(Im)possible Love and Sexual Pleasure in Late-Colonial North India

Modern Asian Studies

Volumn 36, Issue 1, 2002, Pages 195-221

  Gupta, Charu ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0346300281     PISSN: 0026749X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0026749X02001063     Document Type: Article

References (132)

1. Influential here has been Michel Foucault's work, which argues that there was a propagation of disciplinary regimes, an intensification in the management and policing of sexuality in the modern period, leading to distinctions of bourgeois identity. See Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, Vol. I: An Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley (New York, 1978), pp. 24-5, 145-6.
2. In the European context too, historians, while questioning Foucault, have pointed this out. See Lynda Nead, Myths of Sexuality: Representations of Women in Victorian Britain (Oxford, 1988), p. 5; Jeffery Weeks, Sex, Politics and Society: The Regulation of Sexuality since 1800 (London, 1981), pp. 19-21.
3. In the European context too, historians, while questioning Foucault, have pointed this out. See Lynda Nead, Myths of Sexuality: Representations of Women in Victorian Britain (Oxford, 1988), p. 5; Jeffery Weeks, Sex, Politics and Society: The Regulation of Sexuality since 1800 (London, 1981), pp. 19-21.
4. Carole S. Vance (ed.), Pleasure and Danger: Exploring Female Sexuality (London, 1984).
5. Statistics of British India for the Judicial and Administrative Departments (Calcutta, 1879), pp. 48-9; Judicial and Administrative Statistics of British India for 1901-02 and Preceding Years (Calcutta, 1903), p. 255; Statistical Abstracts for British India from 1916-17 to 1925-26 (Calcutta, 1927), p. 323.
6. Statistics of British India for the Judicial and Administrative Departments (Calcutta, 1879), pp. 48-9; Judicial and Administrative Statistics of British India for 1901-02 and Preceding Years (Calcutta, 1903), p. 255; Statistical Abstracts for British India from 1916-17 to 1925-26 (Calcutta, 1927), p. 323.
7. Statistics of British India for the Judicial and Administrative Departments (Calcutta, 1879), pp. 48-9; Judicial and Administrative Statistics of British India for 1901-02 and Preceding Years (Calcutta, 1903), p. 255; Statistical Abstracts for British India from 1916-17 to 1925-26 (Calcutta, 1927), p. 323.
8. Report on the Administration of UP, 1923-24 (Allahabad, 1924), p. 91.
9. For further details, see Charu Gupta, 'Obscenity, Sexuality and the "Other": Gender and Hindu Identity in Uttar Pradesh, 1880s-1930s', unpublished PhD thesis (SOAS, University of London, 2000), pp. 29-39.
10. Pandey Becan Sharma 'Ugra', Chaklet [Chocolate] (Calcutta, 1953, 3rd edn, published after 25 years).
11. Ibid., pp. 56, 76, 101-2, 117, 125-35, 156.
12. Ibid., cover.
13. Sphurna Devi, Abalaon ka Insaf [Eight Stories and a Dialogue, Illustrating the Disabilities of Women and the Justice Needed] (Chand Press, Allahabad, 1936, 3rd edn). The book explicitly stated that it was an attack on the high caste Hindu men, especially of the Brahmin and Vaishya castes. It needs separate treatment, which I hope to take up at a later stage of my work. In brief, the book stressed the impact of the magazine Chand on the writer, where various women had confessed their tragic stories, and which encouraged her to write this novel. It had confessions by eight women, exposing the sexual misdeeds of upper caste men and making a case for widow remarriage. It was repeatedly emphasized that the stories were based on true incidents, and that attempts had been made to keep them away from obscenity, though some of it could not be avoided due to the subject matter. While offering a strong indictment of the upper caste Hindu male society, belying myths of ideal Hindu families, it also highlighted women's sexuality, desires and needs. At the same time, the book is written in a titillating fashion and at times, it is diffucult to gauge its political and social location.
14. Ghaslet literally refers to kerosene oil, widely used as cooking fuel in India, and metaphorically to inflammatory, that is sensational and obscene literature. Ratnakar Pandey, Ugra aur Unka Sahitja (Varanasi, 1969), pp. 255-73; Ugra, Chaklet, pp. 1-12.
15. Ghaslet literally refers to kerosene oil, widely used as cooking fuel in India, and metaphorically to inflammatory, that is sensational and obscene literature. Ratnakar Pandey, Ugra aur Unka Sahitja (Varanasi, 1969), pp. 255-73; Ugra, Chaklet, pp. 1-12.
16. Pandey, Ugra, pp. 260-6.
17. Ugra, Chaklet, p. 1; Pandey, Ugra pp. 271-2.
18. Ugra, Chaklet, p. 1; Pandey, Ugra pp. 271-2.
19. Sodomy and homosexuality have aroused hysterical reactions in various other cultures and in different historical moments. See Stephen O. Murray and Will Roscoe (eds), Islamic Homosexualities: Culture, History and Literature (New York, 1997); Christopher Craft, Another Kind of Love: Male Homosexual Desire in English Discourse, 1850-1920 (Berkeley, 1994).
