Pontiac's War: Forging New Links in the Anglo-Iroquois Covenant Chain, 1758-1766

Ethnohistory

Volumn 44, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 616-654

  Parmenter, Jon William ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0346046297     PISSN: 00141801     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/482883     Document Type: Article

References (318)

1. Francis Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac and the Indian War after the Conquest of Canada (1851), 9th ed., 2 vols. (Boston, 1880). Howard H. Peckham, in his Pontiac and the Indian Uprising (Princeton, NJ, 1947), refuted Parkman's conspiracy thesis but accepted as inevitable his view of the eventual victory of "civilization" over "savages." In 1990 the Canadian historian William J. Eccles lamented the state of existing scholarship on Pontiac's War, characterizing the monographs of Parkman and Peckham as "both dated, both shoddy, both prize examples of the American Whig version of history." See his France in America, rev. ed. (East Lansing, MI, 1990), 232 n. 24; and Francis Jennings, "Francis Parkman: A Brahmin among Untouchables," William and Mary Quarterly, 3d ser. (hereinafter WMQ), 42 (1985): 305-18. A notable exception to Eccles's assessment is Louis Chevrette's brief but valuable "Pontiac," i n Dictionary of Canadian Biography, ed. George W. Brown, David M. Hayne, and Frances G. Halpenny, vol. 3 (Toronto, 1974), 515-3 1. For another recent appraisal of Parkman, see Bernard W. Sheehan, "Looking Back: Parkman's Pontiac," Indiana Magazine of History 92 (1996): 56-66.
2. Francis Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac and the Indian War after the Conquest of Canada (1851), 9th ed., 2 vols. (Boston, 1880). Howard H. Peckham, in his Pontiac and the Indian Uprising (Princeton, NJ, 1947), refuted Parkman's conspiracy thesis but accepted as inevitable his view of the eventual victory of "civilization" over "savages." In 1990 the Canadian historian William J. Eccles lamented the state of existing scholarship on Pontiac's War, characterizing the monographs of Parkman and Peckham as "both dated, both shoddy, both prize examples of the American Whig version of history." See his France in America, rev. ed. (East Lansing, MI, 1990), 232 n. 24; and Francis Jennings, "Francis Parkman: A Brahmin among Untouchables," William and Mary Quarterly, 3d ser. (hereinafter WMQ), 42 (1985): 305-18. A notable exception to Eccles's assessment is Louis Chevrette's brief but valuable "Pontiac," i n Dictionary of Canadian Biography, ed. George W. Brown, David M. Hayne, and Frances G. Halpenny, vol. 3 (Toronto, 1974), 515-3 1. For another recent appraisal of Parkman, see Bernard W. Sheehan, "Looking Back: Parkman's Pontiac," Indiana Magazine of History 92 (1996): 56-66.
3. Francis Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac and the Indian War after the Conquest of Canada (1851), 9th ed., 2 vols. (Boston, 1880). Howard H. Peckham, in his Pontiac and the Indian Uprising (Princeton, NJ, 1947), refuted Parkman's conspiracy thesis but accepted as inevitable his view of the eventual victory of "civilization" over "savages." In 1990 the Canadian historian William J. Eccles lamented the state of existing scholarship on Pontiac's War, characterizing the monographs of Parkman and Peckham as "both dated, both shoddy, both prize examples of the American Whig version of history." See his France in America, rev. ed. (East Lansing, MI, 1990), 232 n. 24; and Francis Jennings, "Francis Parkman: A Brahmin among Untouchables," William and Mary Quarterly, 3d ser. (hereinafter WMQ), 42 (1985): 305-18. A notable exception to Eccles's assessment is Louis Chevrette's brief but valuable "Pontiac," i n Dictionary of Canadian Biography, ed. George W. Brown, David M. Hayne, and Frances G. Halpenny, vol. 3 (Toronto, 1974), 515-3 1. For another recent appraisal of Parkman, see Bernard W. Sheehan, "Looking Back: Parkman's Pontiac," Indiana Magazine of History 92 (1996): 56-66.
