Politics as Social Learning: Policy Experts, Political Mobilization, and AIDS Preventive Policy

Journal of Policy History

Volumn 10, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 289-329

  Kaufman, Jason Andrew ^a  

^a PRINCETON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0346082028     PISSN: 08980306     EISSN: 15284190     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0898030600005698     Document Type: Article

References (105)

1. “Bureaucracy” in From Max Weber, H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds. (New York, 1946), 196-244.
2. On state autonomy, see Fred Block, “The Ruling Class Does Not Rule: Notes on the Marxist Theory of the State,” Socialist Review 33 (1977): 6-28
3. Ralf Dahrendorf, Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society (Stanford, Calif. 1959)
4. Ralph Miliband, The State in Capitalist Society (New York, 1969)
5. Nicos Poulantzas, Political Power and Social Classes (London, 1976)
6. Nicos Poulantzas and Ralph Miliband, “The Problem of the Capitalist State,” in Robin Blackburn, editor, Ideology in Social Science: Readings in Critical Social Theory (New York, 1973), 238-62.
7. On state-centered theory, see Peter Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol, eds. Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge, 1985)
8. Hugh Heclo, Modern Social Politics in Britain and Sweden (New Haven, 1974)
9. Stephen Krasner, Defending the National Interest (Princeton, 1978)
10. Eric Nordlinger, On the Autonomy of the Democratic State (Cambridge, Mass. 1981); and
11. Paul Sacks, “State Structure and the Asymmetrical Society,” Comparative Politics 12(3): 349–76.
12. Peter Hall, “Policy Paradigms, Social Learning, and the State: The Case of Economic Policymaking in Britain,” Comparative Politics 25: 278.
13. See Colin J. Bennett and Michael Howlett, “The Lessons of Learning: Reconciling Theories of Policy Learning and Policy Change,” Policy Sciences 25: 275–94; and
14. Peter J. May, “Policy Learning and Failure,” Journal of Public Policy 12(4): 331–54, for reviews of different approaches to “social learning” in policy studies.
15. James G. March and Johan P. Olsen Voice a similar opinion in “The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life,” American Political Science Review 78(3): 734-49.
16. Several pieces by Allan M. Brandt address this issue. See No Magic Bullet: A SocialHistory of Venereal Disease in the United States Since 1880 (New York, 1985)
17. “AIDS in Historical Perspective: Four Lessons from the History of Sexually Transmitted Diseases,” American Journal of Public Health 78(4): 367-71; and
18. “Syphilis and Its Relation to AIDS,” Science 239: 375–80.
19. See also Daniel M. Fox, “Social Policy and City Politics: Tuberculosis Reporting in New York, 1889-1900,” Bulletin of The History of Medicine 49(2): 169-95, and
20. Daniel M. Fox, “From TB to AIDS: Value Conflicts in Reporting Disease,” Hastings Center Report (December 1986): 11-16.
21. The following authors are among those who emphasize the role of political activism in the AIDS policymaking process: Ronald Bayer, Private Acts, Social Consequences: AIDS and the Politics of Public Health (New York, 1989)
22. Richard Restak, “Worry About Survival of Society First; Then AIDS Victims' Rights,” Washington Post, 8 August 1985
23. Randy Shilts, And TheBand Played On: Politics, People, and the AIDS Epidemic (New York, 1987); and
24. Helen Mathews Smith, “The Deadly Politics of AIDS,” Wall Street Journal, 25 October 1995.
25. Sandra Panem, The AIDS Bureaucracy (Cambridge, Mass. 1988), and
26. Charles Perrow and Mauro Guillen, The AIDS Disaster: The Failure of Organizations in New York and in the Nation (New Haven, 1990), examine the impact of organizational structure on the public health system's response to AIDS.
27. In support of this argument, see Cindy Patton, Sex and Germs: The Politcs of AIDS (Boston, 1985); and
28. Patton, Inventing A/DS (New York, 1990).
29. Lawrence M. Friedman, The Republic of Choice: Law, Authority, and Culture (Cambridge, Mass. 1990); and
30. John David Skrentny, The Ironies of Affirmative Action (Chicago, 1996).
