Women, Islam and Modernity in Akhundzade's Plays and Unpublished Writings

Middle Eastern Studies

Volumn 34, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 1-33

  Kia, Mehrdad ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0346310821     PISSN: 00263206     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00263209808701230     Document Type: Article

References (103)

1. During my work on this article, I was fortunate in receiving help and guidance from several scholars. Thanks are due first to Professor Linda Frey, Professor Michael Mayer, Professor Sadeq Kia and Professor Ardeshir Kia. I would like to express my gratitude to these scholars for reading the manuscript and offering me mountains of incisive suggestions. My chief debt is to one lady whose ideas, suggestions and comments were invaluable in writing and completing this article.
2. For Akhundzade's life and writings see M.F. Akhundov (Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade), Asarlari, 3 Vols. (Baku, 1961); M.F. Akhundov, Komediyalar (Baku, 1962); Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade, Alifba-yi Jadid va Maktubat, Hamid Mohammadzade and Hamid Arasli (eds.) (Baku. 1963); J. Ja'afarov, M.F. Akhundov (Baku, 1962); Fraydun Adamiyyat, Andishiha-yi Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade (Tehran, 1970); Hamid Algar, Akhundzade. Encyclopedia Iranica.
3. For Akhundzade's life and writings see M.F. Akhundov (Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade), Asarlari, 3 Vols. (Baku, 1961); M.F. Akhundov, Komediyalar (Baku, 1962); Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade, Alifba-yi Jadid va Maktubat, Hamid Mohammadzade and Hamid Arasli (eds.) (Baku. 1963); J. Ja'afarov, M.F. Akhundov (Baku, 1962); Fraydun Adamiyyat, Andishiha-yi Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade (Tehran, 1970); Hamid Algar, Akhundzade. Encyclopedia Iranica.
4. For Akhundzade's life and writings see M.F. Akhundov (Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade), Asarlari, 3 Vols. (Baku, 1961); M.F. Akhundov, Komediyalar (Baku, 1962); Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade, Alifba-yi Jadid va Maktubat, Hamid Mohammadzade and Hamid Arasli (eds.) (Baku. 1963); J. Ja'afarov, M.F. Akhundov (Baku, 1962); Fraydun Adamiyyat, Andishiha-yi Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade (Tehran, 1970); Hamid Algar, Akhundzade. Encyclopedia Iranica.
5. For Akhundzade's life and writings see M.F. Akhundov (Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade), Asarlari, 3 Vols. (Baku, 1961); M.F. Akhundov, Komediyalar (Baku, 1962); Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade, Alifba-yi Jadid va Maktubat, Hamid Mohammadzade and Hamid Arasli (eds.) (Baku. 1963); J. Ja'afarov, M.F. Akhundov (Baku, 1962); Fraydun Adamiyyat, Andishiha-yi Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade (Tehran, 1970); Hamid Algar, Akhundzade. Encyclopedia Iranica.
6. For Akhundzade's life and writings see M.F. Akhundov (Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade), Asarlari, 3 Vols. (Baku, 1961); M.F. Akhundov, Komediyalar (Baku, 1962); Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade, Alifba-yi Jadid va Maktubat, Hamid Mohammadzade and Hamid Arasli (eds.) (Baku. 1963); J. Ja'afarov, M.F. Akhundov (Baku, 1962); Fraydun Adamiyyat, Andishiha-yi Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade (Tehran, 1970); Hamid Algar, Akhundzade. Encyclopedia Iranica.
7. For Akhundzade's life and writings see M.F. Akhundov (Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade), Asarlari, 3 Vols. (Baku, 1961); M.F. Akhundov, Komediyalar (Baku, 1962); Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade, Alifba-yi Jadid va Maktubat, Hamid Mohammadzade and Hamid Arasli (eds.) (Baku. 1963); J. Ja'afarov, M.F. Akhundov (Baku, 1962); Fraydun Adamiyyat, Andishiha-yi Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade (Tehran, 1970); Hamid Algar, Akhundzade. Encyclopedia Iranica.
8. Akhundzade's father, Mirza Muhammad Taqi was the son of Hajji Ahmad, who had emigrated from the province of Gilan to Azerbaijan at an unknown date. Before becoming a merchant, Mirza Muhammad Taqi worked for Abbas Mirza, the Crown Prince of Fath Ali Shah and the governor of Azerbaijan, as the zabit and the katkhuda of Khamana. See Akhundzade, Alifba-yi Jadid va Maktubat, p.349, pp.356-7.
9. Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade, 'The Letters of Kamal ud-Dowla', published under the title, Maktubat, ed, Subhdam (pseud.), 1986, p. 179. Here, I have used two different copies of 'The Letters of Kamal ud-Dowla'. The first is a copy of the manuscript at the National Library of Iran and the second is a copy published by Mard-i Emruz Publications and edited by 'Subhdam'. The date for the publication of Subhdam's edition as well as the actual name of the editor have not been printed. The copy edited by Subhdam is longer and more detailed and I have therefore used it as the primary source while at the same time comparing it with the copy from the National Library of Iran. However, instead of referring to it as Muktubat, as Subhdam does, I have referred to it as 'The Letters of Kamal ud-Dowla', so that it would not be mistaken with Akhundzade's Alifba-yi Jadid va Maktubat.
10. A very important chapter in Akhundzade's life took place in 1825. In 1825 Akhund Hajj Ali Asghar moved to the town of Ganja, taking Mirza Fath Ali and his mother with him. A year later, the second Russo-Iranian war began and the Russian forces occupied the town of Ganja. During the war Akhund Hajj Ali Asghar and his family suffered a great deal, losing their property and even their personal belongings. With the end of the war and the defeat of the Iranian forces. Akhund Hajj Ali Asghar and family moved back to their home town. Nukha, which had been annexed by Tsarist Russia. In Nukha, Akhund Hajj Ali Asghar continued with education of Mirza Fath Ali, by teaching the young lad Arabic and Persian literature. See Akhundzade, Alijba-yi Jadid va Maktubat, pp.349 50.
