An assessment of biofuel use and burning of agricultural waste in the developing world

Global Biogeochemical Cycles

Volumn 17, Issue 4, 2003, Pages

  Yevich, Rosemarie ^a   Logan, Jennifer A ^a  

^a HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Agricultural waste burning; Biofuel emissions; Biofuel use; Global biofuel burning

Indexed keywords

ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION; BIOFUEL; BIOMASS BURNING; CARBON DIOXIDE; CARBON MONOXIDE; CROP RESIDUE; NITROGEN OXIDES;

EID: 0346197130     PISSN: 08866236     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1029/2002gb001952     Document Type: Article

References (347)

1. Abu Sin, M. E., and H. R. J. Davies (Eds.), The Future of Sudan's Capital Region: A Study in Development and Change, 273 pp., Khartoum Univ. Press, Khartoum, Sudan, 1991.
2. Alhassan, W. S., The potential of sorghum straw as a livestock feed in Nigeria, paper presented at Symposium on the Current Status and Potential of Industrial Uses of Sorghum in Nigeria, 4-6 December 1989, Kano, Nigeria, Int. Crops Res. Inst. for the Semi-Arid Trop. (ICRISAT), Zaria, Nigeria, 1990.
3. Andreae, M. O., Biomass burning: Its history, use, and distribution and its impact on environmental quality and global climate, in Global Biomass Burning: Atmospheric, Climatic and Biospheric Implications, edited by J. S. Levine, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1991.
4. Andreae, M. O., and P. Merlet, Emission of trace gases and aerosols from biomass burning, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 15, 955-966, 2001.
5. Areola, O., Ecology of Natural Resources in Nigeria, 258 pp., Gower, Brookfield, Vt., 1991.
6. Arnold, J. E. M., and J. Jongma, Fuelwood and charcoal in developing countries: An economic survey, Unasylva, 29, 2-9, 1978.
7. Ay, P., Fuelwood and charcoal in the West African forest: Field research in Western Nigeria, in Rural Energy Systems in the Humid Tropics: Proceedings of the First Workshop of the United Nations University Rural Energy Systems Project, edited by W. B. Morgan, R. P. Moss, and G. J. A. Ojo, pp. 26-38, U. N. Univ., Tokyo, 1980.
8. Baguant, J., The case of Mauritius, in Energy Management in Africa, edited by M. R. Bhagavan and S. Karekezi, pp. 127-176, Zed, London, 1992.
9. Ball-Coelho, B., H. Tiessen, J. W. B. Stewart, I. H. Salcedo, and E. V. S. B. Sampaio, Residue management effects on sugarcane yield and soil properties in Northeastern Brazil, Agron. J., 85, 1004-1008, 1993.
10. Banwell, P. S., and R. C. Harriss, Enhancing biomass energy use in Kenya, Nat. Resour. Forum, 20, 298-307, 1992.
11. Barnard, G., and L. Kristoferson, Agricultural Residues as Fuel in the Third World, 178 pp., Earthscan Energy Inf. Programme, London, 1985.
12. Barnes, D. F., Population growth, wood fuels, and resource problems in sub-Saharan Africa, in Population Growth and Reproduction in Sub-Saharan Africa, edited by G. T. F. Acsadi, G. Johnson-Acsadi, and R. A. Bulatao, pp. 44-59, World Bank, Washington, D. C., 1990.
13. Barnes, D. F., and L. Qian, Urban interfuel substitution, energy use, and equity in developing countries: Some preliminary results, paper presented at the International Conference of the International Association for Energy Economics, Int. Assoc. for Energy Econ., Honolulu, Hawaii, July 8-10, 1992.
14. Barnes, D. F., K. Krutilla, and W. Hyde, The urban energy transition: Energy, poverty, and the environment in the developing world, draft report, World Bank, Washington, D. C., 2001.
15. Bashou, S. A., New approaches to the development and utilisation of renewable energy resources in Uganda, in African Energy: Issues in Planning and Practice, pp. 15-19, Zed, London, 1990.
16. Bates, J. A. R., Studies on a Nigerian forest soil: The distribution of organic matter in the profile and in various soil fractions, J. Soil Sci., 11, 246-257, 1960.
17. Behrens, A., Total energy consumption by Brazilian households, Energy 11, 607-611, 1986.
18. Bell, M. K., Decomposition of herbaceous litter, in Biology of Plant Litter Decomposition, vol. 1, edited by C. H. Dickinson and G. J. F. Pugh, chap. 2, 37-67, Academic, San Diego, Calif., 1974.
19. Benkovitz, C. M., M. T. Schultz, J. Pacyna, L. Tarrason, J. Dignon, E. C. Voldner, P. A. Spiro, J. A. Logan, and T. E. Graedel, Global gridded inventories for anthropogenic emissions of sulfur and nitrogen, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 29,239-29,253, 1996.
20. Bergsen, A., and H. S. Levine (Eds.), The Soviet Economy: Toward the Year 2000, 452 pp., Allen and Unwin, Concord, Mass., 1983.
21. Bhagavan, M. R., Angola, in Energy and Development in Southern Africa: SADCC Country Studies Part I, edited by P. O'Keefe and B. Munslow, pp. 7-64, Beijer Inst., R. Swed. Acad. of Sci., Uppsala, Sweden, 1984.
22. Bianchi, A., V. S. Bogach, G. Best, and M. Wionczek, Energy in Latin America, 138 pp., U. N. Univ., Tokyo, 1990.
23. Blandon, P., Soviet Forest Industries, 290 pp., Westview, Boulder, Colo., 1983.
24. Bogach, V. S., Wood as Fuel: Energy for Developing Countries, 153 pp., Praeger, Westport, Conn., 1985.
25. Bogach, V. S., Energy options in Central America, in Energy in Latin America, edited by A. Bianchi et al., pp. 64-94, U. N. Univ., Tokyo, 1990.
26. Brasilia Ministerio das Minas e Energia, National Energy Balance 1987, Minist. of Mines and Energy, Brasilia, 1987.
27. Brito, J. O., Fuelwood utilization in Brazil, Biomass Bioenergy, 12, 69-74, 1997.
28. Brocard, D., J. P. Lacaux, and H. Eva, Domestic biomass combustion and associated emissions in West Africa, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 12, 127-139, 1998.
29. Butcher, S. S., U. Rao, K. R. Smith, J. Osborn, P. Azuma, and H. Fields, Emission factors and efficientices for small-scale open biomass combustion: Toward standard measurement techniques, paper presented at Annual Meeting, Am. Chem. Soc., Washington, D. C., 1984.
30. Canteromartinez, C., G. J. Oleary, and D. J. Connor, Stubble retention and nitrogen fertilisation in a fallow-wheat rainfed cropping system: 1. Soil water and nitrogen conservation, crop growth and yield, Soil Tillage Res., 34, 79-94, 1995.
31. Cecelski, E., J. Dunkerley, and W. Ramsay, Household Energy and the Poor in the Third World, Resour. for the Future, Washington, D. C., 1979.
32. Central Intelligence Agency, World Factbook, 1984, Washington, D. C., 1984.
33. Central Intelligence Agency, World Factbook, 1991, Washington, D. C., 1991.
34. Changchun Institute of Geography, Conservation Atlas of China, 238 pp., Science, Beijing, 1990.
35. Christensen, J., North east arid zone development programme: NEAZDP, in The Sahel: Population, Integrated Rural Development Projects, and Research Components in Development Projects: Proceedings of the 6th Danish Sahel Workshop, 6-8 January, 1994, edited by A. Reenberg and B. Markussen, pp. 57-63, Aarhus Univ. Press, Risskov, Denmark, 1994.
36. Craig, G. M., (Ed.), The Agriculture of the Sudan, 468 pp., Oxford Univ. Press, New York, 1991.
37. Crutzen, P. J., and M. O. Andreae, Biomass burning in the tropics: Impact on atmospheric chemistry and biogeochemical cycles, Science, 250. 1669-1678, 1990.
38. 3Cl and COS, Nature, 282, 253-256, 1979.
39. Davidson, O. R., Energy issues in sub-Saharan Africa, Ann. Rev. Energy Environ., 17, 359-403, 1992.
40. 2 emissions in Brazil, Biomass Bioenergy, 3, 77-80, 1992.
