) pp. 581 f
63. Sextus Empiricus, Outlines, I, 65 and ff
64. Porphyrius, De Abstinentia, p. 153
65. Sextus Empiricus, Against the Logicians, II, 287
66. C. Doyle, "The Adventure of Shoscombe Old Place", p. 1109
67. On the problem of animal rationality in the Middle Ages see Tullio Gregory, "L'Uomo di fronte al mondo animale nell'alto medioevo", in Mundana Sapienza, Forme di Conoscenza nella Cultura Medievale (Roma: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura, 1992)
68. Cf. The Book of Beasts, being a translation from a Latin Bestiary of the twelfth century made and edited by T. H. White with a new preface by Francois Gallix (Gloucester: Sutton, 1984), pp. 61-68. The story of Chrysippus' dog is on p. 64: "by rejecting error the Dog finds the truth" following the scent, as if enunciating a syllogism
69. Gilson, History of Christian Philosophy in the Middle Ages, pp. 150-153
70. See Ioannis Saresberiensis, Polycraticus, Lib. VII, esp. Cap. I, in Opera Omnia ed. by J. P. Migne in Pat. Cur. Comp. s. L. (Paris, 1900) vol. 199, col. 635 ff
71. According to the critical note in the Oxford edition of Ioannis Saresberiensis Episcopi Carnotensis Polycratici [. . . ] Libri VIII, recognovit [. . . ] Clemens C. I. Webb, (Oxonii: e Typographeo Clarendoniano, 1909) tom. II, p. 96 (Lib. VII, 639b. 25) third note not numbered, John was influenced by Hugh of St Victor, but as I remarked above the latter may not be the author of De Bestis
72. See Sorabji, Animal Minds, pp. 12-20 for a presentation of Aristotle's position and passages in his works where the rationality of animals is discussed, and Hist. Anim. VIII, 1, 558a20 and ff.
73. VIII(IX), 1, 608a17, 610b22 and 612a1 and ff. on the dog, in History of Animals, Greek ed. with Eng. tr. by D. M. Balme (Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard U. P. , 1991). As Sorabji remarks, these books may be authentic
74. On the figure of the dog in the representation of Melancholy see the classic book by R. Klibansky, E. Panofsky and F. Saxl, Saturn and Melancholy (Nendeln, Lichtenstein: Kraus Reprint, 1979, orig. ed. 1964)
75. See Prologue, 45, the reference is to Plato, Rep. 376b. On the topic, cf. J. Bichon, "Sagesse humaine ou sagesse canine?", Études Rabelaisiennes 8 (1969) pp. 85-90
76. On the equation 'hunger [of the digestive apparatus) : food = curiosity [of the intellect] : knowledge' and its anti-sceptical uses see my "'Cupiditas Veri Videndi': Pierre De Villemandy's Dogmatic vs. Cicero's Sceptical Interpretation of 'Man's Desire to Know' ", British Journal for the History of Philosophy 3. 1 (1995) pp. 63-85
77. See Carlo Ginzburg, "Spie. Radici di un paradigma indiziario", in La Crisi della Ragione, ed. by Aldo Gargani (Torino: Einaudi, 1979)
78. and now in Il Segno dei Tre, Holmes, Dupin, Peirce, ed. by Umberto Eco and Thomas A. Sebeok (Milano: Bompiani, 1983) pp. 95-136
79. Eng. tr. in The Sign of Three: Dupin, Holmes, Peirce (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983)
80. Some of the essays discuss the nature of Holmes' rational procedure. Apparently, Doyle was rather generic and called it deduction, whereas it should be identified more precisely with what Peirce called abduction. The identification is certainly correct, but the previous complaint is unjustified, since in a passage contained in "The Adventure of the Solitary Cyclist" (an episode of The Return of Sherlock Holmes, p. 534) Holmes shouts to Watson: "It's abduction, Watson, abduction!"