20. Sodomy and homosexuality have aroused hysterical reactions in various other cultures and in different historical moments. See Stephen O. Murray and Will Roscoe (eds), Islamic Homosexualities: Culture, History and Literature (New York, 1997); Christopher Craft, Another Kind of Love: Male Homosexual Desire in English Discourse, 1850-1920 (Berkeley, 1994).
21. Ruth Vanita, 'The New Homophobia: Ugra's Chocolate', in Ruth Vanita and Saleem Kidwai (eds), Same-Sex Love in India: Readings from Literature and History (New York, 2000), pp. 246-52.
22. Gita Thadani, Sakhiyani: Lesbian Desire in Ancient and Modern India (London, 1996); Vanita and Kidwai (eds), Same-Sex.
23. Gita Thadani, Sakhiyani: Lesbian Desire in Ancient and Modern India (London, 1996); Vanita and Kidwai (eds), Same-Sex.
24. Ugra, Chaktel, pp. 53-4, 87-95, 102, 125, 137.
25. UP Jails Inquiry (Stuart) Committee, 1928-29, Report (Allahabad, 1929), pp. 126-31.
26. Naiyar-i-Azam, 12 Jan. 1907, Native Newspaper Reports of UP (henceforth NNR), 19 Jan. 1907, p. 90.
27. Census of India, 1931, UP, vol. XVIII, part I (Allahabad, 1933), pp. 138-9.
28. Royal (Whitley) Commission of Labour in India, Evidence, vol. III, part I (London, 1931), pp. 140-1, 155.
29. Ibid., p. 156.
30. Ibid., p. 144.
31. See Madhulika Pathak, Yashpal ke Katha Sahitya mein Kam Prem aur Parivar [Sex, Love and Family in Yashpal's Literature] (Bombay, 1992). For the case launched against it, see Ismat Chugtai, 'Ek Mukadme ki Dastan' [The Story of a Case], trans. Javed Iqbal, Hans, 11, 4 (Nov. 1996), pp. 29-34.
32. See Madhulika Pathak, Yashpal ke Katha Sahitya mein Kam Prem aur Parivar [Sex, Love and Family in Yashpal's Literature] (Bombay, 1992). For the case launched against it, see Ismat Chugtai, 'Ek Mukadme ki Dastan' [The Story of a Case], trans. Javed Iqbal, Hans, 11, 4 (Nov. 1996), pp. 29-34.
33. See Madhulika Pathak, Yashpal ke Katha Sahitya mein Kam Prem aur Parivar [Sex, Love and Family in Yashpal's Literature] (Bombay, 1992). For the case launched against it, see Ismat Chugtai, 'Ek Mukadme ki Dastan' [The Story of a Case], trans. Javed Iqbal, Hans, 11, 4 (Nov. 1996), pp. 29-34.
34. The ideal in most of north India has been the relationship between Sita and Lakshman, where Lakshman when asked to recognize Sita's ring when she is abducted, is unable to do so, as he had only looked at his bhabhi's feet. However, there are strong undercurrents in this relationship which have also been much highlighted. Tagore wrote on this theme, suggesting the eroticism inherent in the forbidden crossing of boundaries, where the woman often becomes attracted towards her brother-in-law. In Haryana, a widow often was made to marry her younger brother-in-law, Prem Chowdhry, The Veiled Women: Shifting Gender Equations in Rural Haryana, 1880-1990 (Delhi, 1994).
35. S. W. Fallon, A Dictionary of Hindustani Proverbs (Banaras, 1886), pp. 1, 48.
36. Neera Desai, Woman in Modern India (Bombay, 1957).
37. Gyanendra Pandey, The Construction of Communalism in Colonial North India (Delhi, 1990), pp. 78-9.
38. Sahab Lal Srivastava, Folk Culture and Oral Tradition: A Comparative Study of Regions in Rajasthan and Eastern UP (New Delhi, 1974), p. 28. Also see Fallon, Dictionary p. 34.
39. Sahab Lal Srivastava, Folk Culture and Oral Tradition: A Comparative Study of Regions in Rajasthan and Eastern UP (New Delhi, 1974), p. 28. Also see Fallon, Dictionary p. 34.
40. Ibid., pp. 29-30.
41. Fallon, Dictionary, p. 34.
42. Jivaram Kapur Khatri, Stri Dharma Sar [Essence of Women's Duties] (Mathura, 1892). Kannomal, Mahila Sudhar [Reforms for Women] (Agra, 1923), p. 33 opposes the interaction of women with any male other than husband. Also see Ramtej Pandey, Nari Dharma Shastra [Treatise on Women's Duties] (Kashi, 1931), pp. 375-6.