41. Dederi, W. I., Management of the Nigerian environment with reference to the activities of the Kano State, in Sustainable Development in Nigeria's Dry Belt: Problems and Prospects, Proceedings of the NEST Annual Workshop, edited by K. O. Ologe, chap. 11, pp. 81-87, Niger, Environ. Study/Action. Team, Ibadan, Nigeria, 1990.
42. Del Buono, M., Ecuador: Energy and social equity: A preview of the energy consumption survey, ESMAP Connection, 1, 1-12, 1993.
43. de Montalembert, M. R., and J. Clement, Fuelwood supplies in the developing countries, FAO For. Pap. 42, Food and Agric. Org., Rome, 1983.
44. Department of Agriculture/Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives in Thailand, Traditional and modern practices of utilizing organic materials as fertilizers in Thailand, in Organic Recycling in Asia, Workshop on the Use of Organic Materials as Fertilizers in Asia, 26 October-5 November 1976, in Bangkok, Thailand, FAO Soils Bull. 36, Food and Agric. Org., Rome, 1978.
45. Desai, A. V., Ends and means in rural energy surveys, Rep. IDRC-MR112e, Int. Dev. Res. Cent., Ottawa, June 1985.
46. Dewalt, B. R., Population and resource destruction in Honduras, in Population and Land Use in Developing Countries: Report of a Workshop, edited by C. L. Jolly and B. B. Torrey, pp. 106-123, Natl. Acad., Washington, D. C., 1993.
47. Dicko, M. S., and M. Sangare, Feeding behaviour of domestic ruminants in Sahelian Zone, in Rangelands: A Resource Under Siege, Proceedings of the Second International Rangeland Congress, edited by P. J. Joss, P. W. Lynch, and O. B. Williams, pp. 388-390, Cambridge Univ. Press, New York, 1986.
48. Digernes, T. H., Wood for fuels: Energy crisis implying desertification: The case of Bara, the Sudan, thesis, 128 pp., Geografish Inst., Bergen, Norway, 1977.
49. Di Marzo, L., A conceptual framework of analysis and action on energy and the environment in Indonesia, Environ. Rep. 26, Dalhousie Print. Cent., Halifax, N.S., Canada, 1994.
50. Diphaha, J. B. S., and R. Burton, Photovoltaics and solar water heaters in Botswana, in Energy Options for Africa: Environmentally Sustainable Alternatives, edited by S. Karekezi and G. A. Mackenzie, pp. 139-153, Zed, London, 1993.
51. Division de Programacion Energetica, La Demanda de Lena y Carbon Vegetal en el Paraguay, Proyecto PAR/85/003 PNUD/BIRF, Programa Nacional de Desarrollo Energetico, Republica del Paraguay. Presidencia de la Republica, Secretaria Tecnica de Planificacion, Division de Programacion Energetica, Asuncion, Paraguay, November 1986.
52. Duncan, B. N., R. V. Martin, A. C. Staudt, R. Yevich, and J. A. Logan, Interannual and seasonal variability of biomass burning emissions constrained by satellite observations, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4100, doi:10.1029/2002JD002378, 2003.
53. Dwyer, E., S. Pinnock, J. M. Gregoire, and J. M. C. Pereira, Global spatial and temporal distribution of vegetation fire as determined from satellite observations, Int. J. Remote Sens., 21, 1289-1302, 2000.
54. Earl, D. E., Forest Energy and Economic Development, 128 pp., Clarendon, Oxford, UK, 1975.
55. Ebinger, C. K., Pakistan: Energy Planning in a Strategic Vortex, 155 pp., Indiana Univ. Press, Bloomington, Ind., 1981.
56. Eckholm, E. P., The other energy crisis: Firewood, Worldwatch Pap. 1, 22 pp., Worldwatch Inst., Washington, D. C., September 1975.
57. Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific, U. N., Bangkok, Thailand, 1987.
58. Elgizouli, I. A. R., Rural-Urban household energy use and inter-relation in the central region of the Sudan, in African Energy: Issues in Planning and Practice, pp. 37-41, Zed, London, 1990.
59. Ellegard, A., Charcoal utilisation in Zambia, Renewable Energy Dev., 7, 4, 1994.
60. Energy Information Administration (EIA), Estimates of U.S. wood energy consumption from 1949 to 1981, Rep. DOE/EIA-0341, U.S. Dep. of Energy, Washington, D. C., August 1982.
61. Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme, China: Energy for rural development in China, An assessment based on a joint Chinese/ESMAP study in six countries, Report of the Joint UNDP/World Bank Energy Sector Management Assistance Program and the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of China No. 183/96, The World Bank, Washington, D. C., July 1996.
62. Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme, India: Household energy strategies for urban India, the case of Hyderabad, Rep. 214/99, World Bank, Washington, D. C., June 1999.
63. England, S. B., and D. M. Kammen, Energy resources and development in Vietnam, Annu. Rev. Energy Environ., 18, 137-167, 1993.
64. English, J., M. Tiffen, and M. Mortimore, Land resource management in Machakos District, Kenya, 1930-1990, World Bank Environ. Pap. 5, World Bank, Washington, D. C., 1994.
65. Environmental Protection Agency, National air pollutant emissions trends, 1970-1996, EPA-454/R-97-011, Research Triangle Park, N. C., 1997.
66. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Emissions Inventory, report, Research Triangle Park, N. C., April 2000. (Available at http://www.epa. gov/globalwarming/publications/emissions/us2000/)
67. Ernst, E., Fuelwood consumption among rural families in Upper Volta, paper presented at 8th World Forestry Congress, Peace Corps, Ouagadougou, Upper Volta, 1977.
68. European Space Agency, ATSR World Fire Atlas, Frascati, Italy, 2000. (Available at http://shark1.esrin.esa.it/FIRE/AF/ATSR/)
69. Ezcurra, A. T., I. O. de Zarate, J.-P. Lacaux, and P.-V. Dinh, Atmospheric impact of Cereal-Waste burning in Spain, in Biomass Burning and Global Change, vol. 2, Biomass Burning in South America, Southeast Asia, and Temperate and Boreal Ecosystems, and the Oil Fires of Kuwait, edited by J. S. Levine, pp. 780-786, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1996.
70. Federal Office of Statistics, Draft report of general household survey, April 1984-March 1985, report, 89 pp., Household Surveys Unit, Fed. Off. of Stat., Lagos, Nigeria, 1986.
71. Fenster, C. R., Effect of weed control on soil water conservation for rainfed agriculture in the Near East, in Soil, Water, and Crop/Livestock Management Systems for Rainfed Agriculture in the Near East Region: Proceedings of the Workshop at Amman, Jordan, January 18-23, 1986, edited by C. E. Whitman et al., U.S. Dep. of Agric., Washington, D. C., 1989.
72. Fesharaki, F., Development of the Iranian Oil Industry: International and Domestic Aspects, 315 pp., Praeger, Westport, Conn., 1976.
73. Fesharaki, F., H. Brown, C. M. Siddayao, T. A. Siddiqi, K. R. Smith, and K. Woodward, Critical Energy Issues in Asia and the Pacific, 314 pp., Westview, Boulder, Colo., 1982.
74. Foley, G., Charcoal making in developing countries, Tech. Rep. 5, Int. Inst. for Environ. and Dev., London, 1986.
75. Foley, G., and A. van Buren, Coal substitution and other approaches to easing the pressure on woodfuel resources, Nat. Resour. Forum, 6, 127-149, 1982.
76. Food and Agriculture Organization, Production Yearbook 1983, Rome, 1984.
77. Food and Agriculture Organization, Production Yearbook 1985, Rome, 1986a.
78. Food and Agriculture Organization, 1985 Yearbook of Forest Products, FAO For. Ser., Rome, 1986b.
79. Food and Agriculture Organization, 1988 Yearbook of Forest Products, FAO For. Ser., Rome, 1990.
80. Food and Agriculture Organization, The State of Food and Agriculture 1995, Rome, 1995.
81. Frolich, A., Lesotho, in Energy and Development in Southern Africa: SADCC Country Studies Part I, edited by P. O'Keefe and B. Munslow, Beijer Inst. and Scand. Inst. of African Stud., Uddevalla, Sweden, 1984.
82. Fundacao Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatistica, Censo Agropecuario, Brasil, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1984.