4. Francis Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac and the Indian War after the Conquest of Canada (1851), 9th ed., 2 vols. (Boston, 1880). Howard H. Peckham, in his Pontiac and the Indian Uprising (Princeton, NJ, 1947), refuted Parkman's conspiracy thesis but accepted as inevitable his view of the eventual victory of "civilization" over "savages." In 1990 the Canadian historian William J. Eccles lamented the state of existing scholarship on Pontiac's War, characterizing the monographs of Parkman and Peckham as "both dated, both shoddy, both prize examples of the American Whig version of history." See his France in America, rev. ed. (East Lansing, MI, 1990), 232 n. 24; and Francis Jennings, "Francis Parkman: A Brahmin among Untouchables," William and Mary Quarterly, 3d ser. (hereinafter WMQ), 42 (1985): 305-18. A notable exception to Eccles's assessment is Louis Chevrette's brief but valuable "Pontiac," i n Dictionary of Canadian Biography, ed. George W. Brown, David M. Hayne, and Frances G. Halpenny, vol. 3 (Toronto, 1974), 515-3 1. For another recent appraisal of Parkman, see Bernard W. Sheehan, "Looking Back: Parkman's Pontiac," Indiana Magazine of History 92 (1996): 56-66.
5. Francis Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac and the Indian War after the Conquest of Canada (1851), 9th ed., 2 vols. (Boston, 1880). Howard H. Peckham, in his Pontiac and the Indian Uprising (Princeton, NJ, 1947), refuted Parkman's conspiracy thesis but accepted as inevitable his view of the eventual victory of "civilization" over "savages." In 1990 the Canadian historian William J. Eccles lamented the state of existing scholarship on Pontiac's War, characterizing the monographs of Parkman and Peckham as "both dated, both shoddy, both prize examples of the American Whig version of history." See his France in America, rev. ed. (East Lansing, MI, 1990), 232 n. 24; and Francis Jennings, "Francis Parkman: A Brahmin among Untouchables," William and Mary Quarterly, 3d ser. (hereinafter WMQ), 42 (1985): 305-18. A notable exception to Eccles's assessment is Louis Chevrette's brief but valuable "Pontiac," i n Dictionary of Canadian Biography, ed. George W. Brown, David M. Hayne, and Frances G. Halpenny, vol. 3 (Toronto, 1974), 515-3 1. For another recent appraisal of Parkman, see Bernard W. Sheehan, "Looking Back: Parkman's Pontiac," Indiana Magazine of History 92 (1996): 56-66.
6. Francis Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac and the Indian War after the Conquest of Canada (1851), 9th ed., 2 vols. (Boston, 1880). Howard H. Peckham, in his Pontiac and the Indian Uprising (Princeton, NJ, 1947), refuted Parkman's conspiracy thesis but accepted as inevitable his view of the eventual victory of "civilization" over "savages." In 1990 the Canadian historian William J. Eccles lamented the state of existing scholarship on Pontiac's War, characterizing the monographs of Parkman and Peckham as "both dated, both shoddy, both prize examples of the American Whig version of history." See his France in America, rev. ed. (East Lansing, MI, 1990), 232 n. 24; and Francis Jennings, "Francis Parkman: A Brahmin among Untouchables," William and Mary Quarterly, 3d ser. (hereinafter WMQ), 42 (1985): 305-18. A notable exception to Eccles's assessment is Louis Chevrette's brief but valuable "Pontiac," i n Dictionary of Canadian Biography, ed. George W. Brown, David M. Hayne, and Frances G. Halpenny, vol. 3 (Toronto, 1974), 515-3 1. For another recent appraisal of Parkman, see Bernard W. Sheehan, "Looking Back: Parkman's Pontiac," Indiana Magazine of History 92 (1996): 56-66.
7. Michael McConnell, "The Search for Security: Indian-English Relations in the Trans-Appalachian Region, 1758-1763" (Ph.D. diss., College of William and Mary, 1983), chap. 7, esp. 417-25; McConnell, A Country Between: The Upper Ohio Valley and Its Peoples, 1724-1774 (Lincoln, NE, 1992), chap. 8, esp. 182-83.
8. Michael McConnell, "The Search for Security: Indian-English Relations in the Trans-Appalachian Region, 1758-1763" (Ph.D. diss., College of William and Mary, 1983), chap. 7, esp. 417-25; McConnell, A Country Between: The Upper Ohio Valley and Its Peoples, 1724-1774 (Lincoln, NE, 1992), chap. 8, esp. 182-83.
9. Gregory Evans Dowd, "The French King Wakes Up in Detroit: 'Pontiac's War' in Rumor and History," Ethnohistory 37 (1990): 254-78; Dowd, A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815 (Baltimore, MD, 1992), chap. 2.
10. Gregory Evans Dowd, "The French King Wakes Up in Detroit: 'Pontiac's War' in Rumor and History," Ethnohistory 37 (1990): 254-78; Dowd, A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815 (Baltimore, MD, 1992), chap. 2.
11. Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Cambridge, 1991), chaps. 7-8, esp. 269-71.