81. See The Works of Thomas Nashe, ed. from the original texts by R. B. McKerrow and rep. from the orig. ed. with cor. and sup. notes by F. P. Wilson, in 5 vols. (Oxford: Blackwell, 1966), vol. 4, pp. 428-431 (see the interesting comparison of passages from Sextus, Nash and Rowlands)
82. I own the discovery of this occurrence of Chrysippus' dog in Nash to Rolland Hall. A comprehensive analysis of the issue is provided by S. E. Sprott, "Raleigh's Sceptic and the Elizabethean translation of Sextus Empiricus", Philological Quarterly 42 (1963), pp. 166-175, see p. 172, note 8 for further occurrences of the syllogising dog in Renaissance literature
83. Tycho Brahe's Description of his Instruments and Scientific Work as given in Astronomiae Instauratae Mechanica (Wandersburgi, 1598) tr. and ed. by H. Raeder, E. Strömgren and B. Strömgren (Copenhagen, 1946) p. 31. The Mechanica has been reprinted in facsimile (Bruxelles: Culture and Civilization, 1969)
84. Della Fisionomia dell'Uomo, a cura di Mario Cicognani (Parma: Guanda, 1988, Latin orig. ed. in six libri 1599, tr. It. 1610) pp. 116 f. and 132f
85. C. Doyle, "Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes: Silver Blaze", p. 349
86. Michel Eyquem de Montaigne, "Apologie de Raimond Sebond", chap. XII of Les Essays, French ed. by Maurice Rat (Paris: Garnier, 1941) vol. II, pp. 145 f
87. Bayle is not favourable to a complete equality between animals and men, but he uses animals in order to undermine human arrogance, see Pierre Bayle, Dictionaire historique et critique, ed. , rev. , cor. , et augm. (Amsterdam: P. Brunel, 1740)
88. entries 'Pereira' and 'Rorarius', now in Choix d'articles tirés du Dictionnaire historique et critique avec une introduction par Elisabeth Labrousse (Hildesheim, New York: G. Olms, 1982
89. the entry 'Chrysippus' in vol. I of this edition lacks the text from p. 305 to p. 320 included) and partially tr. in Eng. in Historical and Critical Dictionary, ed. by A. Jacob (Dordrecht: Nijhoff, 1987). On the differences between More's and Descartes' conception of the soul see pp. lxviii-lxxviii
90. John W. B. Mayor, "King James I. On the Reasoning Faculty in Dogs", The Classical Review 12 (1898) pp. 93-96
91. Third letter to the Marquis de Newcastle, 23 November 1646, in Charles Adam and Paul Tannery, Œuvres de Descartes (henceforth AT, Paris: Vrin, 1972) vol. IV, letter n. CDLX, pp. 568-577, quotation from p. 573. This is the most relevant to our topic of the three letters written by Descartes to William Cavendish. The other two concern mainly medical and physiological issues, see AT (1972) vol. IV, letter n. CCCLXXII, April 1645[?], pp. 188-192 and letter n. CDX, October 1645, pp. 325-330
92. Discours de la Méthode, AT (1965) vol. VI, p. 56
93. Eng. tr. in The Philosophical Writings of Descartes, 2 vols. ed. by J. Cottingham, R. Stoothoff and D. Murdoch (Cambridge: Cambridge U. P. , 1985) vol. I, p. 140
94. Plutarch, Moralia, De Sollertia Animalium, p. 531 (992. e)
95. Henry More, An Anthidote against Atheism [. . . ], (London 1655, second edition corrected, enlarged and with an Appendix) p. xvi (not originally numbered)
96. Henry More, An Anthidote against Atheism, Appendix: p. 370, italics in the original
97. Pierre Gassendi, Objectiones Quintae, In Meditationem II, sections 7 and 8, AT (1964) vol. VII, pp. 268-274
98. Eng. tr. in The Philosophical Writings of Descartes, vol. II, p. 189
99. Descartes does not really answer Gassendi's objection, see his Quintae Responsiones, AT (1964) vol. VII, p. 359
100. Pierre Gassendi, Syntagmatis Philosophici Pars Secunda seu Physica, Sectio III, Liber octavus, Caput IV-V and Liber IX
101. The episode of Chrysippus' dog, as described by Sextus Empiricus, occurs on p. 414b, but see also p. 410b, a passage that for its reference to the rational behaviour of the fox, already mentioned above, is probably connected to Gassendi's knowledge of Plutarch or of Montaigne. The work has been reprinted in Opera Omnia, Faksimile-Neudruck der Ausgabe von Lyon 1658 in 6 Bänden mit einer Einleitung von Tullio Gregory (Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: Frommann, 1964) Band 2. Unfortunately, the mentioned texts have not been included in the English translation of The Selected Works of Pierre Gassendi, ed. and tr. by Craig B. Brush, (New York: Johnson Rep. Corp. , 1972)
102. The Selected Works of Pierre Gassendi, p. 63
103. Descartes speaks of a dog in a Letter to Mersenne, but only in so far as the physiology of the animal is concerned, see AT (1971) vol. III, pp. 139-141
104. and also La Description du Corps Humain, AT (1967) vol. XI, p. 243
105. Exercitationes geometricae sex (Bologna, 1647) p. 195