83. Gao, S., and D. Xu, Rural Energy and fuel forests in China, Biomass Bioenergy, 1, 297-299, 1991.
84. Gupta, V. V. S. R., M. M. Roper, J. A. Kirkegaard, and J. F. Angus, Changes in microbial biomass and organic matter levels during the first year of modified tillage and stubble management practices on a red earth, Aust. J. Soil Res., 32, 1339-1354, 1994.
85. Guzman, O., A. Yunez-Naude, and M. S. Wionczek, Energy Efficiency and Conservation in Mexico, 354 pp., Westview, Boulder, Colo., 1987.
86. Hadar, Y., Z. Kerem, and B. Gorodecki, Biodegradation of lignocellulosic agricultural wastes by Pleurotus ostreatus, J. Biotechnol., 30, 133-139, 1993.
87. Hadjichristodoulou, A., Breeding barley for forage and grain production in drylands, Tech. Bull. 158, Agric. Res. Inst., Minist. of Agric. and Nat. Resour., Nicosia, Cyprus, May 1994.
88. Hall, D. O., Biomass Energy, Energy Policy, 19, 711-737, 1991.
89. Hall, D. O., and Y. S. Mao (Eds.), Biomass Energy and Coal in Africa, 196 pp., African Energy Policy Res. Network, London, 1994.
90. Hall, D. O., F. Rosillo-Calle, R. H. Williams, and J. Woods, Biomass for energy: Supply prospects, in Renewable Energy: Sources for Fuels and Electricity, edited by H. Kelly, A. K. N. Reddy, and R. H. Williams, chap. 14, pp. 593-651, Island, Washington, D. C., 1993.
91. Hall, D. O., F. Rosillo-Calle, and J. Woods, Biomass utilization in households and industry: Energy use and development, Chemosphere, 29, 1099-1119, 1994.
92. Hao, W. M., and M. H. Liu, Spatial and temporal distribution of tropical biomass burning, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 8, 495-503, 1994.
93. Heber, G., and G. Zieroth, Rural Energy Supply Options in the Altiplano Area of Peru, Spec. Energy Programme Doc. 2, 207 pp., Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit, Eschborn, Germany, 1986.
94. Hemstock, S. L., and D. O. Hall, A biomass energy flow chart for Zimbabwe: An example of the methodology, Sol. Energy, 59, 49-57, 1997.
95. Hibajene, S. H., E. N. Chidumayo, and A. Ellegard, Summary of the Zambia Charcoal Industry Workshop, 59 pp., Stockholm Environ. Inst., Stockholm, 1993.
96. Hosier, R., Energy Use in Rural Kenya: Household Demand and Rural Transformation, Energy, Environment, and Development in Africa, 7, 177 pp., Beijer Inst. and Scand. Inst. of African Stud., Stockholm, 1985.
97. Hosier, R., J. Boberg, M. Luhanga, and M. Mwandosya, Energy planning and wood balances: Sustainable energy future for Tanzania, Nat. Resour. Forum, 14, 143-154, May 1990.
98. Houghton, R. A., The annual net flux of carbon to atmosphere from changes in land use 1850-1990, Tellus, Ser. B, 51, 298-313, 1999.
99. Hurst, D. F., D. W. T. Griffith, and G. D. Cook, Trace gas emissions from biomass burning in Australia, in Biomass Burning and Global Change, vol. 2, Biomass Burning in South America, Southeast Asia, and Temperate and Boreal Ecosystems, and the Oil Fires of Kuwait, edited by J. S. Levine, pp. 787-792, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1996.
100. Husin, M., Z. Z. Zakaria, and A. H. Hassan, Potentials of oil palm by-products as raw materials for agro-based industries, in Proceedings of the National Symposium on Oil Palm By-Products for Agro-based Industries, 5-6 November 1985, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, pp. 7-15, Palm Oil Res. Inst. of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, 1987.
101. Hyman, E. L., Fuel substitution and efficient woodstoves: Are they the answers to the fuelwood supply problem in northern Nigeria?, Environ. Manage., 18, 23-32, 1994.
102. Ileri, A., and T. Gurer, Energy and exergy utilization in Turkey during 1995, Energy, 23, 1099-1106, 1998.
103. India Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Indian Agricultural Atlas, 76 pp., Dep. of Agric., Minist. of Agric., Govt. of India, New Delhi, 1971.
104. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories, Int. Energy Agency, Paris, 1997.
105. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Reference Manual, vol. 3, Int. Energy Agency, Paris, 2002. (Available at http://www.ipcc-nggip. iges.or.jp/public/gl/invs1.htm)
106. International Energy Agency, Renewable Sources of Energy, 334 pp., Org. for Econ. Coop. and Dev., Washington, D. C., March 1987.
107. International Energy Agency, World energy statistics and balances (1971/1987), Org. for Econ. Coop. and Dev., Paris, 1989.
108. Ishiguro, M., and T. Akiyama, Energy Demand in Five Major Asian Developing Countries: Structure and Prospects, 181 pp., World Bank, Washington, D. C., 1995.
109. Islam, M. N., Energy and rural development: Critical assessment of the Bangladesh situation, in Rural Energy to Meet Development Needs: Asian Village Approaches, edited by M. N. Islam, R. Morse, and M. H. Soesastro, 561 pp., Westview, Boulder, Colo, 1984.
110. Islam, M. N., R. Morse, and M. H. Soesastro (Eds.), Rural Energy to Meet Development Needs: Asian Village Approaches, 561 pp., Westview, Boulder, Colo., 1984.
111. Jaradat, A. A., An Assessment of Research Needs and Priorities for Rainfed Agriculture, 415 pp., U.S. Agency for Int. Dev., Irbid, Jordan, 1988.
112. Jenkins, B., Physical properties of biomass, in Biomass Handbook, pp. 860-891, Gordon and Breach, Newark, N. J., 1989.
113. Jenkins, B., and J. M. Ebeling, Correlation of physical and chemical properties of terrestrial biomass with conversion, in Energy From Biomass and Wastes IX Symposium Papers, Lake Buena Vista, Florida (January 28-February 1, 1985), pp. 371-403, Inst. of Gas Technol., Chicago, III., 1985.
114. Jenkins, B., and S. Q. Turn, Primary atmospheric pollutants from agricultural burning: Emission rate determinations from wind tunnel simulations, Pap. 946008, Am. Soc. of Agric. Eng., St. Joseph, Mich., 1994.
115. Jenkins, B., S. Q. Turn, and R. B. Williams, Survey documents open burning in the San Joaquin Valley, Calif. Agric., 45, 12-16, 1991.
116. Jenkins, B., S. Q. Turn, and R. B. Williams, Atmospheric emissions from agricultural burning in California: Determination of burn fractions, distribution factors, and crop-specific contributions, Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 38, 313-330, 1992.
117. Joshi, V., C. Venkataraman, and D. R. Ahuja, Emissions from burning biofuels in metal cookstoves, Environ. Manage., 13, 763-772, 1989.
118. Joshi, V., C. S. Sinha, M. Karuppasamy, K. K. Srivastava, and P. B. Singh, Rural energy database, final report, Tata Energy Res. Inst., New Delhi, September 1992.
119. Kaale, B. K., Tanzania Five Year National Village Afforestation Plan: 1982/83-1986-87, report, Min. of Nat. Resour. and Tourism, Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania, 1983.
120. Kahane, A., and S. Lwakabamba, Energy in West Africa, in Energy in Africa, edited by A. Kahane et al., Wiley Eastern Limited, New Delhi, 1990.
121. Kalburtzi, K. L., D. S. Veresoglou, and P. A. Gerakis, Effects of burnt of unburnt straw on wheat and fababeans as influenced by N fertilisation, Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 31, 173-185, 1990.
122. Karekezi, S., and G. A. Mackenzie (Eds.), Energy Options for Africa: Environmentally Sustainable Alternatives, 184 pp., Zed, London, 1993.
123. Kersten, I., G. Baumbach, A. F. Oluwole, I. B. Obioh, and O. J. Ogunsola, Urban and rural fuelwood situation in the tropical rain-forest area of southwest Nigeria, Energy, 23, 887-898, 1998.
124. Kgathi, D. L., and P. Zhou, Biofuel use assessments in Africa: Implications for greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation strategies, Environ. Monit. Assess., 38, 253-269, 1995.