11. Many years later, Akhundzade recounted what Mirza Shafi had told him: 'One day, this honourable man [Mirza Shafi], asked me; "Mirza Fath Ali what is your intention in studying [Islamic] sciences?" I answered that I wished to become a clergyman. He said; "Do you wish to become a hypocrite and a charlatan?" I was surprised and shocked ... Mirza Shafi looked at me and said; "Mirza Fath Ali do not waste your life among this abominable group of people and choose another profession." When I asked him about the reasons for his hatred of the clergy, he began to reveal matters which until then had remained hidden to me ... Until the return of my second father from pilgrimage, Mirza Shafi inculcated in me all the elements of mysticism, and removed the curtain of ignorance from my eyes. After this incident, I began to hate the clergy and I changed my intentions.' See Akhundzade, Alifba-yi Jadid va Maktubat, p.351.
12. With the encouragement of his mother's uncle, Akhund Hajj Ali Asghar, Mirza Fath Ali had already started studying Russian at a Russian school in his birthplace, the town of Nukha, before he moved to Tiflis. It is also important to note that it was Akhund Hajj Ali Asghar who took Mirza Fath Ali to Tiflis and asked the Russian governor, Baron Rosen, to employ the young Mirza Fath Ali as a translator of 'Oriental languages'.
13. This does not include the many trips he made to different parts of the Caucasus, accompanying the Russian army in its campaigns against the mountaineers of the Daghestan region who were fighting the Tsarist army.
14. Adamiyyat, Andishiha-vi Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade, p.21. J. Ja'afarov, M. F. Akhundov, p.7.
15. Adamiyyat, Andishiha-vi Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade, p.21. J. Ja'afarov, M. F. Akhundov, p.7.
16. Ibid., pp.12-14.
17. Akhundzade knew Abbas Qoli Aqa Bakikhanov (1794-1847), also known by his pen name Qodsi, the poet, satirist and historian who was the author of several important books, including a major work on the history of Shirvan and Daghestan entitled, Gulistan-i Iram (The Garden of Paradise). The book comprised the history of Daghestan, and Shirvan from ancient times to the conclusion of the first Russo-Iranian war and the signing of the Gulistan treaty in 1813. The son of Mirza Muhammad Khan, a local notable from the village of Amirhajan near Baku, Bakikhanov studied Persian and Arabic in his youth. In 1820, at the age of 26, he was employed by General Ermolov, the Russian viceregent of Transcaucasia, as the translator of Oriental languages. In Tiflis he studied Russian, and during the Russo-Iranian war of 1826-28 and the Russo-Ottoman war of 1829 he worked as a translator and adviser to General Paskevich, the commander of the Russian forces in Transcaucasia. He was also present at the signing of the Turkomanchai Treaty in 1828. which marked the annexation of the Caucasus region by Tsarist Russia. In 1833, a year before Akhundzade arrived in Tiflis, Bakikhanov travelled north visiting Russia, Finland, Poland and the Baltic states, meeting a number of liberal and secular-minded Russian intellectuals including the poet Pushkin, thus adding more names to an already impressive list of politicians, writers and poets with whom he had developed a close friendship. Indeed, his long stay in Tiflis, as well as his 14-year service at the Russian chancellery, had enabled him to become closely acquainted with prominent Armenian, Georgian and Russian intellectuals living in the city at one point or another. He knew the Armenian nationalist writer Khachatur Abovyan, the Georgian nationalist poet Aleksandr Chavchavadze, and the Russian poets A.S. Griboyedov and Alexandr Betstuzhev Marlinsky. In 1834, when Akhundzade arrived in Tiflis, it was Bakikhanov who in his capacity as the chief translator of Oriental languages examined the newcomer from Nukha and recommended him for positive consideration. Thus, through Bakikhanov, Akhundzade came to know the Russian authors and poets Marlinsky (1797-1837), the author of Ammalat Bek, and Prince Alexandr Odoyevsky (1802-39), Both had participated in the Decembrist uprising of 1825 against Tsar Nicholas I. They had been arrested and exiled to Siberia before they were allowed to serve in the Russian army in the Caucasus. They had arrived in the Caucasus in 1829 when the Tsarist army was trying to subdue the Chechens and Daghestanis, who had revolted under the leadership of Imam Ghazi Muhammad. Akhundzade also knew the Armenian nationalist writer Khachatur Abovyan (1805-48). The founder of the new Armenian literature and the author of Wounds of Armenia, Abovyan was kidnapped by 'unknown assailants' in 1848 and was never seen again. Besides Abovyan, Akhundzade was also acquainted with the Armenian writer and playwright Gabriel Sandukian (1825-1912), who used his plays to attack not only traditional beliefs and customs, but also to attack the patriarchal culture and the money-dominated society which caused suffering and humiliation for the common people. Akhundzade also enjoyed a close friendship with the Georgian nationalist poet Aleksandr Chavchavadze (1786-1846) and the Georgian playwright Giorgi Eristavi (1811-64). Both Chavchavadze and Eristavi had participated in anti-Russian political activities, including a conspiracy which had aimed to separate Georgia from the Russian empire. Akhundzade also knew three influential Iranian intellectuals: the constitutionalist diplomat Mirza Yusef Khan Mostashar ud-Dowla (?-1895), the Armenian-born diplomat and reformer Mirza Malkam Khan (1838-1908), and the nationalist and the anti-Arab Qajar prince Jalal ud-Din Mirza (1825-72). The three Iranians, however, had no influence on Akhundzade as a playwright. Akhundzade became acquainted with them and their writings after he had published his plays.
18. Akhundzade had read the works of British empiricists, particularly the writings of John Hume, which inspired him to write a short essay on Hume's rejection of causation theory. Akhundzade had also read John Stuart Mill and wrote an essay on Mill's concept of freedom. He had also studied the writings of French enlightenment thinkers, particularly the works of Voltaire whom he mentioned by name on several occasions. Among European historians and writers of the nineteenth century he was most impressed with the writings of the Swiss economist Sismondi; the English historian, author of a multi-volume, History of Civilisation in England, Henry T. Buckle; and the philosophical works of the French thinker Ernest Renan, with whom he shared a belief in the ultimate triumph of science over religion (which Renan had equated with the victory of the Aryan race over the Semites).
19. The actual title of the manuscript was The Three Letters of the Indian Prince Kamal ud-Dowla to his Friend the Iranian Prince Jalal ud-Dowla, together with the Reply of Jalal ud-Dowla. The manuscript was undoubtedly Akhundzade's most important philosophical and political work. According to 'Subhdam' in his/her introduction to the The Letters of Kamal ud-Dowla', five hundred copies of the book were published secretly in Tehran in 1971. See Subhdam's introduction in Mirza F'ath Ali Akhundzade. Maktuhat, p. 13.