12. Ian K. Steele, Warpaths: Invasions of North America (New York, 1994), chap, 12, esp. 234-47.
13. An important exception is Richard L. Haan, "Covenant and Consensus: Iroquois and English, 1676-1760," in Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600-1800, ed. Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell (Syracuse, NY, 1987), 56-57. Haan notes briefly that Sir William Johnson established a separate Covenant Chain council fire with the western tribes. For discussions of the structure and function of the Covenant Chain alliance system (which do not address its 1761 reconfiguration to include the Great Lakes Algonquian peoples), see Francis Jennings, "The Constitutional Evolution of the Covenant Chain," American Philosophical Society, Proceedings 115, no. 2 (1971): 88-96; and Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: The Covenant Chain Confederation of Indian Tribes with English Colonies from Its Beginnings to the Lancaster Treaty of 1744 (New York, 1984). Cf. Calvin Martin, "The Covenant Chain of Friendship, Inc.: America's First Great Real Estate Agency," Reviews in American History 13 (1985): 14- 20; Howard R. Berman, "Perspectives on American Indian Sovereignty and International Law, 1600-1776," in Exiled in the Land of the Free: Democracy, Indian Nations, and the U.S. Constitution, ed. Oren Lyons and John Mohawk (Santa Fe, NM, 1992), 148-52.
14. An important exception is Richard L. Haan, "Covenant and Consensus: Iroquois and English, 1676-1760," in Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600-1800, ed. Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell (Syracuse, NY, 1987), 56-57. Haan notes briefly that Sir William Johnson established a separate Covenant Chain council fire with the western tribes. For discussions of the structure and function of the Covenant Chain alliance system (which do not address its 1761 reconfiguration to include the Great Lakes Algonquian peoples), see Francis Jennings, "The Constitutional Evolution of the Covenant Chain," American Philosophical Society, Proceedings 115, no. 2 (1971): 88-96; and Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: The Covenant Chain Confederation of Indian Tribes with English Colonies from Its Beginnings to the Lancaster Treaty of 1744 (New York, 1984). Cf. Calvin Martin, "The Covenant Chain of Friendship, Inc.: America's First Great Real Estate Agency," Reviews in American History 13 (1985): 14- 20; Howard R. Berman, "Perspectives on American Indian Sovereignty and International Law, 1600-1776," in Exiled in the Land of the Free: Democracy, Indian Nations, and the U.S. Constitution, ed. Oren Lyons and John Mohawk (Santa Fe, NM, 1992), 148-52.
15. An important exception is Richard L. Haan, "Covenant and Consensus: Iroquois and English, 1676-1760," in Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600-1800, ed. Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell (Syracuse, NY, 1987), 56-57. Haan notes briefly that Sir William Johnson established a separate Covenant Chain council fire with the western tribes. For discussions of the structure and function of the Covenant Chain alliance system (which do not address its 1761 reconfiguration to include the Great Lakes Algonquian peoples), see Francis Jennings, "The Constitutional Evolution of the Covenant Chain," American Philosophical Society, Proceedings 115, no. 2 (1971): 88-96; and Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: The Covenant Chain Confederation of Indian Tribes with English Colonies from Its Beginnings to the Lancaster Treaty of 1744 (New York, 1984). Cf. Calvin Martin, "The Covenant Chain of Friendship, Inc.: America's First Great Real Estate Agency," Reviews in American History 13 (1985): 14- 20; Howard R. Berman, "Perspectives on American Indian Sovereignty and International Law, 1600-1776," in Exiled in the Land of the Free: Democracy, Indian Nations, and the U.S. Constitution, ed. Oren Lyons and John Mohawk (Santa Fe, NM, 1992), 148-52.
16. An important exception is Richard L. Haan, "Covenant and Consensus: Iroquois and English, 1676-1760," in Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600-1800, ed. Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell (Syracuse, NY, 1987), 56-57. Haan notes briefly that Sir William Johnson established a separate Covenant Chain council fire with the western tribes. For discussions of the structure and function of the Covenant Chain alliance system (which do not address its 1761 reconfiguration to include the Great Lakes Algonquian peoples), see Francis Jennings, "The Constitutional Evolution of the Covenant Chain," American Philosophical Society, Proceedings 115, no. 2 (1971): 88-96; and Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: The Covenant Chain Confederation of Indian Tribes with English Colonies from Its Beginnings to the Lancaster Treaty of 1744 (New York, 1984). Cf. Calvin Martin, "The Covenant Chain of Friendship, Inc.: America's First Great Real Estate Agency," Reviews in American History 13 (1985): 14-20; Howard R. Berman, "Perspectives on American Indian Sovereignty and International Law, 1600-1776," in Exiled in the Land of the Free: Democracy, Indian Nations, and the U.S. Constitution, ed. Oren Lyons and John Mohawk (Santa Fe, NM, 1992), 148-52.