125. Khan, A. R., A. Qayyum, and G. A. Chaudhary, A country paper on soil, water, and crop management systems for dryland agriculture in Pakistan, in Soil, Water, and Crop/Livestock Management Systems for Rainfed Agriculture in the Near East Region, Proceedings of the Workshop at Amman, Jordan, January 18-23, 1986, edited by C. E. Whitman et al., pp. 88-94, U.S. Dep. of Agric., Washington, D. C., 1989.
126. Kilicasian I., H. I. Sarac, E. Ozdemir, and K. Ermis, Sugar cane as an alternative energy source for Turkey, Energy Convers. Manage., 40, 1-11, 1999.
127. Kituyi, E., L. Marufu, S. O. Wandiga, I. O. Jumba, M. O. Andreae, and G. Helas, Biofuel availability and domestic use patterns in Kenya, Biomass Bioenergy, 20, 71-82, 1999.
128. Kleeman, M., (Ed.), Energy Use and Air Pollution in Indonesia: Supply Strategies, Environmental Impacts, and Pollution Control, Avebury Stud. in Green Res., 288 pp., Avebury, Brookfield, Vt., 1994.
129. Lamers, J., A. Buerkert, H. P. S. Makkar, M. Vonoppen, and K. Becker, Biomass production and feed and economic value of fodder weeds as by-products of millet cropping in a Sahelian farming system, Exper. Agric., 32, 317-326, 1996.
130. Lazarus, M., and S. Diallo, Integrated energy-environment planning: Initial results from Senegal: Preliminary report, paper presented at Seminar on Energy Management Policy and the Environment, U. N. Environ. Programme, Nairobi, July 1992.
131. Lazarus, M., S. Diallo, and Y. Sokona, Energy and environment scenarios for Senegal, Nat. Resour. Forum, 18, 31-47, 1994.
132. Leach, G., Household Energy in South Asia, 111 pp., Elsevier, New York, 1987.
133. Leach, G., Residential energy in the Third World, Ann. Rev. Energy, 13, 47-65, 1988.
134. Leach, G., and M. Gowen, Household energy handbook: An interim guide and reference manual, Tech. Pap. 67, World Bank, Washington, D. C., 1987.
135. Lerner, J., E. Matthews, and I. Fung, Methane emission from animals: A global high-resolution database, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 2, 139-156, 1988.
136. Lew, E., and D. Kammen, Social and environmental impacts of charcoal, Report, Sci., Technol. and Environ. Policy (STEP) Program, Woodrow Wilson School of Public and Int. Affairs, Princeton Univ., Princeton, N. J., 1994.
137. Logan, J. A., Tropospheric ozone: Seasonal behavior, trends and anthropogenic influence, J. Geophys. Res., 90, 10,463-10,482, 1985.
138. Logan, J. A., M. J. Prather, S. C. Wofsy, and M. B. McElroy, Tropospheric Chemistry: A global perspective, J. Geophys. Res., 86, 7210-7254, 1981.
139. London Times, Times Atlas of the World, 8th comprehensive ed., Times Books, New York, 1990.
140. Luhanga, M. L., and B. Kjellstrom, Potential for use of biomass derived fuels in Tanzania, report, Beijer Inst., Stockholm, 1988.
141. 2 emissions, in Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change, Carbon Dioxide Inf. Anal. Cent., Oak Ridge Natl. Lab., U.S. Dep. of Energy, Oak Ridge, Tenn., 2001.
142. Martin, T. L., E. A. Anderson, and R. Goates, Influence of the chemical composition of organic matter on the development of mold flora in soil, Soil Sci., 54, 297-307, 1942.
143. Martinez, M., Renewable energy for rural development in Mexico, in Energy for Rural Development: Proceedings of the United Nations Group of Experts on the Role of New and Renewable Sources of Energy in Integrated Rural Development, edited by M. R. Bhagavan and S. Karekezi, pp. 219-224, Zed, London, 1992.
144. Marufu, L., Photochemistry of the African troposphere-The influence of biomass burning, thesis, 145 pp., Faculteit Natuur- en Sterrenkunde, Univ. Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands, 1999.
145. Matthews, E., Global vegetation and land use: New high-resolution data bases for climate studies, J. Clim. Appl. Meteorol., 22, 474-487, 1983.
146. Mburu, C., Cropping systems, production technology, and utilization of small millets with special reference to finger millet in Kenya, in Small Millets in Global Agriculture: Proceedings of the First International Small Millets Workshop, October 29-November 2, 1986, in Bangalore, India, edited by A. Seetharam, K. W. Riley, and G. Harinarayana, pp. 305-308, IBH, New Delhi, 1989.
147. McIntire, J., D. Bourzat, and P. Pingali, Crop-Livestock Interaction in Sub-Saharan Africa, 246 pp., World Bank, Washington, D. C., 1992.
148. Meelu, O. P., Y. Singh, and B. Singh, Green manure and crop residue management in rice-wheat rotation, in Extended Summary, Proceedings International Symposium Rice Research: New Frontiers, edited by K. Muralidharan et al., pp. 355-356, Dir. of Rice Res., Hyderabad, India, 1991.
149. Meyers, S., and G. Leach, Biomass fuels in the developing countries: An overview, LBL-27222, Lawrence Berkeley Lab., Berkeley, Calif., 1989.
150. Ministry of Forestry, Myanmar: Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study: Country Report-Union of Myanmar, Working Pap. APFSPOS/WP/08, For. Policy and Plann. Div., Reg. Off. for Asia and the Pacific, Bankok, June 1997.
151. Minott, D., The potential of renewable energy in the Caribbean, in Energy for Rural Development: Proceedings of the United Nations Group of Experts on the Role of New and Renewable Sources of Energy in Integrated Rural Development, edited by M. R. Bhagavan and S. Karekezi, pp. 211-218, Zed, London, 1992.
152. Miracle, M. P., Agriculture in the Congo Basin, 355 pp., Univ. of Wisc. Press, Madison, Wisc., 1967.
153. Morgan, W. B., Rural energy production and supply-With special reference to southwestern Nigeria, in Rural Energy Systems in the Humid Tropics: Proceedings of the First Workshop of the United Nations University Rural Energy Systems Project Ife, Nigeria, 10-12 August 1978, 56 pp., edited by W. B. Morgan, R. P. Moss, and G. J. A. Ojo, pp. 10-13, U. N. Univ., Tokyo, 1980.
154. Mortimore, M., The lands of northern Nigeria: Some urgent issues, in Perspectives on Land Administration and Development in Northern Nigeria, edited by M. Mortimore, E. A. Olofin, R. A. Cline-Cole, and A. Abdulkadir, chap. 2, pp. 13-23, Dep. of Geogr., Bayero Univ., Kano, Nigeria, 1987.
155. Moss, R. P., and W. B. Morgan, Fuelwood and Rural Energy Production and Supply in the Humid Tropics: Report for the United Nations University, Tycooly Int., Dublin, 1981.
156. Mukhtar, Wood fuel as a source of energy in the Sudan, paper presented at First Energy Conference, Minist. of Energy and Min., Khartoum, 1978.
157. Muller, L. D., R. F. Barnes, L. F. Bauman, and V. F. Colenbrander, Variations in lignin and other structural components of brown midrib mutants of maize, Crop Sci., 11, 413-415, 1971.
158. Mungala, P. M., and K. Openshaw, Estimation of present and future demand for woodfuel in Machakos District, in Wood, Energy and Households: Perspectives on Rural Kenya, vol. 6, edited by C. Barnes, J. Ensminger, and P. O'Keefe, Beijer Inst., Stockholm, 1984.
159. National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Committee, National Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1988 to 1994, vol. 7, Canberra, ACT, Canada, 1996.
160. Negi, G. C. S., High yielding vs. traditional crop varieties: A socio-agronomic study in a Himalayan village in India, Mt. Res. Dev., 14, 251-254, 1994.
161. Ng'andu, A. N., and A. M. Mwanza, The influence of comparative price in the substitution of coal for woodfuel and charcoal: The Zambian Case, in Africa Energy: Issues its Planning and Practice. pp. 106-110, Zed, London, 1990.
162. Nguyen, B. C., N. Mihalopoulos, and J. P. Putaud, Rice straw burning in Southeast Asia as a source of CO and COS to the atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res., 99, 16,435-16,439, 1994.