20. Adamiyyat, Andishiha-yi Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade, p.19. See also Hasan Javadi, Satire in Persian Literature, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, p.258.
21. Adamiyyat, Andishiha-yi Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade, p.19. See also Hasan Javadi, Satire in Persian Literature, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, p.258.
22. Griboyedov's most important and influential piece, Core ot uma, which has been translated as Woe From Wit, was completed in 1823 but was only performed in 1831 and not published until 1833. Akhundzade had undoubtedly read this work and was greatly influenced by it.
23. The greatest influence on Akhundzade's works came from Molière, the Russian eighteenth-century playwrights and the writings of Griboyedov and Gogol. It is important to note that the works of Griboyedov and Gogol dominated Russian satire and comedy in 1840s and 1850s.
24. Akhundzade completed three comedies in 1850: Hikayat-i Mulla Ibrahim Khalil-i Kimiyagar (The Story of Mulla Ibrahim Khalil the Alchemist); Hikayat-i Monsieur Jourdan Hakim-i Nabatat va Darvish Mast Ali Shah, Ma'aruf be Jadugar (The Story of Monsieur Jourdan the Botanist, and Dervish Mast Ali Shah also known as the Magician) or Hikayat-i Monsieur Jourdan Hakim-i Nabatat va Mast Ali Shah Jadugar-i Meshhur (The Story of Monsieur Jourdan the Botanist and Dervish Mast Ali Shah, the Famous Magician); and Sarguzasht-i Vazir-i Khan-i Sarab (The Adventures of the Vizier of the Khan of Sarab), later changed in the Persian translation to Sarguzasht-i Vazir-i Khan-i Lankaran (The Adventures of the Vizier of the Khan of Lankaran). In 1852 and 1853, Akhundzade wrote two more comedies: Hikayat-i Khirs-i Quldur-basan (The Story of the Bear that Caught the Robber) and Sarguzasht-i Mard-i Khasis (The Adventures of the Miser). Akhundzade wrote his last play, Hikayat-i Vukala-yi Murafi'a (The Story of the Attorneys in the Lawsuit), in 1855. Finally, in 1857, he wrote his only known short story and historical narrative, Aldanmish Kewakeb (The Betrayed Stars) or Hikayat-i Yusef Shah (The Story of Yusef Shah). With the encouragement and support of the Russian viceroy of Transcaucasia, Akhundzade translated his plays into Russian. Soon after the translations of the first three plays were completed, The Story of Monsieur Jourdan the Botanist and Dervish Mast Ali Shah also known as the Magician was performed first in St. Petersburg in 1851 and then in Tiflis in 1852. The Adventures of the Vizier of the Khan of Sarab was staged much later in 1873 at the first Azerbaijani theatre in Baku. The Russian translation of each play was published separately in the Russian government newspaper Kavkaz. Then, in 1853, all of Akhundzade's comedies except The Attorneys in the Lawsuit were published in Russian in one volume. The original Azerbaijani Turkish versions of the plays, including the short story The Betrayed Stars, were not published until 1859, and the Persian translation of the plays by Muhammad Ja'afar Qarachidaghi did not appear in print until 1873-74. See Akhundzade, Komediyalar. See also Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade, Tamsilat, translated into Persian by Muhammad Ja'afar Qarachidaghi (Tehran, 1978); H.W. Brands, 'Akhundzade', in Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol.1, p.332. A.A. Sharif, 'Akhundov', in Great Soviet Encyclopedia, Vol.1.
25. Akhundzade completed three comedies in 1850: Hikayat-i Mulla Ibrahim Khalil-i Kimiyagar (The Story of Mulla Ibrahim Khalil the Alchemist); Hikayat-i Monsieur Jourdan Hakim-i Nabatat va Darvish Mast Ali Shah, Ma'aruf be Jadugar (The Story of Monsieur Jourdan the Botanist, and Dervish Mast Ali Shah also known as the Magician) or Hikayat-i Monsieur Jourdan Hakim-i Nabatat va Mast Ali Shah Jadugar-i Meshhur (The Story of Monsieur Jourdan the Botanist and Dervish Mast Ali Shah, the Famous Magician); and Sarguzasht-i Vazir-i Khan-i Sarab (The Adventures of the Vizier of the Khan of Sarab), later changed in the Persian translation to Sarguzasht-i Vazir-i Khan-i Lankaran (The Adventures of the Vizier of the Khan of Lankaran). In 1852 and 1853, Akhundzade wrote two more comedies: Hikayat-i Khirs-i Quldur-basan (The Story of the Bear that Caught the Robber) and Sarguzasht-i Mard-i Khasis (The Adventures of the Miser). Akhundzade wrote his last play, Hikayat-i Vukala-yi Murafi'a (The Story of the Attorneys in the Lawsuit), in 1855. Finally, in 1857, he wrote his only known short story and historical narrative, Aldanmish Kewakeb (The Betrayed Stars) or Hikayat-i Yusef Shah (The Story of Yusef Shah). With the encouragement and support of the Russian viceroy of Transcaucasia, Akhundzade translated his plays into Russian. Soon after the translations of the first three plays were completed, The Story of Monsieur Jourdan the Botanist and Dervish Mast Ali Shah also known as the Magician was performed first in St. Petersburg in 1851 and then in Tiflis in 1852. The Adventures of the Vizier of the Khan of Sarab was staged much later in 1873 at the first Azerbaijani theatre in Baku. The Russian translation of each play was published separately in the Russian government newspaper Kavkaz. Then, in 1853, all of Akhundzade's comedies except The Attorneys in the Lawsuit were published in Russian in one volume. The original Azerbaijani Turkish versions of the plays, including the short story The Betrayed Stars, were not published until 1859, and the Persian translation of the plays by Muhammad Ja'afar Qarachidaghi did not appear in print until 1873-74. See Akhundzade, Komediyalar. See also Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade, Tamsilat, translated into Persian by Muhammad Ja'afar Qarachidaghi (Tehran, 1978); H.W. Brands, 'Akhundzade', in Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol.1, p.332. A.A. Sharif, 'Akhundov', in Great Soviet Encyclopedia, Vol.1.