43. Jivaram Kapur Khatri, Stri Dharma Sar [Essence of Women's Duties] (Mathura, 1892). Kannomal, Mahila Sudhar [Reforms for Women] (Agra, 1923), p. 33 opposes the interaction of women with any male other than husband. Also see Ramtej Pandey, Nari Dharma Shastra [Treatise on Women's Duties] (Kashi, 1931), pp. 375-6.
44. Jivaram Kapur Khatri, Stri Dharma Sar [Essence of Women's Duties] (Mathura, 1892). Kannomal, Mahila Sudhar [Reforms for Women] (Agra, 1923), p. 33 opposes the interaction of women with any male other than husband. Also see Ramtej Pandey, Nari Dharma Shastra [Treatise on Women's Duties] (Kashi, 1931), pp. 375-6.
45. Yashoda Devi, Pati Bhakti ki Shakti Arthat Pati ki Maryada [Power of Devotion to Husband, meaning Husband's Honour] (Allahabad, 1925), pp. 31-8.
46. Vyangya Chitravali [Collection of Cartoons and Caricatures] (Allahabad, 1930).
47. Lakshmi Narayan 'Saroj', Nari Shiksha Darpan [Mirror of Woman's Education], pp. 26-7; Devi, Pati Bhakti, pp. 32, 36.
48. Lakshmi Narayan 'Saroj', Nari Shiksha Darpan [Mirror of Woman's Education], pp. 26-7; Devi, Pati Bhakti, pp. 32, 36.
49. Vishwa Prakash, Striyon ke Rishte [Relations of Women] (Prayag, 1935), pp. 73-4, pp. 112-13. Also see Keshavkumar Thakur, Vivah aur Prem [Marriage and Love] (Allahabad, 1930, 2nd edn), p. 112, who argues that it is necessary to give women some space to meet and laugh with other men, as it functions as a safety valve in the preservation of the family structure.
50. Vishwa Prakash, Striyon ke Rishte [Relations of Women] (Prayag, 1935), pp. 73-4, pp. 112-13. Also see Keshavkumar Thakur, Vivah aur Prem [Marriage and Love] (Allahabad, 1930, 2nd edn), p. 112, who argues that it is necessary to give women some space to meet and laugh with other men, as it functions as a safety valve in the preservation of the family structure.
51. Kalicharan Sharma (trans.), Shivaji va Roshanara [Shivaji and Roshanara] (Bareilly, 1926, 3rd edn), 2nd edn mentioned in Statement of Particulars regarding Books and Periodical published in UP (hereafter SPBP), Sept. 1917, 4th edn mentioned in SPBP, Dec. 1928.
52. Kalicharan Sharma (trans.), Shivaji va Roshanara [Shivaji and Roshanara] (Bareilly, 1926, 3rd edn), 2nd edn mentioned in Statement of Particulars regarding Books and Periodical published in UP (hereafter SPBP), Sept. 1917, 4th edn mentioned in SPBP, Dec. 1928.
53. Sharma, Shivaji, pp. 9-18, p. 21.
54. Another incident reflecting the attitude of Shivaji towards Muslim women, however, was severely condemned by no less than Savarkar - when Shivaji and Chinaji Appa honourably sent back the daughter-in-law of the Muslim governor of Kalyan. Savarkar stated that the plaintive screams of millions of molested Hindu women did not seem to have reached the ears of Shivaji. For details, see Purushottam Agarwal, 'Savarkar, Surat and Draupadi: Legitimising Rape as a Political Weapon', in Tanika Sarkar and Urvashi Butalia (eds), Women and the Hindu Right: A Collection of Essays (New Delhi, 1995), pp. 48-52.
55. Riyaz-ul-Akhbar, 4 Nov. 1904, NNR, 12 Nov. 1904, p. 386.
56. Pandey Becan Sharma 'Ugra', Chand Hasinon ke Khutut [A Love Story, told in a Series of Letters] (Calcutta, 1927). See Francesca Orsini, 'Reading a Social Romance: Cand Hasinom ke Khutut', in V. Dalmia and T. Damsteegt (eds), Narrative Strategies: Essays on South Asian Literature and Film (Leiden, 1998).
57. Pandey Becan Sharma 'Ugra', Chand Hasinon ke Khutut [A Love Story, told in a Series of Letters] (Calcutta, 1927). See Francesca Orsini, 'Reading a Social Romance: Cand Hasinom ke Khutut', in V. Dalmia and T. Damsteegt (eds), Narrative Strategies: Essays on South Asian Literature and Film (Leiden, 1998).
58. Rai Krishnadas, 'Akbar Kal ka Hindu Pehnawa aur Uski Parampara' [The Hindu Dressing during Akbar's Period and its Tradition], Hindustani (April 1931), pp. 227-9.