163. Norman, D. W., M. D. Newman, and I. Ouedraogo, The semi-arid tropics of west Africa, in Farm and Village Production Systems in the Semi-Arid Tropics of West Africa: An Interpretive Review of Research, Res. Bull. 4, pp. 1-4, Int. Crops Res. Inst. for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India. October 1981.
164. Office of Technology Assessment, Energy in developing countries, OTA-E486, U.S. Congress, Washington, D. C., 1991.
165. Ofori, C. S., Utilization of crop residues in semiarid regions for effective soil and water conservation, in Soil, Water, and Crop/Livestock Management Systems for Rainfed Agriculture in the Near East Region Proceedings of the Workshop at Amman, Jordan, January 18-23, 1986, edited by C. E. Whitman et al., pp. 270-277, U.S. Dep. Of Agric., Washington, D. C., 1989.
166. Ogden, J. M., R. H. Williams, and M. E. Fulmer, Cogeneration applications of biomass gasifier/gas turbine technologies in the cane sugar and alcohol industries, in Energy and the Environment in the 21st Century, edited by J. W. Tester. D. O. Wood, and N. A. Ferrari, pp. 311-346, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1991.
167. O'Keefe, P., Energy in East Africa: Consumer and resources, in Energy in Africa, edited by A. Kahane et at., pp. 26-53, Wiley Eastern Limited, New Delhi, 1990.
168. O'Keefe, P., and B. Munslow, Energy and development in southern Africa: SADCC country studies. in Energy. Environment and Development in Africa 4, Beijer Inst. and Scand. Inst. of African Stud., Stockholm, 1984.
169. O'Keefe, P., and P. Raskin, Fuelwood in Kenya: Crisis and opportunity, Ambio, 14, 220-227, 1985.
170. O'Keefe, P., P. Raskin, and S. Barrow (Eds.), Energy and Development in Kenya: Opportunities and Constraints, 185 pp., Beijer Inst., Stockholm, 1984.
171. Olivier, J. G. J., and J. J. M. Berdowski, Global emissions sources and sinks, in The Climate System, edited by J. Berdowski, R. Guicherit, and B. J. Heij, pp. 33-78, A. A. Balkema, Brookfield, Vt., 2001.
172. Olivier, J., A. F. Bowman, C. van der Maas, J. Berdowski, C. Veldt, J. Bloos, A. Visschedijk, P. Zandveld, and J. Haverlag, Description of EDGAR Version 20: A set of global emission inventories of greenhouse gases and ozone-depleting substances for all anthropogenic and most natural sources on a per country basis and on a 1° × 1° grid, RIVM Rep. 771060, Natl. Inst. for Public Health and the Environ., Bilthoven, Netherlands, 1996.
173. Olivier, J., J. P. J. Bloos, J. J. M. Berdowski, A. J. H. Visschedijk, and A. F. Bouwman, A 1990 global emission inventory of anthropogenic sources of carbon monoxide on 1° × 1° developed in the framework of EDGAR/ GEIA, Chemosphere, 1, 1-17, 1999.
174. 2, Emissions from Fuel Combustion 1971-1999, 2001 ed., pp. III.9-III.29, Int. Energy Agency, Paris, 2001.
175. Omereji, G. O., Establishment and management of a modern oil palm estate for maximum productivity, in International Palm Oil Conference: Progress, Prospects and Challenges Towards the 21st Century, pp. 199-208, Palm Oil Res. Inst. of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, 1993.
176. Openshaw, K. O., Wood fuels the developing world, New Sci., 61, 271-272, 1974.
177. Openshaw, K. O., Woodfuel: A time for reassessment, Nat. Resour. Forum, 3, 35-51, 1978.
178. Openshaw, K. O., Woodfuel-A time for reassessment, in Energy in the Developing World: The Real Energy Crisis, edited by V. Smil and E. Knowland, pp. 35-51, Oxford Univ. Press, New York, 1980.
179. Openshaw, K. O., 'Tanzania' in Energy Development in Southern Africa, Country Rep. Energy Environ. Dev. Africa, vol. 4, edited by P. O'Keefe and B. Munslow, 87-132, Beijer Inst. and Scand. Inst. of African Stud., Stockholm, 1984.
180. Openshaw, K. O., Concepts and methods for collecting and compiling statistics on biomass used as energy, report, U. N. Stat. Off., New York, 1986.
181. Openshaw, K. O., Urban biomass fuels: Production, transportation, and trading study, consolidated report, Malawi Minist. of Energy and Mining, Alt. Energy Dev., Inc., Silver Spring, Md., 1997a.
182. Openshaw, K. O., Malawi: Biomass energy strategy study. Alt. Energy Dev., Inc., Silver Spring, Md., December 1997b.
183. Organizacion Latinoamericana de Energia, Energy Balances for Latin America, edited by M. Banados, Artes Graficas Senal. Quito, Ecuador. November 1991.
184. Oyenuga, V. A., Nigeria's Foods and Feeding-Stuffs: Their Chemistry and Nutritive Value, 99 pp., Ibadan Univ. Press, Ibadan, Nigeria, 1968.
185. Pal, B. P., Wheat, 370 pp., Indian Counc. of Agric. Res., New Delhi, 1966.
186. Pal, B. P., Modern rice research in India, paper presented at Tenth Anniversary Celebration of the IRRI, Int. Rice Res. Inst., Los Banos, Philippines, 20-21, April 1972.
187. Papendick, R. I., and J. F. Parr, Considerations for research planning on crop residue management to optimize crop/livestock production and resource conservation in Near East Drylands, paper presented at Workshop on Crop Residue Management to Optimize Crop/Livestock Production and Resource Conservation in the Near East Region, Workshop Comm., Amman, Jordan, 31 January to 2 February 1988.
188. Pearson, C. J., D. W. Norman, and J. R. Dixon, Sustainable dryland cropping in relation to soil productivity, Soils Bull. 72, Food and Agric. Org. of the U. N., Rome, 1995.
189. Pennise, D. M., K. R. Smith, J. P. Kithinji, M. E. Rezende, T. J. Raad, J. Zhang, and C. Fan, Emissions of greenhouse gases and other airborne pollutants from charcoal making in Kenya and Brazil, in J. Geophys. Res., 106, 24,143-24,155, 2001.
190. Pingali, P., Y. Bigot, and H. P. Binswanger, Agricultural Mechanization and the Evolution of Farming Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa, 216 pp., Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, Baltimore, Md., 1987.
191. Pokharel, S., and M. Chandrashekar, Biomass resources as energy in Nepal, Nat. Resour. Forum, 18, 225-230, 1994.
192. Polycarpou, A., and M. H. El-Lakany, Forestry policies in the Near East region: Analysis and synthesis, FAO For. Pap. III, Food and Agric. Org. of the U.N., Rome, 1993.
193. Ponnamperuma, F. N., Straw as a source of nutrients for wetland rice, in Organic Matter and Rice, pp. 117-135, Int. Rice Res. Inst., Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines, 1984.
194. Population Association of Nigeria, Population Information, Education and Communication: Proceedings No. 8 of the 1990 Conference Held at the Nigerian Defence Academy, 303 pp., Ibadan, Nigeria, 1991.
195. Poulain, J. F., Crop residues in traditional cropping systems of west Africa: Effects on the mineral balance and level of organic matter in soils-Proposals for their better management, Soils Bull. 43, Food and Agric. Org., Rome, 1980.
196. Powell, J. M., Yields of sorghum and millet and stover consumption by livestock in the Subhumid Zone of Nigeria, Trop. Agric., 62, 77-81, 1985.
197. Pushparajah, E., and C. P. Soon, (Eds.), Cocoa and Coconuts: Progress and Outlook, Proceedings of the International Conference on Cocoa and Coconuts, Progress and Outlook, 15-17 October, 1984. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Inc. Soc. of Planters and the Malaysian Cocoa Growers Assoc., Kuala Lumpur, 1986.
198. Qui, D. X., The role of renewable energy in rural development in China: Achievements and prospects, in Energy for Rural Development: Proceedings of the United Nations Group of Experts on the Role of New and Renewable Sources of Energy in Integrated Rural Development, edited by M. R. Bhagavan and S. Karekezi, pp. 155-174, Zed. London, 1992.
199. Ramankutty, N., and J. Foley, Characterizing patterns of global land use: An analysis of global croplands data. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 12, 667-685, 1998.