26. Akhundzade completed three comedies in 1850: Hikayat-i Mulla Ibrahim Khalil-i Kimiyagar (The Story of Mulla Ibrahim Khalil the Alchemist); Hikayat-i Monsieur Jourdan Hakim-i Nabatat va Darvish Mast Ali Shah, Ma'aruf be Jadugar (The Story of Monsieur Jourdan the Botanist, and Dervish Mast Ali Shah also known as the Magician) or Hikayat-i Monsieur Jourdan Hakim-i Nabatat va Mast Ali Shah Jadugar-i Meshhur (The Story of Monsieur Jourdan the Botanist and Dervish Mast Ali Shah, the Famous Magician); and Sarguzasht-i Vazir-i Khan-i Sarab (The Adventures of the Vizier of the Khan of Sarab), later changed in the Persian translation to Sarguzasht-i Vazir-i Khan-i Lankaran (The Adventures of the Vizier of the Khan of Lankaran). In 1852 and 1853, Akhundzade wrote two more comedies: Hikayat-i Khirs-i Quldur-basan (The Story of the Bear that Caught the Robber) and Sarguzasht-i Mard-i Khasis (The Adventures of the Miser). Akhundzade wrote his last play, Hikayat-i Vukala-yi Murafi'a (The Story of the Attorneys in the Lawsuit), in 1855. Finally, in 1857, he wrote his only known short story and historical narrative, Aldanmish Kewakeb (The Betrayed Stars) or Hikayat-i Yusef Shah (The Story of Yusef Shah). With the encouragement and support of the Russian viceroy of Transcaucasia, Akhundzade translated his plays into Russian. Soon after the translations of the first three plays were completed, The Story of Monsieur Jourdan the Botanist and Dervish Mast Ali Shah also known as the Magician was performed first in St. Petersburg in 1851 and then in Tiflis in 1852. The Adventures of the Vizier of the Khan of Sarab was staged much later in 1873 at the first Azerbaijani theatre in Baku. The Russian translation of each play was published separately in the Russian government newspaper Kavkaz. Then, in 1853, all of Akhundzade's comedies except The Attorneys in the Lawsuit were published in Russian in one volume. The original Azerbaijani Turkish versions of the plays, including the short story The Betrayed Stars, were not published until 1859, and the Persian translation of the plays by Muhammad Ja'afar Qarachidaghi did not appear in print until 1873-74. See Akhundzade, Komediyalar. See also Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade, Tamsilat, translated into Persian by Muhammad Ja'afar Qarachidaghi (Tehran, 1978); H.W. Brands, 'Akhundzade', in Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol.1, p.332. A.A. Sharif, 'Akhundov', in Great Soviet Encyclopedia, Vol.1.
27. Akhundzade completed three comedies in 1850: Hikayat-i Mulla Ibrahim Khalil-i Kimiyagar (The Story of Mulla Ibrahim Khalil the Alchemist); Hikayat-i Monsieur Jourdan Hakim-i Nabatat va Darvish Mast Ali Shah, Ma'aruf be Jadugar (The Story of Monsieur Jourdan the Botanist, and Dervish Mast Ali Shah also known as the Magician) or Hikayat-i Monsieur Jourdan Hakim-i Nabatat va Mast Ali Shah Jadugar-i Meshhur (The Story of Monsieur Jourdan the Botanist and Dervish Mast Ali Shah, the Famous Magician); and Sarguzasht-i Vazir-i Khan-i Sarab (The Adventures of the Vizier of the Khan of Sarab), later changed in the Persian translation to Sarguzasht-i Vazir-i Khan-i Lankaran (The Adventures of the Vizier of the Khan of Lankaran). In 1852 and 1853, Akhundzade wrote two more comedies: Hikayat-i Khirs-i Quldur-basan (The Story of the Bear that Caught the Robber) and Sarguzasht-i Mard-i Khasis (The Adventures of the Miser). Akhundzade wrote his last play, Hikayat-i Vukala-yi Murafi'a (The Story of the Attorneys in the Lawsuit), in 1855. Finally, in 1857, he wrote his only known short story and historical narrative, Aldanmish Kewakeb (The Betrayed Stars) or Hikayat-i Yusef Shah (The Story of Yusef Shah). With the encouragement and support of the Russian viceroy of Transcaucasia, Akhundzade translated his plays into Russian. Soon after the translations of the first three plays were completed, The Story of Monsieur Jourdan the Botanist and Dervish Mast Ali Shah also known as the Magician was performed first in St. Petersburg in 1851 and then in Tiflis in 1852. The Adventures of the Vizier of the Khan of Sarab was staged much later in 1873 at the first Azerbaijani theatre in Baku. The Russian translation of each play was published separately in the Russian government newspaper Kavkaz. Then, in 1853, all of Akhundzade's comedies except The Attorneys in the Lawsuit were published in Russian in one volume. The original Azerbaijani Turkish versions of the plays, including the short story The Betrayed Stars, were not published until 1859, and the Persian translation of the plays by Muhammad Ja'afar Qarachidaghi did not appear in print until 1873-74. See Akhundzade, Komediyalar. See also Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade, Tamsilat, translated into Persian by Muhammad Ja'afar Qarachidaghi (Tehran, 1978); H.W. Brands, 'Akhundzade', in Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol.1, p.332. A.A. Sharif, 'Akhundov', in Great Soviet Encyclopedia, Vol.1.