17. An important exception is Richard L. Haan, "Covenant and Consensus: Iroquois and English, 1676-1760," in Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600-1800, ed. Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell (Syracuse, NY, 1987), 56-57. Haan notes briefly that Sir William Johnson established a separate Covenant Chain council fire with the western tribes. For discussions of the structure and function of the Covenant Chain alliance system (which do not address its 1761 reconfiguration to include the Great Lakes Algonquian peoples), see Francis Jennings, "The Constitutional Evolution of the Covenant Chain," American Philosophical Society, Proceedings 115, no. 2 (1971): 88-96; and Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: The Covenant Chain Confederation of Indian Tribes with English Colonies from Its Beginnings to the Lancaster Treaty of 1744 (New York, 1984). Cf. Calvin Martin, "The Covenant Chain of Friendship, Inc.: America's First Great Real Estate Agency," Reviews in American History 13 (1985): 14- 20; Howard R. Berman, "Perspectives on American Indian Sovereignty and International Law, 1600-1776," in Exiled in the Land of the Free: Democracy, Indian Nations, and the U.S. Constitution, ed. Oren Lyons and John Mohawk (Santa Fe, NM, 1992), 148-52.
18. Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (New York, 1976), 119-24; Dorothy V. Jones, License for Empire: Colonialism by Treaty in Early America (Chicago, 1982), xi-xii.
19. Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (New York, 1976), 119-24; Dorothy V. Jones, License for Empire: Colonialism by Treaty in Early America (Chicago, 1982), xi-xii.
20. Mary A. Druke, "Linking Arms: The Structure of Iroquois Intertribal Diplomacy," in Richter and Merrell, Beyond the Covenant Chain, 29-39; Merrell, "'The Customes of Our Countrey': Indians and Colonists in Early America," in Strangers within the Realm: Cultural Margins of the First British Empire, ed. Bernard Bailyn and Philip D. Morgan (Chapel Hill, NC, 1991), 138-42; Helen C. Rountree, "Summary and Implications," in Powhatan Foreign Relations: 1500-1722, ed. Rountree (Charlottesville, VA, 1993), 222-23; Michael M. Pomedli, "Eighteenth-Century Treaties: Amended Iroquois Condolence Rituals," American Indian Quarterly (hereinafter AIQ) 19 (1995): 319-39. For discussion of the methodology of Native American diplomatic history informing this essay, see Colin G. Galloway, Crown and Calumet: British-Indian Relations, 1783-1815 (Norman, OK, 1987), 18-22; David Murray, Forked Tongues: Speech, Writing, and Representation in American Indian Texts (Bloomington, IN, 1991), chap. 3; Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill, NC. 1992), 5-6; Howard Meredith, Dancing on Common Ground: Tribal Cultures and Alliances on the Southern Plains (Lawrence, KS, 1995); Thomas W. Kavanagh, Comanche Political History (Lincoln, NE, 1996), 20-24; and Daniel R. Mandell, Behind the Frontier: Indians in Eighteenth-Century Eastern Massachusetts (Lincoln, NE, 1996), viii.
21. Mary A. Druke, "Linking Arms: The Structure of Iroquois Intertribal Diplomacy," in Richter and Merrell, Beyond the Covenant Chain, 29-39; Merrell, "'The Customes of Our Countrey': Indians and Colonists in Early America," in Strangers within the Realm: Cultural Margins of the First British Empire, ed. Bernard Bailyn and Philip D. Morgan (Chapel Hill, NC, 1991), 138-42; Helen C. Rountree, "Summary and Implications," in Powhatan Foreign Relations: 1500-1722, ed. Rountree (Charlottesville, VA, 1993), 222-23; Michael M. Pomedli, "Eighteenth-Century Treaties: Amended Iroquois Condolence Rituals," American Indian Quarterly (hereinafter AIQ) 19 (1995): 319-39. For discussion of the methodology of Native American diplomatic history informing this essay, see Colin G. Galloway, Crown and Calumet: British-Indian Relations, 1783-1815 (Norman, OK, 1987), 18-22; David Murray, Forked Tongues: Speech, Writing, and Representation in American Indian Texts (Bloomington, IN, 1991), chap. 3; Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill, NC. 1992), 5-6; Howard Meredith, Dancing on Common Ground: Tribal Cultures and Alliances on the Southern Plains (Lawrence, KS, 1995); Thomas W. Kavanagh, Comanche Political History (Lincoln, NE, 1996), 20-24; and Daniel R. Mandell, Behind the Frontier: Indians in Eighteenth-Century Eastern Massachusetts (Lincoln, NE, 1996), viii.