200. Rao, P. P., Marketing of fodder in rural and urban areas of India, in Agricultural Markets in the Semi-Arid Tropics: Proceedings of the International Workshop at ICRISAT Center. India, 24-28 October 1983, Int. Crops Res. Inst. for the Semi-Arid Trop., Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India, 1985.
201. Raskin, P., and M. Lazarus, Regional energy development in southern Africa: Great potential, great constraints, Ann. Rev. Energy Environ., 16, 145-178, 1991.
202. Reddy, A. V., Agriculture Marketing, 258 pp., Printwell, Jaipur, India, 1991.
203. Reddy, K. V. S., Pest management in Sorghum: II, in Sorghum in the Eighties, Proceedings of the International Symposium on Sorghum, 2-7 November 1981, pp. 237-246, Int. Crops Res. Inst. for the Semi-Arid Trop., Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India, 1981.
204. Reed, J. D., Sorghum and millets as forage crops in the semi-arid tropics, in Utilization of Sorghum and Millets, edited by M. I. Gomez et al., 216 pp., Int. Crops Res, Inst. for the Semi-Arid Trop., Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India, 1992.
205. Roberts, R. L., Rice hull utilization, paper presented at 58th Annual Meeting, Am. Assoc. of Cereal Chem., St. Paul, Minn., 4-8 November, 1973.
206. Salam, B. A., The contribution of the oil palm by-products towards the national energy policy-An economist point of view, in Proceedings of the National Symposium on Oil Palm By-Products for Agro-based Industries, pp. 133-145, Palm Oil Res. Inst. of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, 1987.
207. Salour, D., B. M. Jenkins, M. Vafaei, and M. Kayhanian, Combustion of rice straw and straw/wood fuel blends in a fluidized bed reactor, Pap. 89-6574, Am. Soc. of Agric. Eng., St. Joseph, Mich., 1989.
208. Sampath, S. R., Scope for using small millets as forage in India, in Small Millets in Global Agriculture: Proceedings of the First International Small Millets Workshop, October 29-November 2, 1986, in Bangalore, India, edited by A. Seetharam, K. W. Riley, and G. Harinarayana, pp. 341-345, IBH, New Delhi, 1989.
209. Sandford, S. G., Crop residue/livestock relationship, in Soil, Crop, and Water Management Systems for Rainfed Agriculture in the Sudano-Sahelian Zone, Proceedings of an International Workshop, 11-16 January 1987, Int. Crops Res. Inst. for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India, 1989.
210. Satchell, J. E., Introduction: Litter-Interface of Animate/Inanimate Matter, in Boilogy of Plant Litter Decomposition, vol. 1, edited by C. H. Dickinson and G. J. F. Pugh, pp. xiii-xl, Academic, San Diego, Calif., 1974.
211. Scholes, R. J., and M. R. van der Merwe, South African greenhouse gas inventory, Rep. DEA-918, Dep. of Environ. Affairs and Tourism, Pretoria, 1995.
212. Scobey, R., Malawi, in Energy and Development in Southern Africa: SADCC Coutry Studies Part I, edited by P. O'Keefe and B. Munslow, pp. 171-186, Beijer Insti., Stockholm, 1984.
213. Scurlock, J. M. O., and D. O. Hall, The contribution of biomass to global energy use (1987), Biomass, 21, 75-81, 1990.
214. Secretaria de Energia, Minas e Industria Paraestatal, Energia Rural en Mexico. Comision de Comunidades Europeas, Mexico City, November 1988.
215. Seiler, W., and P. Crutzen, Estimates of the gross and net flux of carbon between the biosphere and the atmosphere from biomass burning, Clim. Change, 2. 207-247, 1980.
216. Senelwa, K. A., and D. O. Hall, A biomass energy flow chart for Kenya, Boimass Bioenergy, 4, 35-48, 1993.
217. Shamsuddin, A. H., and M. T. M. Nor, Potential of fluidised bed technology for combustion of oil palm solid by-products, in Proceedings of the National Symposium on Oil Palm By-Products for Agro-based Industries, pp. 146-154, Palm Oil Res. Inst. of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, 1987.
218. Silva, M. A., S. A. Nebra, M. J. M. Silva, and C. G. Sanchez, The use of biomass residues in the Brazilian soluble coffee industry, Biomass Bioenergy, 14, 457-467, 1998.
219. Sivakumar, M. V. K., and F. Gnoumou, Agroclimatology of West Africa: Burkina Faso, Inf. Bull. 23, 192 pp., Int. Crops Res. Inst. for the Semi-Arid Trop., Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India, 1987.
220. Sivakumar, M. V. K., A. K. S. Huda, and S. M. Virmani, Physical environment of sorghum and millet-growing areas in south Asia, in Agrometeorology of Sorghum and Millet in the Semi-Arid Tropics: Proceedings of the International Symposium, edited by S. M. Virmani and M. V. K. Sivakumar, Int. Crops Res. Inst. for the Semi-Arid Trop., Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India, 1984.
221. Smil, V., Energy flows in the developing world, Am. Sci., 67. 522-531. 1979.
222. Smil, V., China's Environmental Crisis: An Inquiry into the Limits of National Development, 257 pp., M. E. Sharpe, London, 1993.
223. Smith, K. R., Biofuels, Air Pollution, and Health: A Global Review, 452 pp., Plenum, New York, 1987.
224. Smith, K. R., M. A. K. Khalil, R. A. Rasmussen, S. A. Thornloe, F. Manegdeg, and M. Apte, Greenhouse gases from biomass and fossil fuel stoves in developed countries: A Manila pilot study, Chemosphere, 26, 479-501, 1993.
225. Smith, K. R., D. M. Pennise, P. Khummongkol, V. Chaiwong, K. Ritgeen, J. Zhang, W. Panyathanya, R. A. Rasmussen, and M. A. K. Khalil, Greenhouse gases from Small-scale combustion in developing countries: Charcoal-making kilns in Thailand, report, U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Research Triangle Park, N. C., 1999.
226. Smith, K. R., R. Uma, V. V. Kishore, J. Zhang, V. Joshi, and M. A. K. Khalil, Greenhouse implications of household stoves: An analysis for India, Annu. Rev. Energy, Environ., 25, 741-763, 2000.
227. Soesastro, M. H., Policy analysis of rural household energy needs in West Java, in Rural Energy to Meet Development Needs: Asian Village Approaches, edited by M. N. Islam, R. Morse, and M. H. Soesastro, pp. 92-105, Westview, Boulder, Colo., 1984.
228. State Statistical Bureau of the People's Republic of China, China Statistical Yearbook, Int. Cent. for the Advance. of Sci. and Technol., Beijing, 1992.
229. Statistics Canada, Canadian Forestry Statistics 1989, Industry Div., Ottawa, 1992.
230. Streets, D. G., and S. T. Waldhoff, Biofuel use in Asia and acidifying emissions. Energy, 23, 1029-1042, 1998.
231. Streets, D. G., K. Jiang, X. Hu, J. E. Sinton, X. Zhang, D. Xu, M. Z. Jacobson, and J. E. Hansen, Recent reductions in China's greenhouse gas emissions. Science, 294. 1835-1837, 2001.
232. Suoping, L., Z. Cungen, G. Tingshuang, and S. Waldron, The "Straw for Ruminants" Project in China, Agrie. and Nat. Resour. Econ. Discuss. Pap. 4/99, School of Nat. and Rural Syst. Manage., St. Lucia, Australia, September 1999.
233. Susott, R. A., G. J. Olbu, S. P. Baker, D. E. Ward, J. B. Kauffman, and R. W. Shea, Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and thermogravimetric analysis of tropical ecosystem biomass, in Global Biomass Burning: Atmospheric, Climatic and Boispheric Implications, edited by J. S. Levine, pp. 250-259, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1991.
234. Swift, M. J., O. W. Heal, and J. M. Anderson, Decomposition in Terrestrial Ecosystems, 372 pp., Univ. of Calif, Press, Berkeley, Calif., 1979.
235. Tanaka, A., Methods of handling of cereal crop residues in Asian countries and related problems, Food and Fertil. Technol. Cent. Ext. Bull. 43, Asian Pacific Manage. Resour., Taipei City, Taiwan, 1974.
236. Te, A., S. G. Zhu, S. L. Travers, H. F. Lai, and R. W. Herdt. The economics of hybrid rice production in China, report, Agric. Econ. Dept., Int. Rice Res. Inst., Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines, 1985.