28. David Welsh, Russian Comedy, 1765-1823 (Mouton & Co. 1966), p. 19.
29. In his first play, The Story of Mulla Ibrahim Khalil the Alchemist, Akhundzade took his readers and viewers back to his birthplace, the town of Nukha, and to an actual event which had taken place some seventy years earlier. Growing up in Nukha, Akhundzade had heard the story of a mysterious dervish from Iran who arrived in Nukha. During his stay the Iranian dervish greatly impressed the people of Nukha both with his knowledge of 'strange and unknown sciences' as well as his practice of medicine. The impression he left on the people of Nukha was such that, decades after his departure, the people of the district and the surrounding villages still remembered him as a magician who possessed the secret of an elixir that would transform base metals into silver. Having concluded that the Iranian dervish was merely a charlatan who had impressed the uneducated and simple-minded people of Nukha by trickery, Akhundzade decided to use the story as the basis for a play which would satirize his people's belief in the elixir. The play begins at the house of Hajji Karim, the jeweller. A group of seven individuals are discussing the possibility of entering into a business venture with Mulla Ibrahim, who has reputedly mastered the science of transmuting copper and other metals to silver. With the sole exception of Hajji Nuri, the poet who represents reason, the other six are willing to give in to their greed and laziness and, searching for a quick and easy profit, strike a deal with Mulla Ibrahim. Sheikh Salih, who represents the clergy in the play, swears on 'the Quran' that he has seen Mulla Ibrahim's power of transmuting metals to silver. In sharp contrast to the turban-clad sheikh, however, the wise poet, Hajji Nuri contends that such an elixir does not exist and that Mulla Ibrahim is simply a charlatan. Moreover, the poet maintains that the real elixir of life is to reach a high level of excellence and honesty in one's chosen profession. The rational-minded poet criticizes all of the individuals present at the meeting for pinning their hope on a quick profit from the charlatan either because they are dishonest or because they have simply failed to excel in their professions. He tells Hajji Karim, the jeweller, that he could have become a wealthy and prominent man had he not cheated his customers. Hajji Nuri also attacks Aqa Zaman, the physician, for pretending to be a competent doctor. The wise poet maintains that no one trusts Aqa Zaman, because his ignorance and incompetence have meant the death of many people. Hajji Nuri further embarrasses the physician by reminding him that he has been told to stop treating fever by prescribing watermelon juice and has been advised to learn the cure for fever from Russian doctors. Yet Aqa Zaman has never accepted the suggestion. Hajji Nuri then confronts Mulla Salman, a local mulla who complains about his poverty. The poet states that Mulla Salman had chosen to become a mulla simply because his father was also a mulla. However, his father was a learned and educated man, while his son cannot even write his own name. It is not surprising, therefore, that people have no respect for him. Finally, Hajji Nuri attacks Safar Beyk, a local landowner who also wonders why he has not been able to become rich and wealthy. Hajji Nuri reminds the landowner that instead of encouraging his peasants to expand their products and cultivate their lands, he became involved in quarrels and filing complaints. As a result, he so aggravated the government officials that they finally jailed him for three years and then banished him for a second three years. In response to Hajji Nuri's criticism, Hajji Karim, the jeweller, asks the poet to explain why he is as poor as the others, and cannot even feed himself at times. Hajji Nuri responds that in order to excel in his profession, he must have an audience who would appreciate poetry. Since his fellow townsmen, such as the ones present at the meeting, lack rationality, wisdom, enthusiasm and talent, no one could expect a positive response to his poetry, Hajji Nuri's critical attitude and particularly his criticism of Hajji Karim, Aqa Zaman, Mulla Salman and Safar Beyk fail to have any impact on the group at the jeweller's house. In fact, they are so irritated with Hajji Nuri and his denunciation of their dishonesty, irrationality, ignorance and professional incompetence that they rudely ask him to leave. With Hajji Nuri out of the picture, the group proceeds with its plan. By the end of the play, Mulla Ibrahim cheats and robs them of their investment in his fraudulent scheme. Throughout the play, Akhundzade ridicules the ignorance and the simple-mindedness of the people of his birth place. For example, during their first visit to Mulla Ibrahim Khalil's camp, the men from Nukha see a dervish who is apparently an assistant to the magician, Mulla Ibrahim Khalil, nail the feet of a rooster to the ground while reciting the poetry of the Persian poet Sa'adi.
30. The title of the play was changed in the Persian translation to The Vizier of the Khan of Lankaran.
31. The statement made by Taymur was not included in the original Turkish version of the play and was only added after the piece was translated into Persian by Muhammad Ja'afar Qarachidaghi. See Adamiyyat, Andishiha-yi Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade, pp.45-6.
32. In his excellent work on the life and ideas of Akhundzade, the Iranian historian Fraydun Adamiyyat maintains that the oration delivered by the Russian officer at the end of the play was added by Vladimir Sollogub, the first director of the Tiflis theatre presumably to ensure the approval of the play by the Russian censor. My reading of the play is that the presence or the absence of the oration at the end of the play does not affect the actual content of the play and the central role of the Russian officer who acts as the agent of progress and civilization. He attacks traditional beliefs and customs and undermines the power of the patriarchal Muslim family.
33. The benevolence and generosity of the Russian judicial system are also underscored in Akhundzade's next play, The Adventures of the Miser. The story begins with a long oration by Haydar Beyk, a young Muslim man from the Qarabagh region who resents the Russians, not because they have occupied his country, but because they demand that the natives abandon highway robbery for a civilized and settled life of farming the land or trading goods. Haydar Beyk's two friends, Safar Beyk and Askar Beyk, sympathize with him. They are well aware that without a great deal of money, their friend cannot marry his fiancée, Suna Khanom. The three beyks thus decide to organize a trip to Tabriz, the capital of the Iranian province of Azerbaijan, where they plan to purchase European-made goods, smuggle them illegally into Russia, and sell them for a quick profit; the proceeds will enable Haydar Beyk to marry his fiancée. Their plan has a flaw, however; they do not have the money to purchase the illegal goods. In an attempt to finance their trip, they decide to ask for help from a greedy and self-centred merchant named Hajji Qara who strikes a deal with the three beyks when he realizes that there will be a great deal of profit for him if he participates in the trip to Tabriz. After returning from Tabriz and crossing the river Aras which constituted the border between Russia and Iran, the hajji who has parted way with the three beyks is detained by a group of Russian soldiers. Meanwhile, Haydar Beyk and his two friends manage to sell their smuggled goods in a local bazaar for a handsome profit. With the money from the sale of the smuggled goods, Haydar Beyk finally succeeds in marrying his fiancée, Suna Khanom. A day after the wedding, however, the Russian authorities, who suspect Haydar Beyk of involvement in an armed robbery, storm the young couple's home. During the interrogation, Haydar Beyk is quickly cleared of the charge of highway robbery. However, with the appearance of Hajji Qara on the scene, Haydar Beyk finally confesses and admits his involvement in the trip to smuggle goods from Iran to Russia. The Russians are about to detain Haydar Beyk when his wife intercedes on his behalf, pleading with the Russian officer in charge and begging him to spare the life and honour of her husband. The kind and just-minded Russian officer, who is greatly affected by Suna Khanom's tears and pleas, decides to forgive Haydar Beyk. In return, Haydar Beyk makes a promise to the Russian officer that he will make reparation for his crime by fighting in the Russian army in Daghestan against the enemies of the Russian Tsar (i.e. the Muslims of Daghestan who were fighting the Russian forces under the charismatic leadership of Sheikh Shamil, 1834-59). The Russian officer brings the play to an end with a long speech on the need for obedience and respect towards the Russian Tsar who acts as the representative of God and the prophet of God on earth.