22. Mary A. Druke, "Linking Arms: The Structure of Iroquois Intertribal Diplomacy," in Richter and Merrell, Beyond the Covenant Chain, 29-39; Merrell, "'The Customes of Our Countrey': Indians and Colonists in Early America," in Strangers within the Realm: Cultural Margins of the First British Empire, ed. Bernard Bailyn and Philip D. Morgan (Chapel Hill, NC, 1991), 138-42; Helen C. Rountree, "Summary and Implications," in Powhatan Foreign Relations: 1500-1722, ed. Rountree (Charlottesville, VA, 1993), 222-23; Michael M. Pomedli, "Eighteenth-Century Treaties: Amended Iroquois Condolence Rituals," American Indian Quarterly (hereinafter AIQ) 19 (1995): 319-39. For discussion of the methodology of Native American diplomatic history informing this essay, see Colin G. Galloway, Crown and Calumet: British-Indian Relations, 1783-1815 (Norman, OK, 1987), 18-22; David Murray, Forked Tongues: Speech, Writing, and Representation in American Indian Texts (Bloomington, IN, 1991), chap. 3; Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill, NC. 1992), 5-6; Howard Meredith, Dancing on Common Ground: Tribal Cultures and Alliances on the Southern Plains (Lawrence, KS, 1995); Thomas W. Kavanagh, Comanche Political History (Lincoln, NE, 1996), 20-24; and Daniel R. Mandell, Behind the Frontier: Indians in Eighteenth-Century Eastern Massachusetts (Lincoln, NE, 1996), viii.
23. Mary A. Druke, "Linking Arms: The Structure of Iroquois Intertribal Diplomacy," in Richter and Merrell, Beyond the Covenant Chain, 29-39; Merrell, "'The Customes of Our Countrey': Indians and Colonists in Early America," in Strangers within the Realm: Cultural Margins of the First British Empire, ed. Bernard Bailyn and Philip D. Morgan (Chapel Hill, NC, 1991), 138-42; Helen C. Rountree, "Summary and Implications," in Powhatan Foreign Relations: 1500-1722, ed. Rountree (Charlottesville, VA, 1993), 222-23; Michael M. Pomedli, "Eighteenth-Century Treaties: Amended Iroquois Condolence Rituals," American Indian Quarterly (hereinafter AIQ) 19 (1995): 319-39. For discussion of the methodology of Native American diplomatic history informing this essay, see Colin G. Galloway, Crown and Calumet: British-Indian Relations, 1783-1815 (Norman, OK, 1987), 18-22; David Murray, Forked Tongues: Speech, Writing, and Representation in American Indian Texts (Bloomington, IN, 1991), chap. 3; Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill, NC. 1992), 5-6; Howard Meredith, Dancing on Common Ground: Tribal Cultures and Alliances on the Southern Plains (Lawrence, KS, 1995); Thomas W. Kavanagh, Comanche Political History (Lincoln, NE, 1996), 20-24; and Daniel R. Mandell, Behind the Frontier: Indians in Eighteenth-Century Eastern Massachusetts (Lincoln, NE, 1996), viii.
24. Mary A. Druke, "Linking Arms: The Structure of Iroquois Intertribal Diplomacy," in Richter and Merrell, Beyond the Covenant Chain, 29-39; Merrell, "'The Customes of Our Countrey': Indians and Colonists in Early America," in Strangers within the Realm: Cultural Margins of the First British Empire, ed. Bernard Bailyn and Philip D. Morgan (Chapel Hill, NC, 1991), 138-42; Helen C. Rountree, "Summary and Implications," in Powhatan Foreign Relations: 1500-1722, ed. Rountree (Charlottesville, VA, 1993), 222-23; Michael M. Pomedli, "Eighteenth-Century Treaties: Amended Iroquois Condolence Rituals," American Indian Quarterly (hereinafter AIQ) 19 (1995): 319-39. For discussion of the methodology of Native American diplomatic history informing this essay, see Colin G. Galloway, Crown and Calumet: British-Indian Relations, 1783-1815 (Norman, OK, 1987), 18-22; David Murray, Forked Tongues: Speech, Writing, and Representation in American Indian Texts (Bloomington, IN, 1991), chap. 3; Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill, NC. 1992), 5-6; Howard Meredith, Dancing on Common Ground: Tribal Cultures and Alliances on the Southern Plains (Lawrence, KS, 1995); Thomas W. Kavanagh, Comanche Political History (Lincoln, NE, 1996), 20-24; and Daniel R. Mandell, Behind the Frontier: Indians in Eighteenth-Century Eastern Massachusetts (Lincoln, NE, 1996), viii.