59. Secret Police Abstracts of Intelligence of UP Government (henceforth PAI), no. 13, 3 April 1926, para. 342, p. 195.
60. PAI, no. 15, 24 April 1926, para. 371, p. 219; Ibid., no. 16, 1 May 1926, para. 397, p. 227.
61. PAI, no. 15, 24 April 1926, para. 371, p. 219; Ibid., no. 16, 1 May 1926, para. 397, p. 227.
62. I came across just one case where in March 1926 a Muslim woman in Gonda converted on her own and married a Hindu, PAI, no. 12, 27 March 1926, para. 294, p. 171. This may signify that they did not find conversion to Hinduism to be elevating their position in any way, or that the Hindu family structure was no better than the Muslim patriarchal one. In cases in which males converted, like some Malkana Rajputs, women followed, though here also there were tensions. Some conversions through shuddhi were reported in Meerut in March 1924, but the question of the womenfolk of those converted caused some difficulty. PAI, no. 13, 29 March 1924, para. 107, p. 116.
63. I came across just one case where in March 1926 a Muslim woman in Gonda converted on her own and married a Hindu, PAI, no. 12, 27 March 1926, para. 294, p. 171. This may signify that they did not find conversion to Hinduism to be elevating their position in any way, or that the Hindu family structure was no better than the Muslim patriarchal one. In cases in which males converted, like some Malkana Rajputs, women followed, though here also there were tensions. Some conversions through shuddhi were reported in Meerut in March 1924, but the question of the womenfolk of those converted caused some difficulty. PAI, no. 13, 29 March 1924, para. 107, p. 116.
64. Kalpana Kannabiran, 'Rape and Construction of Communal Identity', in Kumari Jayawardena and Malathi de Alwis (eds), Embodied Violence: Communalising Women's Sexuality in South Asia (Delhi, 1996), pp. 32-41.
65. Editorial thoughts, 'Muslim-Manovritti ka Vyapak Swarup' [Widespread Nature of Muslim Mentality], Chand, 6, 3 (Jan. 1928), pp. 315-21.
66. In case of riots, Muslims were usually depicted as the originators and aggressors, a point I will not elaborate here. See Jagdishprasad Tiwari, Kanpur ka Vikat Sangram [Massive Battle of Kanpur] (Kanpur, 1931), pp. 5-9; Anon. (A Home Ruler), Dussehra mein Muharram [Being the Hindu Version of the Moslem-Hindu Fracas of Allahabad] (Allahabad, 1917), pp. 1-6; Anon, Hindu-Muslim Ekta ka Sawal [A Dialogue Between Shri Bhagwandass and Maulana Azad Sobhani on Hindu Muslim Unity] (Kashi, 1923), p. 49. For a contemporary perspective see P. K. Datta, ' "Dying Hindus": Production of Hindu Communal Sense in Early Twentieth Century Bengal', Economic and Political Weekly, 28, 25 (19 June 1993), p. 1314.
67. In case of riots, Muslims were usually depicted as the originators and aggressors, a point I will not elaborate here. See Jagdishprasad Tiwari, Kanpur ka Vikat Sangram [Massive Battle of Kanpur] (Kanpur, 1931), pp. 5-9; Anon. (A Home Ruler), Dussehra mein Muharram [Being the Hindu Version of the Moslem-Hindu Fracas of Allahabad] (Allahabad, 1917), pp. 1-6; Anon, Hindu-Muslim Ekta ka Sawal [A Dialogue Between Shri Bhagwandass and Maulana Azad Sobhani on Hindu Muslim Unity] (Kashi, 1923), p. 49. For a contemporary perspective see P. K. Datta, ' "Dying Hindus": Production of Hindu Communal Sense in Early Twentieth Century Bengal', Economic and Political Weekly, 28, 25 (19 June 1993), p. 1314.
68. In case of riots, Muslims were usually depicted as the originators and aggressors, a point I will not elaborate here. See Jagdishprasad Tiwari, Kanpur ka Vikat Sangram [Massive Battle of Kanpur] (Kanpur, 1931), pp. 5-9; Anon. (A Home Ruler), Dussehra mein Muharram [Being the Hindu Version of the Moslem-Hindu Fracas of Allahabad] (Allahabad, 1917), pp. 1-6; Anon, Hindu-Muslim Ekta ka Sawal [A Dialogue Between Shri Bhagwandass and Maulana Azad Sobhani on Hindu Muslim Unity] (Kashi, 1923), p. 49. For a contemporary perspective see P. K. Datta, ' "Dying Hindus": Production of Hindu Communal Sense in Early Twentieth Century Bengal', Economic and Political Weekly, 28, 25 (19 June 1993), p. 1314.
69. In case of riots, Muslims were usually depicted as the originators and aggressors, a point I will not elaborate here. See Jagdishprasad Tiwari, Kanpur ka Vikat Sangram [Massive Battle of Kanpur] (Kanpur, 1931), pp. 5-9; Anon. (A Home Ruler), Dussehra mein Muharram [Being the Hindu Version of the Moslem-Hindu Fracas of Allahabad] (Allahabad, 1917), pp. 1-6; Anon, Hindu-Muslim Ekta ka Sawal [A Dialogue Between Shri Bhagwandass and Maulana Azad Sobhani on Hindu Muslim Unity] (Kashi, 1923), p. 49. For a contemporary perspective see P. K. Datta, ' "Dying Hindus": Production of Hindu Communal Sense in Early Twentieth Century Bengal', Economic and Political Weekly, 28, 25 (19 June 1993), p. 1314.