106. See George Boas, The Happy Beast in French Thought of the Seventeenth Century (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1933). I would disagree with Boas when he suggests (p. 7) that Sextus Empiricus' presentation of the episode is the source for Montaigne. I think that, because of the episode of the fox, it is much more likely that the latter had in mind Plutarch
107. H. Hastings, Man and Beast in French Thought of the Eighteenth Century (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1936) pp. 80-83
108. The Marquis d'Argens wrote that: "this behaviour of the dog is an evident proof that his mind is capable of the three operations of logic, and I do not see why a Shock Dog and a Mastiff may not carry his reasoning as far as a Regent of Philosophy in the College of the Four Nations", cited by Hastings in Man and Beast, p. 83, note 1
109. See also Flourens, De l'instinct et de l'intelligence des animaux (Paris: Garnier, 1841)
110. Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex, 2nd ed. rev. et aug. (New York, London: D. Appleton & Co. 1930, or. ed. 1871). Darwin negates any "fundamental difference between man and higher mammals" (p. 66). A dog may not have propositional knowledge, but his behaviour is comparable to that of a savage: it is the result of a rational and effective procedure, cf. pp. 76 f
111. D. Hume, A Treatise on Human Nature, Book I, Part III, Sect. XVI, pp. 176-179, "Of the Reason of Animals", quotation from p. 176
112. Hume, Treatise, p. 179
113. Many examples of the intelligent behaviour of the dog occur in the Treatise, but - as one would expect from the more popular nature of the text - the reference closest to the episode of Chrysippus' dog appears in the corresponding section of the Enquiries Concerning the Human Understanding and Concerning the Principles of Morals, ed. by L. A. Selby-Bigge (Oxford: Oxford U. P. , 1962) Section IX
114. C. Doyle, "The Adventure of the Creeping Man", p. 1083
115. The Blue and Brown Books, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Blackwell, 1969) p. 90
116. e
117. For a comprehensive discussion of the topic see David DeGrazia, "Wittgenstein and the Mental Life of Animals", History of Philosophy Quaterly 11. 1 (1994), pp. 121-137
118. Cf. his "Thoughtless Brutes", Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association 46 (1973) pp. 5-20
119. See Alan Ross Anderson and Nuel Belnap, Entailment (Princeton U. P. , 1975), where the image of Chrysippus' dog regains its logical status within the context of the analysis of the disjunctive syllogism
120. The French example given in Louis Vax, Lexique logique (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1982), p. 138 is obviously taken from Montaigne's version
121. D. Davidson, "Rational Animals", Dialectica 36 (1982) pp. 318-327
122. now in Actions and Events, ed. by E. LePore and B. P. McLaughlin (Oxford: Blackwell, 1985), quotation from p. 478
123. Davidson refers to Donald Weiss' paper "Professor Malcolm on animal intelligence", Philosophical Review 84 (1975)
124. It will be remembered that in Goethe's Faust, Mephistopheles appears as a black dog to Faust. On the issue, see the book by Barbara Allen Woods, The Devil in Dog Form, A Partial Type-Index of Devil Legends (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1959), which, however, contains no indication about the dog in a trivium, and the catalogue of the Faust Museum in Knittlingen (no date of publication) p. 23 for an image
125. About the dogish devil, it is worth pointing out that Agrippa von Nettesheim - who seems to have been one of the historical figures who inspired the character of Faust - was said always to be accompanied by a Devil who disguised himself as a black dog, cf. the entry 'Agrippa' in P. Bayle, Dictionaire historique et critique, troisième édition, revue, corrigée et augmentée par l'auteur (Rotterdam, 1720) vol. I, p. 107 col. a. As for the connection between inferential capacities and magic, "That is so Mr. Holmes. You are a wizard. " said Mr. James M. Dodd in "The Adventure of the Blanched Soldier", p. 1000
126. F. Kafka, "Investigations of a Dog", Eng. tr. by Willa and Edwin Muir in The Complete Stories ed. by N. N. Glatzer (New York: Schocken Books, 1976)
127. An analysis of the text is provided by Lewis W. Leadbreater in his "Platonic Elements in Kafka's 'Investigations of a Dog' ", Philosophy and Literature 11 (1987) pp. 104-116. Leadbreater draws a continuous line of development from the character and the technique of Socrates in the Apology and the nature of the Dog on the one hand, and the philosophical goals presented by Plato in the Phaedrus with the final aims pursued by the animal in the story