237. Thampan, P. K., Handbook on Coconut Palm, 311 pp., Oxford and IBH, New Delhi, 1987.
238. Tingshuang, G., and Y. Zhenhai, New developments in livestock systems based on crop residues in China, paper presented at Second FAO Electronic Conference on Tropical Feeds (Livestock Feed Resources within Integrated Systems). Food and Agric. Org., Rome, 2 December 1996.
239. Tothill, J. D., (Ed.), Agriculture in the Sudan, Being a Handbook of Agriculture as Practised in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 972 pp., Oxford Univ. Press, New York, 1954.
240. Tuan, N. A., Energy and environmental issues in Vietnam, Natural Resour. Forum, 21, 201-207, 1997.
241. Tuan, N. A., and T. Lefevre, Analysis of household energy demand in Vietnam, Energy Policy, 24, 1089-1099, 1996.
242. Tully, D., Rainfed farming systems of the Near East region, in Soil, Water, and Crop/Livestock Management Systems for Rainfed Agriculture in the Near East Region: Proceedings of the Workshop at Amman, Jordan, January 18-23, 1986, edited by C. E. Whitman et al., pp. 20-34, U.S. Dep. Of Agric., Washington, D. C., 1989.
243. Umunna, N. N., and J. P. Alawa, Feed uses of sorghum grain and stover, in Industrial Utilization of Sorghum, Summary Proceedings of a Symposium on the Current Status and Potential of Industrial Uses of Sorghum in Nigeria 4-6 December 1989, Kano, Nigeria, pp. 43-44, Int. Crops Res. Inst. for the Semi-Arid Trop., Zaria, Nigeria, 1990.
244. United Nations, Demographic Yearbook (1991), Dep. of Econ. and Soc. Dev., Stat. Div., New York, 1992.
245. United Nations, Demographic Yearbook (1997), Dep. of Int. Econ. and Soc. Affairs, Stat. Off., New York, 1999.
246. United Nations Environment Programme, Residue utilization management of agricultural and agro-industrial residues, paper presented at Industry Section Seminars, Food and Agric. Org., Rome, 18-21 January 1977.
247. van Buren, A., The Woodfuel Market in Nicaragua, 257 pp., Cent. de Estud. y Doc. Latinoamericanos, Amsterdam, 1990.
248. van Raay, H. G. T., Rural Planning in a Savanna Region, Rotterdam Univ. Press, Rotterdam, Netherlands, 1975.
249. van Raay, H. G. T., and P. N. de Leeuw, The importance of crop residues as fodder: A resource analysis in Katsina Province, Nigeria, Samaru Res. Bull. 139, Inst. of Agric. Res., Zaria, Nigeria, 1971.
250. von Oppen, M., and P. P. Rao, Sorghum marketing in India, in Sorghum in the Eighties: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Sorghum, vol. 2. pp. 659-674, Int. Crops Res. Inst. for the Semi-Arid Trop., Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India. 1992.
251. Waddle, D. B., Rice hull energy uses in the Philippines, Pap. 85-5507, Am. Soc. of Agric. Eng., St. Joseph, Mich., 1985.
252. Ward, D. E., and L. F. Radke, Emissions measurements from vegetation fires: A comparative evaluation of methods and results, in Fire in the Environment: The Ecological, Atmospheric and Climatic Importance of Vegetation Fires, edited by P. J. Crutzen and J. G. Goldammer, pp. 53-76, John Wiley, New York, 1993.
253. Ward, D. E., W. M. Hao, R. A. Susott, and R. E. Babbitt, Effect of fuel composition on combustion efficiency and emission factors for African savanna ecosystems, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 23,569-23,576, 1996.
254. Watts, M., Drought, environment and food security: Some reflections on peasants, pastoralists and commoditization in dryland West Africa, in Drought and Hunger in Africa: Denying Famine a Future, edited by M. H. Glantz, pp. 171-211, Cambridge Univ. Press, New York, 1987.
255. Wen, W., and C. En-Jian, Our views on the resolution of China's rural energy requirements, Biomass, 3, 287-312, 1983.
256. Whitman, C. E., J. F. Parr, R. I. Papendick, and R. E. Meyer (Eds.), Preface, in Soil, Water, and Crop/Livestock Management Systems for Rainfed Agriculture in the Near East Region: Proceedings of the Workshop at Amman, Jordan, January 18-23, 1986, edited by C. E. Whitman et al., p. 5, U.S. Dep. Of Agric., Washington D. C., 1989.
257. Williams, R. H., and E. D. Larson, Advanced gasification-based biomass power generation, in Renewable Energy: Sources for Fuels and Electricity, edited by T. B. Johansson et al., Island, Washington, D. C., 1993.
258. Wint, W., and D. Boum, Livestock and land-use surveys in sub-Saharan Africa, Oxfam Res. Pap. II, Environ. Res. Group Oxford, Oxfam. Oxford, UK. 1994.
259. Winterhalder, B., R. Larsen, and R. B. Thomas. Dung as an essential resource in a highland Peruvian community. Human Ecol., 2. 89-104. 1974.
260. Wisner, B., Botswana, in Energy and Development in Southern Africa: SADCC Country Studies Part 1, edited by P. O'Keefe and B. Munslow, Beijer Inst., Uppsala, Sweden, 1984.
261. Wood, T. S., and S. Baldwin, Fuelwood and charcoal use in LDC's, Annu. Rev. Energy, 10. 407-429. 1985.
262. Woods, J., and D. O. Hall, Bioenergy for development: Technical and environmental dimensions, Environ. and Energy Pap. 13, Food and Agric. Org., Rome, 1994.
263. World Bank, Indonesia: Issues and options in the energy sector, 3543-IND. Washington, D. C., November 1981.
264. World Bank, Kenya: Issues and options in the energy sector, 3800-KE, Washington, D. C., May 1982a.
265. World Bank, Sri Lanka: Issues and options in the energy sector, 3794-CE, Washington, D. C., May 1982b.
266. World Bank, Burundi: Issues and options in the energy sector, 3778-BU, Washington, D. C., June 1982c.
267. World Bank, Papua New Guinea: Issues and options in the energy sector, 3882-PNG, Washington, D. C., June 1982d.
268. World Bank, Rwanda: Issues and options in the energy sector, 3779-RW, Washington, D. C., June 1982e.
269. World Bank, Zimbabwe: Issues and options in the energy sector, 3765-ZIM, Washington, D. C., June 1982f.
270. World Bank, Malawi: Issues and options in the energy sector, 3903-MAL, Washington, D. C., August 1982g.
271. World Bank, Bangladesh: Issues and options in the energy sector, 3873-BD, Washington, D. C., October 1982h.
272. World Bank, Zambia: Issues and options in the energy sector, 4110-ZA, Washington, D. C., January 1983a.
273. World Bank, Turkey: Issues and options in the energy sector. 3877-TU, Washington, D. C., March 1983b.
274. World Bank, Bolivia: Issues and options in the energy sector, 4213-BO, Washington, D. C., April 1983c.
275. World Bank, Nigeria: Issues and options in the energy sector, 4440-UNI, Washington, D. C., April 1983d.
276. World Bank. Fiji: Issues and options in the energy sector, 4462-FIJ. Washington, D. C., June 1983e.
277. World Bank, Solomon Islands: Issues and options in the energy sector, 4404-SOL, Washington, D. C., June 1983f.
278. World Bank, Senegal: Issues and options in the energy sector, 4182-SE, Washington, D. C., July 1983g.
279. World Bank, Sudan: Issues and options in the energy sector, 4511-SU, Washington, D. C., July 1983h.
280. World Bank, Uganda: Issues and options in the energy sector, 4453-UG, Washington, D. C., July 1983i.
281. World Bank, Nepal: Issues and options in the energy sector, 4474-NEP, Washington, D. C., August 1983j.
282. World Bank, The Gambia: Issues and options in the energy sector, 4743-GM, Washington, D. C., November 1983k.
283. World Bank, Costa Rica: Issues and options in the energy sector, 4655-CR, Washington, D. C., January 1984a.
284. World Bank, Lesotho: Issues and options in the energy sector, 4676-LSO, Washington, D. C., January 1984b.
285. World Bank, Peru: Issues and options in the energy sector, 4677-PE, Washington, D. C., January 1984c.
286. World Bank, Seychelles: Issues and options in the energy sector, 4693-SEY, Washington, D. C., January 1984d.
287. World Bank, Morocco: Issues and options in the energy sector, 4157-MOR, Washington, D. C., March 1984e.
288. World Bank, Niger: Issues and options in the energy sector, 4642-NIR, Washington, D. C., May 1984f.
289. World Bank, Ethiopia: Issues and options in the energy sector, 4741-ET, Washington, D. C., July 1984g.
290. World Bank, Cape Verde: Issues and options in the energy sector, 5073-CV, Washington, D. C., August 1984h.
291. World Bank, Guinea-Bissau: Issues and options in the energy sector, 5083-GUB, Washington, D. C., August 1984i.
292. World Bank, Botswana: Issues and options in the energy sector, 4998-BT, Washington, D. C., September 1984j.
293. World Bank, Paraguay: Issues and options in the energy sector, 5145-PA, Washington, D. C., October 1984k.
294. World Bank, St. Lucia: Issues and options in the energy sector, 5111-SLU, Washinglon, D. C., September 19841.
295. World Bank, St. Vincent and the Grenadines: Issues and options in the energy sector, 5103-STV, Washington, D. C., September 1984m.