70. File 66/VI/1924, Home Political (National Archives of India) (henceforth NAI).
71. Patriot, NNR, 24 Oct. 1924.
72. Hindi newspapers of the time were full of it: Pratap condemned the action of Raza Ali and remarked that this incident strengthened the belief among Hindus that Muslims could not be trusted, especially regarding women. Azad also deplored the incident. Abhyudaya remarked that Raza Ali's actions were a clear example that such activities extended to all Muslims. Arya Patra warned Hindus to draw a lesson from this incident. All in NNR, 12 July 1924.
73. PAI, no. 27, 12 July 1924, p. 220.
74. File C-6/1934-35, Akhil Bharat Hindu Mahasabha Papers (Nehru Memorial Museum and Library).
75. Bharat Dharma, for example, a Hindi weekly published from Banaras, and a supporter of Sanatan Dharma, constantly accused Muslim males of seducing vvomen, See 29 July 1924, p. 155 Aug. 1924, p. 12.
76. PAI, no. 34, 30 Aug. 1924, p. 276.
77. Vartman, NNR., 23 May 1925.
78. Raghuvar Dayalu, Chand Musalmanon ki Harkaten [Deeds of Some Muslims] (Kanpur, 1928), pp. 2-9. Also see Arya Patra, NNR, 12 July 1924; Mahatma Premanand (Hindu Dharma Rakshak), Musalmani Andher Khata [The Dark Deeds of Muslims] (Awadh, 1928). An organization of Hindu youth can be called by many names like Samaj Sewak Dal, Hindu Yuvak Dal etc., but Mahabir Dal sounds most appropriate. It has its own attraction as it reminds one of Hanuman and the way he aided in Sita's release who was abducted by Ravan. Same way we have to aid in the release of our women from the present day abductors. 62
79. Raghuvar Dayalu, Chand Musalmanon ki Harkaten [Deeds of Some Muslims] (Kanpur, 1928), pp. 2-9. Also see Arya Patra, NNR, 12 July 1924; Mahatma Premanand (Hindu Dharma Rakshak), Musalmani Andher Khata [The Dark Deeds of Muslims] (Awadh, 1928). An organization of Hindu youth can be called by many names like Samaj Sewak Dal, Hindu Yuvak Dal etc., but Mahabir Dal sounds most appropriate. It has its own attraction as it reminds one of Hanuman and the way he aided in Sita's release who was abducted by Ravan. Same way we have to aid in the release of our women from the present day abductors. 62
80. Raghuvar Dayalu, Chand Musalmanon ki Harkaten [Deeds of Some Muslims] (Kanpur, 1928), pp. 2-9. Also see Arya Patra, NNR, 12 July 1924; Mahatma Premanand (Hindu Dharma Rakshak), Musalmani Andher Khata [The Dark Deeds of Muslims] (Awadh, 1928). An organization of Hindu youth can be called by many names like Samaj Sewak Dal, Hindu Yuvak Dal etc., but Mahabir Dal sounds most appropriate. It has its own attraction as it reminds one of Hanuman and the way he aided in Sita's release who was abducted by Ravan. Same way we have to aid in the release of our women from the present day abductors. 62
81. Suraj Prasacl Mishra, Hindu Auraton ki Loot [The Loot of Hindu Women] (Lucknow, 1924). Also mentioned in SPBR, March 1924. Ganga Prasad Upadhyaya (ed.), Hindu Striyon ki Loot ke Karan [The Causes of the Plunder of Hindu Women] (Allahabad, 1927). Also mentioned in SPBR, June 1927. Also see Suraj Prasad Mishra, Musalman Gundon ke Hinduon par Ghor Atyachar, part I [The Extreme Excesses Committed by Muslim Scoundrels on Hindus. A Collection of Excerpts from the Public Press] (Kanpur, 1924). Also mentioned in SPBR, March 1924.
82. Suraj Prasacl Mishra, Hindu Auraton ki Loot [The Loot of Hindu Women] (Lucknow, 1924). Also mentioned in SPBR, March 1924. Ganga Prasad Upadhyaya (ed.), Hindu Striyon ki Loot ke Karan [The Causes of the Plunder of Hindu Women] (Allahabad, 1927). Also mentioned in SPBR, June 1927. Also see Suraj Prasad Mishra, Musalman Gundon ke Hinduon par Ghor Atyachar, part I [The Extreme Excesses Committed by Muslim Scoundrels on Hindus. A Collection of Excerpts from the Public Press] (Kanpur, 1924). Also mentioned in SPBR, March 1924.