31. Two landmark cases in this vein are O’Connor and Donaldson, 422 U.S. 463 (1975), and
32. Jacobson v. Massachusetts, 197 U.S. 11 (1905)7
33. Larry Gostin and William J. Curran, “The Limits of Compulsion in Controlling AIDS,” Hastings Center Report (December 1986): 24-29
34. William J. Curran, “Legal Control Measures for AIDS: Reporting Requirements, Surveillance, Quarantine, and Regulation of Public Meeting Places,” American Journal of Public Health 77(2): 214-18
35. Richard D. Mohr, “Policy, Ritual, Purity: Gays and Mandatory AIDS Testing,” Law, Medicine, and Health Care 15(4): 178-85
36. June Osborn, “HIV Antibody Testing Uses and Limitations,” in Clark C. Abt and Kathleen M. Hardy, eds. AIDS and the Courts (Cambridge, Mass. 1990), 45-53; and
37. Judith Rabin, “The AIDS Epidemic and Gay Bathhouses: A Constitutional Analysis,” Journal of Health Politics, Policy, and Law 10(4): 729-47.
38. Bowers v. Hardwick, 106 S.Ct. 2841.
39. Bayer, Private Acts, Social Consequences; Peter Gould, The Slow Plague: A Geography of the AIDS Pandemic (Oxford, 1993)
40. Restak, “Worry About Survival of Society First”
41. Smith, “The Deadly Politics of AIDS.”
42. Not surprisingly, this finding is in accord with Gamson's comparative study of the success and failure of various social movement organizations, The Strategy of Social Protest (Homewood, III. 1975).
43. The relationship between local and state-level authorities varies from place to place, however. New York City, for example, ceded responsibility for several public health functions to the state health department following the intense fiscal crisis of the 1970s. On the institutional structure of state and local health-care organizations in New York State, see P. J. Imperato, The Administration of a Public Health Agency (New York, 1983).
44. Kenneth R. Wing, The Law and the Public's Health (Ann Arbor, Mich. 1985).
45. Paul Burstein, “Policy Domains: Organization, Culture, and Policy Outcomes,” Annual Review of Sociology 17 (1991): 327-50
46. Herbert Kaufman, “The Political Ingredient of Public Health Services: A Neglected Area of Research,”
47. reprinted in John B. McKinlay, ed. Politics and Law in Health Care Policy (New York, 1973); and
48. John W. Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies (Boston, 1984).
49. Shilts, And the Band Played On, 18.
50. Gostin and Curran, “Legal Control Measures for AIDS,” 216.
51. John C. Cutler and R. C. Arnold, “Venereal Disease Control by Health Departments in the Past: Lessons for the Present,” American Journal of Public Health 78(4): 372.
52. Rabin, “The AIDS Epidemic and Gay Bathhouses”
53. Carol Levine and Joyce Bermel, eds. “AIDS: Public Health and Civil Liberties,” Hastings Center Report: Special Supplement (December 1986): 1-36.
54. Prior to the war, there was no systematic federal policy regarding venereal disease.
55. Brandt, No Magic Bullet, 84–92.
56. At present, twenty-four states, Puerto Rico, and the District of Columbia still require blood tests for venereal disease prior to marriage. (See “Marriage Laws,” The World Almanac [New York, 1995): 727.)
57. Brandt, No Magic Bullet, 142–54.
58. “Case Finding in the Control of Syphilis,” American Journal of Public Health 36 (1946): 529. (The author's name is not given.)
59. Sylvester W. Trythall, “The Premarital Law: History and a Survey of Its Effectiveness in Michigan,” JAMA 187(12): 901. The author maintains the value of the invasive paradigm nonetheless, arguing that premarital blood testing provides a much needed opportunity for marital counseling, “a valuable aid in establishing a harmonious family situation.”
60. Yehudi M. Felman, “Should Premarital Syphilis Serologies Continue to Be Mandated by Law?” JAMA 240(5): 459-60.
61. Daniel L. Wikler, “Persuasion and Coercion for Health: Ethical Issues in Governmental Efforts to Change Life-Styles,” Health and Society 56(3).
62. Cited in Shilts, And the Band Played On, 379.
63. “Integrating the Public Health, Medical, and Legal Responses to AIDS,” in Abt and Hardy, AIDS and the Courts, 68.
64. Steven Epstein, Impure Science: AIDS, Activism, and the Politics of Knowledge (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1996).