34. See Reuben Levy, The Social Structure of Islam (Cambridge University Press, 1969). pp. 116-17. See also, Shaykh Baha ud-Din Ameli, Jami-a Abbasi (Bombay, 1902), pp.260-325. Shiites believe that the prophet Muhammad approved of sigha whereas the Sunnis disagree. The term sigha refers to the actual contract or mihr, or mihriyya.
35. See Reuben Levy, The Social Structure of Islam (Cambridge University Press, 1969). pp. 116-17. See also, Shaykh Baha ud-Din Ameli, Jami-a Abbasi (Bombay, 1902), pp.260-325. Shiites believe that the prophet Muhammad approved of sigha whereas the Sunnis disagree. The term sigha refers to the actual contract or mihr, or mihriyya.
36. Historically, Darugha referred to the headman of a mahalla or a city quarter.
37. Carolyn G. Heilbrun, Toward a Recognition of Androgyny (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1973), p.51. Dawn D. Eidelman, George Sand and the Nineteenth-Century Russian Love-Triangle Novels (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 1994), p.65.
38. Carolyn G. Heilbrun, Toward a Recognition of Androgyny (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1973), p.51. Dawn D. Eidelman, George Sand and the Nineteenth-Century Russian Love-Triangle Novels (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 1994), p.65.
39. 'If any of your women commit fornication, call in four witnesses from among yourselves against them; if they testify to their guilt confine them to their houses till death overtakes them or till God finds another way for them.' Quran, 'Al-Nisa' (Women) 4:15.
40. Akhundzade, Asarlari, Vol.2.
41. See also, 'Dar Bari-yi Yek Kalama', in Baqir Moamani (ed.), Maqalat (Tehran, 1973).
42. It is important to note that Akhundzade ignored completely the historical fact that the 'Harem' system was not introduced by Islam. In pre-Islamic Iran, the system had existed from very ancient times.
43. It is true that in some of his private letters, Akhundzade stated that he did not intend to destroy Islam but instead wished to reform it. But these letters were written to individuals who were practicing Muslims. Clearly, Akhundzade did not trust them completely and at the same time he did not wish to insult their religious feelings and sensitivities. See for example his letter to Ali Khan, the Iranian consul in Tifiis. Akhundzade, Alifba-yi Jadid va Maktubat, p.297.
44. Akhundzade's views on Muslim intellectuals and reformers who refuse to attack Islam are articulated in his critique of Mirza Yusef Khan Mostashar ud-Dowla's Yek Kalama. Mostashar ud-Dowla had argued that Islam was compatible with constitutionalism and progress.
45. The Letters of Kamal ud-Dowla, p.112.
46. Ibid., p.112.
47. Ibid., p. 120.
48. Ibid., p. 120. See also Quran, ' Al-Tahrim' (Prohibition), 66:1.
49. Ibid., p. 120. See also Quran, ' Al-Tahrim' (Prohibition), 66:1.
50. Ibid., pp. 119-20.
51. Ibid., p. 122. See also Quran, 'Al-Ahzab' (The Confederate Tribes), 33:36, 33:37.
52. Ibid., p. 122. See also Quran, 'Al-Ahzab' (The Confederate Tribes), 33:36, 33:37.
53. Ibid., p. 127.
54. Ibid., pp. 124-5.
55. Ibid., pp. 123-4.
56. Ibid., pp. 126-7, 128-9.
57. Ibid., pp.127, 129-30.
58. Quran, 'Al-Nur' (Light), 24:30, 24:31.
59. Quran, 'Al-Ahzab' (The Confederate Tribes), 33:53.
60. The Letters of Kamal ud-Dowla, pp. 126-7.
61. Ibid., pp. 132-3.
62. Ibid., pp. 179-80.
63. Ibid., p. 179.
64. Ibid., p. 179.
65. '... you may marry other women who seem good to you: two, three, or four of them.' See, Quran, 'Al-Nisa' (Women) 4:1-4:3.
66. The Letters of Kamal ud-Dowla, p. 181.
67. Ibid., p.181.
68. Ibid., p. 182.
69. '... when you pass judgement among men, ... judge with fairness'. See Quran, 'Al-Nisa' (Women) 4:57-4:58.
70. The Letters of Kamal ud-Dowla', p. 183. Akhundzade attacked those Quranic revelations that dealt primarily with veiling, polygyny and relationship between men and women. He did not, however, present a systematic analysis of the Quranic revelations which dealt with the status of women in 'public' and 'private' spheres. Thus, Akhundzade did not mention the Quranic revelations regarding the law of inheritance: 'A male shall inherit twice as much as a female': Quran, 'Al-Nisa' (Women) 4:11. And again: 'You [Men] shall inherit the half of your wives' estates if they die childless ... Your wives shall inherit one quarter of your estate if you die childless.' Quran, 'Al-Nisa' (Women) 4:12. Moreover, Akhundzade ignored the Quranic revelations dealing with woman's body and sexuality: 'They ask you about menstruation, Say: It is an indisposition. Keep aloof from women during their menstrual periods and do not touch them until they are clean again. Then have intercourse with them in the way God enjoined you.' Quran, 'Al-Baqarah' (The Cow) 2:222. Akhundzade also remained silent on the Quranic revelation which declared men superior to women. The same revelation gave men the right to 'admonish' and even 'beat' their wives if they feared disobedience: 'Men have authority over women because God has made the one superior to the other, and because they spend their wealth to maintain them. Good women are obedient. They guard their unseen parts because God has guarded them. As for those from whom you fear disobedience, admonish them and send them to beds apart and beat them. Then if they obey you, take no further action against them.' Quran, 'Al-Nisa' (Women) 4:34. Finally, Akhundzade had nothing to say about the Quranic revelation which granted Muslim men unlimited power in sexual intercourse: 'Women are your fields: go, then, into your fields whence you please. Do good works and fear God.' Quran, 'Al-Baqarah' (The Cow) 2:222-2:223.