296. World Bank, Tanzania: Issues and options in the energy sector, 4969-TA, Washington, D. C., November 1984n.
297. World Bank, Liberia: Issues and options in the energy sector, 5279-LBR, Washington, D. C., December 1984o.
298. World Bank, Yemen Arab Republic: Issues and options in the energy sector, 4892-YAR, Washington, D. C., December 1984p.
299. World Bank, Ivory Coast: Issues and options in the energy sector, 5250-IVC, Washington, D. C., April 1985a.
300. World Bank, Jamaica: Issues and options in the energy sector, 5466-JM, Washington, D. C., April 1985b.
301. World Bank, Islamic Republic of Mauritania: Issues and options in the energy sector, 5224-MAU, Washington, D. C., April 1985c.
302. World Bank, Benin: Issues and options in the energy sector, 5222-BEN, Washington, D. C., June 1985d.
303. World Bank, Sao Tome: Issues and options in the energy sector, 5803-STP, Washington, D. C., October 1985e.
304. World Bank, Burma: Issues and options in the energy sector, 5416-BA, Washington, D. C., June 1985f.
305. World Bank, Togo: Issues and options in the energy sector, 5221-TO, Washington, D. C., June 1985g.
306. World Bank, Vanuatu: Issues and options in the energy sector, 5577-VA, Washington, D. C., June 1985h.
307. World Bank, Western Samoa: Issues and options in the energy sector, 5497-WSO, Washington, D. C., June 1985i.
308. World Bank, Thailand: Issues and options in the energy sector, 5793-TH, Washington, D. C., September 1985j.
309. World Bank, Trinidad and Tobago: Issues and options in the energy sector, 5930-TR, Washington, D. C., November 1985k.
310. World Bank, Somalia: Issues and options in the energy sector, 5796-SO, Washington, D. C., December 1985l.
311. World Bank, Burkina: Issues and options in the energy sector, 5730-BUR, Washington, D. C., January 1986a.
312. World Bank, Zaire: Issues and options in the energy sector, 5837-ZR, Washington, D. C., May 1986b.
313. World Bank, Ghana: Issues and options in the energy sector, 6234-GH, Washington, D. C., November 1986c.
314. World Bank, Guinea: Issues and options in the energy sector, 6137-GUI, Washington, D. C., November 1986d.
315. World Bank, Colombia: Basis for formulation of a Colombian energy policy, report. Washington, D. C., December 1986e.
316. World Bank, Ethiopia: Bagasse Energy Survey, 063/86. Washington, D. C., December 1986f.
317. World Bank, Madagascar: Issues and options in the energy sector, 5700-MAG, Washington, D. C., January 1987a.
318. World Bank, Mozambique: Issues and options in the energy sector, 6128-MOZ, Washington, D. C., January 1987b.
319. World Bank, Swaziland: Issues and options in the energy sector, 6262-SW, Washington, D. C., February 1987c.
320. World Bank, Honduras: Issues and options in the energy sector, 6476-HO, Washington, D. C., August 1987d.
321. World Bank, Sierra Leone: Issues and options in the energy sector, 6597-SL, Washington, D. C., October 1987e.
322. World Bank, Comoros: Issues and options in the energy sector, 7104-COM, Washington, D. C., January 1988a.
323. World Bank, Congo: Issues and options in the energy sector, 6420-COB, Washington, D. C., January 1988b.
324. World Bank, Gabon: Issues and options in the energy sector, 6915-GA, Washington, D. C., July 1998c.
325. World Bank, Angola: Issues and options in the energy sector, 7408-ANG, Washington, D. C., May 1989.
326. World Bank, Peru: Guidelines for a short-and medium-term strategy for the energy sector, report, Washington, D. C., December 1990.
327. World Bank, Dominican Republic: Issues and options in the energy sector, 8234-DO, Washington, D. C., May 1991a.
328. World Bank, India: Maharashtra bagasse energy efficiency project, 120/91, Washington, D. C., May 1991b.
329. World Bank, Mali: Issues and options in the energy sector, 8423, Washington, D. C., November 1991c.
330. World Bank, Haiti: Household energy strategy, 143/91, Washington, D. C., December 1991d.
331. World Bank, Tunisia: Energy management strategy in the residential and tertiary sectors, 146/92, Washington, D. C., April 1992a.
332. World Bank, Republic of Mali: Household energy strategy, 147-92, Washington, D. C., May 1992b.
333. World Bank, Solomon Islands: Energy assessment, 979/SOL, Washington, D. C., January 1992c.
334. World Bank, Namibia: Issues and options in the energy sector, 11320, Washington, D. C., March 1993a.
335. World Bank, Nigeria: Issues and options in the energy sector, 11672, Washington, D. C., July 1993b.
336. World Bank, Guatemala: Issues and options in the energy sector, 12160, Washington, D. C., September 1993c.
337. World Bank, Bolivia: Household rural energy strategy, 62/94, Washington, D. C., January 1994a.
338. World Bank, Vietnam: Rural and household energy issues and options, 161/ 94, Washington, D. C., January 1994b.
339. World Bank, Ecuador: Energy Pricing, Poverty, and Social Mitigation, 12831, Washington, D. C., August 1994c.
340. World Wildlife Fund, Central Africa: Global climate change and development, technical report, Biodiversity Support Program/Africa, Washington, D. C., 1993.
341. Yager, J. A., The Energy Balance in Northeast Asia, 249 pp., Brookings Inst., Washington, D. C., 1984.
342. Yokelson, R. J., I. T. Bertschi, T. J. Christian, P. V. Hobbs, D. E. Ward, and W. M. Hao, Trace gas measurements in nascent, aged, and cloud-processed smoke from African Savanna Fires by airborne Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (AFTIR), J Geophys. Res., 108(D13), 8478, doi:10.1029/2002JD002322, 2003.
343. Yoshida, T., A review report on the situation of agricultural, agro-industrial and municipal wastes in some Asian countries, in Organic Recycling in Asia, Workshop on the use of Organic Materials as Fertilizers at Asia 26 October-5 November 1976 in Bangkok. Thailand, Soils Bull. 36, Food and Agric. Org., Rome, 1978.
344. Young, W., Seed production, Crop Soil News Notes, 12, July 1998. (Available at http://www.css.orst.edu/seed-ext)
345. Zhang, J., K. R. Smith, R. Uma, Y. Ma, V. V. N. Kishore, K. Lata, M. A. K. Khalil, R. A. Rasmussen, and S. T. Thornloe, Carbon monoxide from cookstoves in developing countries: 1. Emissions factors, Chemosphere, 1, 353-366, 1999.
346. Zhang, J., K. R. Smith, Y. Ma, S. Ye, F. Jiang, W. Qi, P. Liu, M. A. K. Khalil, R. A. Rasmussen, and S. T. Thornloe, Greenhouse gases and other airborne pollutants from household stoves in China: A database for emission factors, Atmos. Environ., 34, 4537-4549, 2000.
347. Zhuang, Y. H., M. Cao, X. Wang, and H. Yao, Spatial distribution of trace-gas emissions from burning crop residue in China, in Biomass Burning and Global Change, vol. 2, edited by J. S. Levine, pp. 764-770, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1996.