25. Mary A. Druke, "Linking Arms: The Structure of Iroquois Intertribal Diplomacy," in Richter and Merrell, Beyond the Covenant Chain, 29-39; Merrell, "'The Customes of Our Countrey': Indians and Colonists in Early America," in Strangers within the Realm: Cultural Margins of the First British Empire, ed. Bernard Bailyn and Philip D. Morgan (Chapel Hill, NC, 1991), 138-42; Helen C. Rountree, "Summary and Implications," in Powhatan Foreign Relations: 1500-1722, ed. Rountree (Charlottesville, VA, 1993), 222-23; Michael M. Pomedli, "Eighteenth-Century Treaties: Amended Iroquois Condolence Rituals," American Indian Quarterly (hereinafter AIQ) 19 (1995): 319-39. For discussion of the methodology of Native American diplomatic history informing this essay, see Colin G. Galloway, Crown and Calumet: British-Indian Relations, 1783-1815 (Norman, OK, 1987), 18-22; David Murray, Forked Tongues: Speech, Writing, and Representation in American Indian Texts (Bloomington, IN, 1991), chap. 3; Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill, NC. 1992), 5-6; Howard Meredith, Dancing on Common Ground: Tribal Cultures and Alliances on the Southern Plains (Lawrence, KS, 1995); Thomas W. Kavanagh, Comanche Political History (Lincoln, NE, 1996), 20-24; and Daniel R. Mandell, Behind the Frontier: Indians in Eighteenth-Century Eastern Massachusetts (Lincoln, NE, 1996), viii.
26. Mary A. Druke, "Linking Arms: The Structure of Iroquois Intertribal Diplomacy," in Richter and Merrell, Beyond the Covenant Chain, 29-39; Merrell, "'The Customes of Our Countrey': Indians and Colonists in Early America," in Strangers within the Realm: Cultural Margins of the First British Empire, ed. Bernard Bailyn and Philip D. Morgan (Chapel Hill, NC, 1991), 138-42; Helen C. Rountree, "Summary and Implications," in Powhatan Foreign Relations: 1500-1722, ed. Rountree (Charlottesville, VA, 1993), 222-23; Michael M. Pomedli, "Eighteenth-Century Treaties: Amended Iroquois Condolence Rituals," American Indian Quarterly (hereinafter AIQ) 19 (1995): 319-39. For discussion of the methodology of Native American diplomatic history informing this essay, see Colin G. Galloway, Crown and Calumet: British-Indian Relations, 1783-1815 (Norman, OK, 1987), 18-22; David Murray, Forked Tongues: Speech, Writing, and Representation in American Indian Texts (Bloomington, IN, 1991), chap. 3; Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill, NC. 1992), 5-6; Howard Meredith, Dancing on Common Ground: Tribal Cultures and Alliances on the Southern Plains (Lawrence, KS, 1995); Thomas W. Kavanagh, Comanche Political History (Lincoln, NE, 1996), 20-24; and Daniel R. Mandell, Behind the Frontier: Indians in Eighteenth-Century Eastern Massachusetts (Lincoln, NE, 1996), viii.
27. Mary A. Druke, "Linking Arms: The Structure of Iroquois Intertribal Diplomacy," in Richter and Merrell, Beyond the Covenant Chain, 29-39; Merrell, "'The Customes of Our Countrey': Indians and Colonists in Early America," in Strangers within the Realm: Cultural Margins of the First British Empire, ed. Bernard Bailyn and Philip D. Morgan (Chapel Hill, NC, 1991), 138-42; Helen C. Rountree, "Summary and Implications," in Powhatan Foreign Relations: 1500-1722, ed. Rountree (Charlottesville, VA, 1993), 222-23; Michael M. Pomedli, "Eighteenth-Century Treaties: Amended Iroquois Condolence Rituals," American Indian Quarterly (hereinafter AIQ) 19 (1995): 319-39. For discussion of the methodology of Native American diplomatic history informing this essay, see Colin G. Galloway, Crown and Calumet: British-Indian Relations, 1783-1815 (Norman, OK, 1987), 18-22; David Murray, Forked Tongues: Speech, Writing, and Representation in American Indian Texts (Bloomington, IN, 1991), chap. 3; Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill, NC. 1992), 5-6; Howard Meredith, Dancing on Common Ground: Tribal Cultures and Alliances on the Southern Plains (Lawrence, KS, 1995); Thomas W. Kavanagh, Comanche Political History (Lincoln, NE, 1996), 20-24; and Daniel R. Mandell, Behind the Frontier: Indians in Eighteenth-Century Eastern Massachusetts (Lincoln, NE, 1996), viii.