71. The Letters of Kamal ud-Dowla', p. 183. Akhundzade attacked those Quranic revelations that dealt primarily with veiling, polygyny and relationship between men and women. He did not, however, present a systematic analysis of the Quranic revelations which dealt with the status of women in 'public' and 'private' spheres. Thus, Akhundzade did not mention the Quranic revelations regarding the law of inheritance: 'A male shall inherit twice as much as a female': Quran, 'Al-Nisa' (Women) 4:11. And again: 'You [Men] shall inherit the half of your wives' estates if they die childless ... Your wives shall inherit one quarter of your estate if you die childless.' Quran, 'Al-Nisa' (Women) 4:12. Moreover, Akhundzade ignored the Quranic revelations dealing with woman's body and sexuality: 'They ask you about menstruation, Say: It is an indisposition. Keep aloof from women during their menstrual periods and do not touch them until they are clean again. Then have intercourse with them in the way God enjoined you.' Quran, 'Al-Baqarah' (The Cow) 2:222. Akhundzade also remained silent on the Quranic revelation which declared men superior to women. The same revelation gave men the right to 'admonish' and even 'beat' their wives if they feared disobedience: 'Men have authority over women because God has made the one superior to the other, and because they spend their wealth to maintain them. Good women are obedient. They guard their unseen parts because God has guarded them. As for those from whom you fear disobedience, admonish them and send them to beds apart and beat them. Then if they obey you, take no further action against them.' Quran, 'Al-Nisa' (Women) 4:34. Finally, Akhundzade had nothing to say about the Quranic revelation which granted Muslim men unlimited power in sexual intercourse: 'Women are your fields: go, then, into your fields whence you please. Do good works and fear God.' Quran, 'Al-Baqarah' (The Cow) 2:222-2:223.
72. The Letters of Kamal ud-Dowla', pp. 181-2.
73. For a detailed account of the life of Hasan Ala Zikrihi s-Salam, see Ala ud-Din Ata Malik Juwayni, Tarikh-i Jahangusha (composed in A.H. 658 = 1260) (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1937), Vol.3, pp.222-39. See also, Rashid ud-Din Fazlullah, Jami ut-Tawarikh, Qismat-i Ismailiyan va Fatimiyan va Nizariyan va Daiiyun va Rqfiqan (composed in A.H. 704 = 1304). ed. Muhammad Taqi Danishpujhuh and Muhammad Mudarrisi (Zanjani) (Tehran, 1959). pp. 162-70; Hamdullah Mostowfi, Tarikh-i Guzideh (composed in A.H. 730 = 1330), ed. Edward Browne (Cambridge University Press, 1910), pp.521-3; Khwand Mir, Habib us-Siyar (composed in A.H. 930 = 1525), ed. Muhammad Dabirsiyaqi (Tehran, 1984, 4 Vols.). Vol.2, pp.471-3; Ann Lambton, State and Government in Medieval Islam (Oxford University Press, 1985), pp.303-6; Farhad Daftary, The Ismailis: Their History and Doctrines (Cambridge University Press. 1994), pp.385-96.
74. For a detailed account of the life of Hasan Ala Zikrihi s-Salam, see Ala ud-Din Ata Malik Juwayni, Tarikh-i Jahangusha (composed in A.H. 658 = 1260) (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1937), Vol.3, pp.222-39. See also, Rashid ud-Din Fazlullah, Jami ut-Tawarikh, Qismat-i Ismailiyan va Fatimiyan va Nizariyan va Daiiyun va Rqfiqan (composed in A.H. 704 = 1304). ed. Muhammad Taqi Danishpujhuh and Muhammad Mudarrisi (Zanjani) (Tehran, 1959). pp. 162-70; Hamdullah Mostowfi, Tarikh-i Guzideh (composed in A.H. 730 = 1330), ed. Edward Browne (Cambridge University Press, 1910), pp.521-3; Khwand Mir, Habib us-Siyar (composed in A.H. 930 = 1525), ed. Muhammad Dabirsiyaqi (Tehran, 1984, 4 Vols.). Vol.2, pp.471-3; Ann Lambton, State and Government in Medieval Islam (Oxford University Press, 1985), pp.303-6; Farhad Daftary, The Ismailis: Their History and Doctrines (Cambridge University Press. 1994), pp.385-96.
75. For a detailed account of the life of Hasan Ala Zikrihi s-Salam, see Ala ud-Din Ata Malik Juwayni, Tarikh-i Jahangusha (composed in A.H. 658 = 1260) (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1937), Vol.3, pp.222-39. See also, Rashid ud-Din Fazlullah, Jami ut-Tawarikh, Qismat-i Ismailiyan va Fatimiyan va Nizariyan va Daiiyun va Rqfiqan (composed in A.H. 704 = 1304). ed. Muhammad Taqi Danishpujhuh and Muhammad Mudarrisi (Zanjani) (Tehran, 1959). pp. 162-70; Hamdullah Mostowfi, Tarikh-i Guzideh (composed in A.H. 730 = 1330), ed. Edward Browne (Cambridge University Press, 1910), pp.521-3; Khwand Mir, Habib us-Siyar (composed in A.H. 930 = 1525), ed. Muhammad Dabirsiyaqi (Tehran, 1984, 4 Vols.). Vol.2, pp.471-3; Ann Lambton, State and Government in Medieval Islam (Oxford University Press, 1985), pp.303-6; Farhad Daftary, The Ismailis: Their History and Doctrines (Cambridge University Press. 1994), pp.385-96.
76. For a detailed account of the life of Hasan Ala Zikrihi s-Salam, see Ala ud-Din Ata Malik Juwayni, Tarikh-i Jahangusha (composed in A.H. 658 = 1260) (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1937), Vol.3, pp.222-39. See also, Rashid ud-Din Fazlullah, Jami ut-Tawarikh, Qismat-i Ismailiyan va Fatimiyan va Nizariyan va Daiiyun va Rqfiqan (composed in A.H. 704 = 1304). ed. Muhammad Taqi Danishpujhuh and Muhammad Mudarrisi (Zanjani) (Tehran, 1959). pp. 162-70; Hamdullah Mostowfi, Tarikh-i Guzideh (composed in A.H. 730 = 1330), ed. Edward Browne (Cambridge University Press, 1910), pp.521-3; Khwand Mir, Habib us-Siyar (composed in A.H. 930 = 1525), ed. Muhammad Dabirsiyaqi (Tehran, 1984, 4 Vols.). Vol.2, pp.471-3; Ann Lambton, State and Government in Medieval Islam (Oxford University Press, 1985), pp.303-6; Farhad Daftary, The Ismailis: Their History and Doctrines (Cambridge University Press. 1994), pp.385-96.