83. Suraj Prasacl Mishra, Hindu Auraton ki Loot [The Loot of Hindu Women] (Lucknow, 1924). Also mentioned in SPBR, March 1924. Ganga Prasad Upadhyaya (ed.), Hindu Striyon ki Loot ke Karan [The Causes of the Plunder of Hindu Women] (Allahabad, 1927). Also mentioned in SPBR, June 1927. Also see Suraj Prasad Mishra, Musalman Gundon ke Hinduon par Ghor Atyachar, part I [The Extreme Excesses Committed by Muslim Scoundrels on Hindus. A Collection of Excerpts from the Public Press] (Kanpur, 1924). Also mentioned in SPBR, March 1924.
84. It has been argued that when confronted with the phenomenon of conversion from Hinduism, whether in eighteenth-century Kerala or in contemporary India, a certain kind of Hindu loses her/his logical faculties. The politics of cultural virginity is inevitably shadowed by a myth of innocence, combined with a ranting of violation, invasion, seduction and rape. See Alok Rai, 'Religious Conversions and the Crisis of Brahminical Hinduism', in Gyanendra Pandey (ed.), Hindus and Others: The Question of Identity in India Today (New Delhi, 1993), pp. 225-37.
85. PAI, no. 25, 4 July 1925, para. 207, p. 271 , and para. 208, p. 273.
86. PAI, no. 31, 15 Aug. 1925, para. 250, p. 329; ibid., no. 12, 27 March 1926, para. 311, p. 177.
87. PAI, no. 31, 15 Aug. 1925, para. 250, p. 329; ibid., no. 12, 27 March 1926, para. 311, p. 177.
88. Thakur Rajkishore Singh, Hindu Sangathan (Ballia, 1924), p. 75.
89. File 25/June 1924, Home Poll (NAI); PAI, no. 26, 5 July 1924, p. 211.
90. File 177-P/1928, Foreign and Political Dept (NAI).
91. I noticed this while looking at the NNR and some local newspapers during the period of my study.
92. Leader, 17 Nov. 1938, p. 14; ibid., 27 Nov. 1938, p. 6.
93. Leader, 17 Nov. 1938, p. 14; ibid., 27 Nov. 1938, p. 6.
94. Leader, 30 Sept. 1938, p. 12; ibid., 17 Nov. 1938, p. 14, and 16 Sept. 1938, p. 6. Bharat Dharma, 5 Aug. 1924, p. 12; Abhyudaya, 3 Feb. 1923, p. 5.
95. Leader, 30 Sept. 1938, p. 12; ibid., 17 Nov. 1938, p. 14, and 16 Sept. 1938, p. 6. Bharat Dharma, 5 Aug. 1924, p. 12; Abhyudaya, 3 Feb. 1923, p. 5.
96. Leader, 30 Sept. 1938, p. 12; ibid., 17 Nov. 1938, p. 14, and 16 Sept. 1938, p. 6. Bharat Dharma, 5 Aug. 1924, p. 12; Abhyudaya, 3 Feb. 1923, p. 5.
97. Leader, 30 Sept. 1938, p. 12; ibid., 17 Nov. 1938, p. 14, and 16 Sept. 1938, p. 6. Bharat Dharma, 5 Aug. 1924, p. 12; Abhyudaya, 3 Feb. 1923, p. 5.
98. Leader, 30 Sept. 1938, p. 12; ibid., 17 Nov. 1938, p. 14, and 16 Sept. 1938, p. 6. Bharat Dharma, 5 Aug. 1924, p. 12; Abhyudaya, 3 Feb. 1923, p. 5.
99. For example, Prem stated that abduction has become a feature of the times in almost all the provinces. Hindu Sabha must raise Hindu volunteers to put an end to such atrocities, NNR, 31 May 1924.
100. Leader, 30 Sept. 1938, p. 12.
101. Letter dated 8 Nov. 1938, written by Haig to Linlithgow, Haig Papers, Eur. Mss. F. 115/2A (India Office Library). I am grateful to Nandini Gooptu for initially mentioning this case to me, which I was then able to follow up.
102. See Leader, Pioneer, Vartman, Aaj, Pratap between Sept. 1938 and Feb. 1939. As to specific dates for example, see Leader, 21 and 23 Sep. 1938, p. 6; 8 Oct. 1938, p. 5.
103. See Leader, Pioneer, Vartman, Aaj, Pratap between Sept. 1938 and Feb. 1939. As to specific dates for example, see Leader, 21 and 23 Sep. 1938, p. 6; 8 Oct. 1938, p. 5.
104. PAI, no. 17, 7 May 1927, p. 169.
105. PAI, no. 20, 20 May 1939.
106. I have borrowed this term from Judith Butler, Excitable Speech: A Politics of the Performative (New York, 1997), pp. 71-102.