65. Richard E. Neustadt and Harvey V. Fineberg, M.D. The Swine Flu Affair: Decision- Making on a Slippery Disease (Washington, D.C. 1978)
66. Cyril H. Wecht, “The Swine Flu Immunization Program: Scientific Venture or Political Folly?” reprinted in L. Lynn Hogue, ed. Public Health and the Law (Maryland, 1980), 177-89.
67. Neustadt and Fineberg, The Swine Flu Affair, 97; iv.
68. Shilts, And the Band Played On, 379.
69. Bayer, Private Acts, Social Consequences, 234–235.
70. Centers for Disease Control, “Update on Kaposi's Sarcoma and Opportunistic Infections in Previously Healthy Persons—United States,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 31:300–301.
71. Shilts, And the Band Played On, 311–12, 322.
72. Gostin and Curran, “The Limits of Compulsion”
73. Gostin and Curran, “Legal Control Measures”
74. Rabin, “The AIDS Epidemic and Gay Bathhouses.”
75. The AIDS Epidemic and Gay Bathhouses, 38, 54 (emphasis added).
76. The AIDS Epidemic and Gay Bathhouses, 51.
77. Cited in Bayer, Private Acts, Social Consequences, 33.
78. Private Acts, Social Consequences, 39.
79. For contrasting accounts of the San Francisco bathhouse controversy, see Shilts, And the Band Played On, 489–91, 498-99; and
80. Bayer, Private Acts, Social Consequences, 31–53.
81. Maurice Carroll, “State May Shut Bathhouses in Drive to Combat AIDS,” New York Times, 24 October 1985, B3.
82. “Schools and Transit Are Among the Topics of Mayoral Debate,” New York Times, 25 October 1985, B6.
83. “N.Y. Health Chief Resigns in Dispute over AIDS,” San Francisco Chronicle, 3 December 1985, 31.
84. “Two Cities Consider a Bathhouses Ban,” New York Times, 22 November 1985, B13.
85. E. R. Shipp, “Concern over Spread of AIDS Generates a Spate of New Laws Nationwide,” New York Times, 26 October 1985, 1.
86. Bayer, Private Acts, Social Consequences, 80.
87. “Prevention of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS): Report of Inter- Agency Recommendations,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 4 March 1983, 32 (8): 100–102.
88. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 96.
89. Shilts, And the Band Placed On, 433.
90. Bayer, Private Acts, Social Consequences, 87.
91. Shilts, And the Band Played On, 521.
92. And the Band Played On, 542-43.
93. Bayer, Private Acts, Social Consequencies, 191–99.
94. Cited in Private Acts, Social Consequencies, 120.
95. Private Acts, Social Consequencies, 201.
96. Private Acts, Social Consequencies, 134.
97. Needless to say, medical opinion was not unanimous on this issue. Some members of the American Medical Association proposed a resolution in December 1985 recommending that “each of our 50 states encourage introduction of legislation” to require HIV tests for all couples seeking a marriage license. This resolution did not pass, however, and it seems safe to say that most public health officials and medical scientists felt that mandatory testing was ill-advised. (“A.M.A. to Debate AIDS Test,” New York Times, 9 December 1985.)
98. Much of this testimony is reviewed and summarized in United States Congress Committee on Small Business, 100th Congress, “Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Regulation and Business Opportunities on Quality AIDS Testing,” Serial No. 100-32 (Washington, D.C. 1988).
99. Mary A. Dempsey, “AIDS Hearing Does Not Sway Lawmakers,” Lansing Window, 7 June 1986.
100. Ann M. Wolfe, “Fifty State Survey of State Statutes Concerning Venereal Disease As It May Relate to AIDS,” Congressional Research Service (Microfilm, 1987-1988), Reel 10: 0109.
101. “Illinois Legislature Passes Several Bills on AIDS, Including Testing of Couples to Be Married,” Chicago Tribune, 1 July 1987, 1:10.
102. “Marriage License Applicants Cross State Line Because of New Illinois Law Requiring AIDS Testing,” Chicago Tribune, 5 February 1988, 2:1.
103. Osborn, “HIV Antibody Testing Uses and Limitations,” 45–53.
104. Donald P. Haider-Markel and Kenneth J. Meier, “The Politics of Gay and Lesbian Rights: Expanding the Scope of the Conflict,” Journal of Politics 58(2): 332-49.
105. Herbert Simon, Administrative Behavior (New York, 1945), 186.