77. For a detailed account of the life of Hasan Ala Zikrihi s-Salam, see Ala ud-Din Ata Malik Juwayni, Tarikh-i Jahangusha (composed in A.H. 658 = 1260) (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1937), Vol.3, pp.222-39. See also, Rashid ud-Din Fazlullah, Jami ut-Tawarikh, Qismat-i Ismailiyan va Fatimiyan va Nizariyan va Daiiyun va Rqfiqan (composed in A.H. 704 = 1304). ed. Muhammad Taqi Danishpujhuh and Muhammad Mudarrisi (Zanjani) (Tehran, 1959). pp. 162-70; Hamdullah Mostowfi, Tarikh-i Guzideh (composed in A.H. 730 = 1330), ed. Edward Browne (Cambridge University Press, 1910), pp.521-3; Khwand Mir, Habib us-Siyar (composed in A.H. 930 = 1525), ed. Muhammad Dabirsiyaqi (Tehran, 1984, 4 Vols.). Vol.2, pp.471-3; Ann Lambton, State and Government in Medieval Islam (Oxford University Press, 1985), pp.303-6; Farhad Daftary, The Ismailis: Their History and Doctrines (Cambridge University Press. 1994), pp.385-96.
78. For a detailed account of the life of Hasan Ala Zikrihi s-Salam, see Ala ud-Din Ata Malik Juwayni, Tarikh-i Jahangusha (composed in A.H. 658 = 1260) (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1937), Vol.3, pp.222-39. See also, Rashid ud-Din Fazlullah, Jami ut-Tawarikh, Qismat-i Ismailiyan va Fatimiyan va Nizariyan va Daiiyun va Rqfiqan (composed in A.H. 704 = 1304). ed. Muhammad Taqi Danishpujhuh and Muhammad Mudarrisi (Zanjani) (Tehran, 1959). pp. 162-70; Hamdullah Mostowfi, Tarikh-i Guzideh (composed in A.H. 730 = 1330), ed. Edward Browne (Cambridge University Press, 1910), pp.521-3; Khwand Mir, Habib us-Siyar (composed in A.H. 930 = 1525), ed. Muhammad Dabirsiyaqi (Tehran, 1984, 4 Vols.). Vol.2, pp.471-3; Ann Lambton, State and Government in Medieval Islam (Oxford University Press, 1985), pp.303-6; Farhad Daftary, The Ismailis: Their History and Doctrines (Cambridge University Press. 1994), pp.385-96.
79. The Letters of Kamal ud-Dowla', pp. 134-5.
80. Ibid., pp. 136-7.
81. Ibid., pp. 136-7.
82. Ibid., p. 137.
83. Ibid., p. 137.
84. Ibid., pp. 177-8.
85. Ibid., pp. 177-8.
86. Ibid., p. 178. For an in-depth study of the Babi movement and the role of Qurrat ul-Ain, see Abbas Amanat, Resurrection and Renewal: The Making of the Babi Movement in Iran, 1844-1850 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989), pp. 295-331. See also Abulqasim Afnan. Chahar Risali-yi Tarikhi dar bari-yi Tahireh Qurrat ul-Ain (Landegg Academy, Switzerland, 1991.
87. Ibid., p. 178. For an in-depth study of the Babi movement and the role of Qurrat ul-Ain, see Abbas Amanat, Resurrection and Renewal: The Making of the Babi Movement in Iran, 1844-1850 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989), pp.295-331. See also Abulqasim Afnan. Chahar Risali-yi Tarikhi dar bari-yi Tahireh Qurrat ul-Ain (Landegg Academy, Switzerland, 1991.
88. Ibid., p. 178. For an in-depth study of the Babi movement and the role of Qurrat ul-Ain, see Abbas Amanat, Resurrection and Renewal: The Making of the Babi Movement in Iran, 1844-1850 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989), pp.295-331. See also Abulqasim Afnan. Chahar Risali-yi Tarikhi dar bari-yi Tahireh Qurrat ul-Ain (Landegg Academy, Switzerland, 1991.
89. Ibid., p. 178.
90. Martin Malia, 'Alexander Herzen and the Birth of Russian Socialism', pp.265-6. It is interesting to note that John Stuart Mill was among the writers who picked up the call for emancipation of women. Mill wrote The Subjection of Women, which was published in 1869. Akhundzade was greatly influenced by Mill's writings and he translated Mill's On Liberty (1859).
91. Eidelman, George Sand, p.21. For an excellent analysis of George Sand's works and ideas see Naomi Schor, Georgt Sand and Idealism (Columbia University Press, 1993).
92. Eidelman, George Sand, p.21. For an excellent analysis of George Sand's works and ideas see Naomi Schor, Georgt Sand and Idealism (Columbia University Press, 1993).
93. Ibid., p.49.
94. Ibid., p.49.
95. Ibid., p.50.
96. Ibid., p.50.
97. Akhundzade did not know any French and it remains uncertain whether he had read George Sand's works in their Russian translation. But even if he had not read Sand's works, it is very likely that he was influenced indirectly by the French author through the mediation of the many Russian writers such as Belinsky and Bakunin who were greatly affected by George Sand.
98. For example, the Russians Alexandr Bestuzhev Marlinsky and Alexandr Odoyevsky, the Georgian Aleksandr Chavchavadze and the Armenian Gabriel Sandukian.
99. Adamiyyat, Andishiha-yi Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade, pp.46-8.
100. Akhundzade, Alifba-yi Jadid va Maktuhat, pp.244-5.
101. Ibid., p.245.
102. Ibid., p.244-5.
103. Because of the content of his writings, Akhundzade felt a genuine fear for his life. It was this fear that prevented him from travelling to Iran in order to visit his friends and relatives. See his letter to Ali Khan, the former Iranian consul in Tiflis who was subsequently appointed to a new position in Azerbaijan: Akhundzade, Alifbay-i Jadid va Maktubat, p.313.