107. Butler, Excitable, p. 102.
108. Datta, 'Dying', p. 1305.
109. This can also be seen by the development of other movements in this period, and there was a radical content in non-Brahmin and untouchable movements. The most important example of this in UP was the emergence of Adi Hinduism. R. S. Khare, The Untouchable as Himself: Ideology, Identity and Pragmatism Among the Lucknow Chamars (Cambridge, 1984), pp. 79-92; Nandini Gooptu, 'Caste and Labour: Untouchable Social Movements in Urban UP in the Early Twentieth Century', in Peter Robb (ed.), Dalit Movements and the Meanings of Labour in India (Delhi, 1993), pp. 285-98. Other regions witnessed even stronger movements, Gail Omvedt, Cultural Revolt in a Colonial Society: The Non-Brahmin Movement in Western India, 1873-1930 (Bombay, 1976); Mark Juergensmeyer, Religion as Social Vision: The Movement Against Untouchability in Twentieth Century Punjab (Berkeley, 1982); Rosalind O'Hanlon, Caste, Conflict and Ideology: Mahatma Jotirao Phule and Low Caste Protest in Nineteenth Century Western India (Cambridge, 1985); Saurabh Dube, Untouchable Pasts: Religion, Identity and Power among a Central Indian Community, 1780-1950 (Albany, 1998).
110. This can also be seen by the development of other movements in this period, and there was a radical content in non-Brahmin and untouchable movements. The most important example of this in UP was the emergence of Adi Hinduism. R. S. Khare, The Untouchable as Himself: Ideology, Identity and Pragmatism Among the Lucknow Chamars (Cambridge, 1984), pp. 79-92; Nandini Gooptu, 'Caste and Labour: Untouchable Social Movements in Urban UP in the Early Twentieth Century', in Peter Robb (ed.), Dalit Movements and the Meanings of Labour in India (Delhi, 1993), pp. 285-98. Other regions witnessed even stronger movements, Gail Omvedt, Cultural Revolt in a Colonial Society: The Non-Brahmin Movement in Western India, 1873-1930 (Bombay, 1976); Mark Juergensmeyer, Religion as Social Vision: The Movement Against Untouchability in Twentieth Century Punjab (Berkeley, 1982); Rosalind O'Hanlon, Caste, Conflict and Ideology: Mahatma Jotirao Phule and Low Caste Protest in Nineteenth Century Western India (Cambridge, 1985); Saurabh Dube, Untouchable Pasts: Religion, Identity and Power among a Central Indian Community, 1780-1950 (Albany, 1998).
111. This can also be seen by the development of other movements in this period, and there was a radical content in non-Brahmin and untouchable movements. The most important example of this in UP was the emergence of Adi Hinduism. R. S. Khare, The Untouchable as Himself: Ideology, Identity and Pragmatism Among the Lucknow Chamars (Cambridge, 1984), pp. 79-92; Nandini Gooptu, 'Caste and Labour: Untouchable Social Movements in Urban UP in the Early Twentieth Century', in Peter Robb (ed.), Dalit Movements and the Meanings of Labour in India (Delhi, 1993), pp. 285-98. Other regions witnessed even stronger movements, Gail Omvedt, Cultural Revolt in a Colonial Society: The Non-Brahmin Movement in Western India, 1873-1930 (Bombay, 1976); Mark Juergensmeyer, Religion as Social Vision: The Movement Against Untouchability in Twentieth Century Punjab (Berkeley, 1982); Rosalind O'Hanlon, Caste, Conflict and Ideology: Mahatma Jotirao Phule and Low Caste Protest in Nineteenth Century Western India (Cambridge, 1985); Saurabh Dube, Untouchable Pasts: Religion, Identity and Power among a Central Indian Community, 1780-1950 (Albany, 1998).
112. This can also be seen by the development of other movements in this period, and there was a radical content in non-Brahmin and untouchable movements. The most important example of this in UP was the emergence of Adi Hinduism. R. S. Khare, The Untouchable as Himself: Ideology, Identity and Pragmatism Among the Lucknow Chamars (Cambridge, 1984), pp. 79-92; Nandini Gooptu, 'Caste and Labour: Untouchable Social Movements in Urban UP in the Early Twentieth Century', in Peter Robb (ed.), Dalit Movements and the Meanings of Labour in India (Delhi, 1993), pp. 285-98. Other regions witnessed even stronger movements, Gail Omvedt, Cultural Revolt in a Colonial Society: The Non-Brahmin Movement in Western India, 1873-1930 (Bombay, 1976); Mark Juergensmeyer, Religion as Social Vision: The Movement Against Untouchability in Twentieth Century Punjab (Berkeley, 1982); Rosalind O'Hanlon, Caste, Conflict and Ideology: Mahatma Jotirao Phule and Low Caste Protest in Nineteenth Century Western India (Cambridge, 1985); Saurabh Dube, Untouchable Pasts: Religion, Identity and Power among a Central Indian Community, 1780-1950 (Albany, 1998).