28. Mary A. Druke, "Linking Arms: The Structure of Iroquois Intertribal Diplomacy," in Richter and Merrell, Beyond the Covenant Chain, 29-39; Merrell, "'The Cutromes of Our Countrey': Indians and Colonists in Early America," in Strangers within the Realm: Cultural Margins of the First British Empire, ed. Bernard Bailyn and Philip D. Morgan (Chapel Hill, NC, 1991), 138-42; Helen C. Rountree, "Summary and Implications," in Powhatan Foreign Relations: 1500-1722, ed. Rountree (Charlottesville, VA, 1993), 222-23; Michael M. Pomedli, "Eighteenth-Century Treaties: Amended Iroquois Condolence Rituals," American Indian Quarterly (hereinafter AIQ) 19 (1995): 319-39. For discussion of the methodology of Native American diplomatic history informing this essay, see Colin G. Galloway, Crown and Calumet: British-Indian Relations, 1783-1815 (Norman, OK, 1987), 18-22; David Murray, Forked Tongues: Speech, Writing, and Representation in American Indian Texts (Bloomington, IN, 1991), chap. 3; Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill, NC. 1992), 5-6; Howard Meredith, Dancing on Common Ground: Tribal Cultures and Alliances on the Southern Plains (Lawrence, KS, 1995); Thomas W. Kavanagh, Comanche Political History (Lincoln, NE, 1996), 20-24; and Daniel R. Mandell, Behind the Frontier: Indians in Eighteenth-Century Eastern Massachusetts (Lincoln, NE, 1996), viii.
29. Mary A. Druke, "Linking Arms: The Structure of Iroquois Intertribal Diplomacy," in Richter and Merrell, Beyond the Covenant Chain, 29-39; Merrell, "'The Customes of Our Countrey': Indians and Colonists in Early America," in Strangers within the Realm: Cultural Margins of the First British Empire, ed. Bernard Bailyn and Philip D. Morgan (Chapel Hill, NC, 1991), 138-42; Helen C. Rountree, "Summary and Implications," in Powhatan Foreign Relations: 1500-1722, ed. Rountree (Charlottesville, VA, 1993), 222-23; Michael M. Pomedli, "Eighteenth-Century Treaties: Amended Iroquois Condolence Rituals," American Indian Quarterly (hereinafter AIQ) 19 (1995): 319-39. For discussion of the methodology of Native American diplomatic history informing this essay, see Colin G. Galloway, Crown and Calumet: British-Indian Relations, 1783-1815 (Norman, OK, 1987), 18-22; David Murray, Forked Tongues: Speech, Writing, and Representation in American Indian Texts (Bloomington, IN, 1991), chap. 3; Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill, NC. 1992), 5-6; Howard Meredith, Dancing on Common Ground: Tribal Cultures and Alliances on the Southern Plains (Lawrence, KS, 1995); Thomas W. Kavanagh, Comanche Political History (Lincoln, NE, 1996), 20-24; and Daniel R. Mandell, Behind the Frontier: Indians in Eighteenth-Century Eastern Massachusetts (Lincoln, NE, 1996), viii.
30. George Sabo III, "Inconsistent Kin: French-Quapaw Relations at Arkansas Post," in Arkansas before the Americans, ed. H. A. Davis, Arkansas Archaeological Survey Research Series, No. 40 (Fayetteville, AR, 1991), 113-19; Kathleen J. Bragdon, Native People of Southern New England, 1500-1650 (Norman, OK, 1996), 156-68; Martin H. Quitt, "Trade and Acculturation at Jamestown, 1607-1609: The Limits of Understanding," WMQ 52 (1995): 230-31.
31. George Sabo III, "Inconsistent Kin: French-Quapaw Relations at Arkansas Post," in Arkansas before the Americans, ed. H. A. Davis, Arkansas Archaeological Survey Research Series, No. 40 (Fayetteville, AR, 1991), 113-19; Kathleen J. Bragdon, Native People of Southern New England, 1500-1650 (Norman, OK, 1996), 156-68; Martin H. Quitt, "Trade and Acculturation at Jamestown, 1607-1609: The Limits of Understanding," WMQ 52 (1995): 230-31.