113. This can also be seen by the development of other movements in this period, and there was a radical content in non-Brahmin and untouchable movements. The most important example of this in UP was the emergence of Adi Hinduism. R. S. Khare, The Untouchable as Himself: Ideology, Identity and Pragmatism Among the Lucknow Chamars (Cambridge, 1984), pp. 79-92; Nandini Gooptu, 'Caste and Labour: Untouchable Social Movements in Urban UP in the Early Twentieth Century', in Peter Robb (ed.), Dalit Movements and the Meanings of Labour in India (Delhi, 1993), pp. 285-98. Other regions witnessed even stronger movements, Gail Omvedt, Cultural Revolt in a Colonial Society: The Non-Brahmin Movement in Western India, 1873-1930 (Bombay, 1976); Mark Juergensmeyer, Religion as Social Vision: The Movement Against Untouchability in Twentieth Century Punjab (Berkeley, 1982); Rosalind O'Hanlon, Caste, Conflict and Ideology: Mahatma Jotirao Phule and Low Caste Protest in Nineteenth Century Western India (Cambridge, 1985); Saurabh Dube, Untouchable Pasts: Religion, Identity and Power among a Central Indian Community, 1780-1950 (Albany, 1998).
114. This can also be seen by the development of other movements in this period, and there was a radical content in non-Brahmin and untouchable movements. The most important example of this in UP was the emergence of Adi Hinduism. R. S. Khare, The Untouchable as Himself: Ideology, Identity and Pragmatism Among the Lucknow Chamars (Cambridge, 1984), pp. 79-92; Nandini Gooptu, 'Caste and Labour: Untouchable Social Movements in Urban UP in the Early Twentieth Century', in Peter Robb (ed.), Dalit Movements and the Meanings of Labour in India (Delhi, 1993), pp. 285-98. Other regions witnessed even stronger movements, Gail Omvedt, Cultural Revolt in a Colonial Society: The Non-Brahmin Movement in Western India, 1873-1930 (Bombay, 1976); Mark Juergensmeyer, Religion as Social Vision: The Movement Against Untouchability in Twentieth Century Punjab (Berkeley, 1982); Rosalind O'Hanlon, Caste, Conflict and Ideology: Mahatma Jotirao Phule and Low Caste Protest in Nineteenth Century Western India (Cambridge, 1985); Saurabh Dube, Untouchable Pasts: Religion, Identity and Power among a Central Indian Community, 1780-1950 (Albany, 1998).
115. PAI, 24 March 1923, no. 12, para. 247, p. 186.
116. PAI, 16 Jan. 1926, no. 2, para. 61, p. 36.
117. PAI, 6 March 1926, no. 9, p. 127.
118. PAI, 15 Sep. 1928, no. 36, para. 744, p. 372.
119. PAI, 25 Feb. 1928, no. 8, para. 159, p. 80.
120. Anon., 'Bal Vidhwa Vivah' (Child Widow's Marriage), in Gurukul Samachar, 2, 7-8 (Feb-March 1910), p. 4.
121. PAI, 29 March 1924, no. 13, para. 107, p. 118; 27 Feb. 1926, no. 8, para. 19, p. 114; 1 Dec. 1928, no. 46, para. 1021, p. 522; and 1 May 1926, no. 16, para. 415, p. 235.
122. PAI, 29 March 1924, no. 13, para. 107, p. 118; 27 Feb. 1926, no. 8, para. 19, p. 114; 1 Dec. 1928, no. 46, para. 1021, p. 522; and 1 May 1926, no. 16, para. 415, p. 235.
123. PAI, 29 March 1924, no. 13, para. 107, p. 118; 27 Feb. 1926, no. 8, para. 19, p. 114; 1 Dec. 1928, no. 46, para. 1021, p. 522; and 1 May 1926, no. 16, para. 415, p. 235.
124. PAI, 29 March 1924, no. 13, para. 107, p. 118; 27 Feb. 1926, no. 8, para. 19, p. 114; 1 Dec. 1928, no. 46, para. 1021, p. 522; and 1 May 1926, no. 16, para. 415, p. 235.
125. PAI, 30 April 1927, no. 16, para. 409, p. 161; 11 June 1927, no. 22, para. 550, p. 218.
126. PAI, 30 April 1927, no. 16, para. 409, p. 161; 11 June 1927, no. 22, para. 550, p. 218.
127. Gauri Viswanathan, Outside the Fold: Conversion, Modernity and Belief (Princeton, 1998), p. 163, remarks that in the cases of conversions in Bengal, reported in the 1901 census, the cause of the vast majority was neither proselytism nor doctrinal conviction but romance.
128. Viswanathan, Outside, p. xiv.
129. PAI, 27 March 1926, no. 12, para. 311, p. 176.
130. PAI, 3 April 1926, no. 13, para. 342, p. 195.
131. PAI, 29 Sept. 1934, no. 38, para. 534, p. 556.
132. PAI, 21 May 1938, no. 20, para. 183, p. 124.