32. George Sabo III, "Inconsistent Kin: French-Quapaw Relations at Arkansas Post," in Arkansas before the Americans, ed. H. A. Davis, Arkansas Archaeological Survey Research Series, No. 40 (Fayetteville, AR, 1991), 113-19; Kathleen J. Bragdon, Native People of Southern New England, 1500-1650 (Norman, OK, 1996), 156-68; Martin H. Quitt, "Trade and Acculturation at Jamestown, 1607-1609: The Limits of Understanding," WMQ 52 (1995): 230-31.
33. George Sabo III, "Rituals of Encounter: Interpreting Native American Views of European Explorers," in Cultural Encounters in the Early South: Indians and Europeans in Arkansas, comp. Jeannie Whayne (Fayetteville, AR, 1995), 78-79;
34. Gary C. Anderson, Kinsmen of Another Kind: Dakota-White Relations in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1650-1862 (Lincoln, NE, 1984), xi-xii, 58-75;
35. Patricia K. Galloway, "'The Chief Who Is Your Father': Choctaw and French Views of the Diplomatic Relation," in Powhatan's Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, ed. Peter Wood, Gregory M. Waselkov, and M. Thomas Hatley (Lincoln, NE, 1989), 254-78.
36. Peter Dooyentate Clarke, Origin and Traditional History of the Wyandots (Toronto, 1870), 17-18; Edward J. Hedican, "Algonquian Kinship Terminology: Some Problems of Interpretation," Man in the Northeast 40 (1990): 1-15; Donald L. Fixico, "The Alliance of the Three Fires in Trade and War, 1630- 1812," Michigan Historical Review 20, no. 2 (1994): 1-23.
37. Peter Dooyentate Clarke, Origin and Traditional History of the Wyandots (Toronto, 1870), 17-18; Edward J. Hedican, "Algonquian Kinship Terminology: Some Problems of Interpretation," Man in the Northeast 40 (1990): 1-15; Donald L. Fixico, "The Alliance of the Three Fires in Trade and War, 1630- 1812," Michigan Historical Review 20, no. 2 (1994): 1-23.
38. Peter Dooyentate Clarke, Origin and Traditional History of the Wyandots (Toronto, 1870), 17-18; Edward J. Hedican, "Algonquian Kinship Terminology: Some Problems of Interpretation," Man in the Northeast 40 (1990): 1-15; Donald L. Fixico, "The Alliance of the Three Fires in Trade and War, 1630-1812," Michigan Historical Review 20, no. 2 (1994): 1-23.
39. Patricia Seed, Ceremonies of Possession in Europe's Conquest of the New World, 1492-1640 (Cambridge, 1995), chap. 2; Jerah Johnson, "Colonial New Orleans: A Fragment of the Eighteenth Century French Ethos," in Creole New Orleans: Race and Americanization, ed. Arnold R. Hirsch and Joseph Logsdon (Baton Rouge, LA, 1992), 16-26.
40. Patricia Seed, Ceremonies of Possession in Europe's Conquest of the New World, 1492-1640 (Cambridge, 1995), chap. 2; Jerah Johnson, "Colonial New Orleans: A Fragment of the Eighteenth Century French Ethos," in Creole New Orleans: Race and Americanization, ed. Arnold R. Hirsch and Joseph Logsdon (Baton Rouge, LA, 1992), 16-26.
41. White, The Middle Ground, chap. 4, esp. 143, 183; William J. Eccles, "Sovereignty-Association, 1500-1783," in Essays on New France (Toronto, 1987), 156-81; Cornelius J. Jaenen, "Characteristics of French-Amerindian Contact in New France," in Essays on the History of North American Discovery and Exploration, ed. Stanley H. Palmer and Dennis Reinhartz (College Station, TX, 1988), 85-87; Kenneth M. Morrison, "Baptism and Alliance: The Symbolic Mediations of Religious Syncretism," Ethnohistory 37 (1990): 416- 37; Catherine M. Desbarats, "The Cost of Early Canada's Native Alliances: Reality and Scarcity's Rhetoric," WMQ 52 (1995): 609-30 . Cf. David S. Brose, "Rethinking the French Presence in the Upper Great Lakes," in Lulu Linear Punctated: Essays in Honor of George Irving Quimby, ed. Robert C. Dunnell and Donald K. Grayson (Ann Arbor, MI, 1983), 143-45.
42. White, The Middle Ground, chap. 4, esp. 143, 183; William J. Eccles, "Sovereignty-Association, 1500-1783," in Essays on New France (Toronto, 1987), 156-81; Cornelius J. Jaenen, "Characteristics of French-Amerindian Contact in New France," in Essays on the History of North American Discovery and Exploration, ed. Stanley H. Palmer and Dennis Reinhartz (College Station, TX, 1988), 85-87; Kenneth M. Morrison, "Baptism and Alliance: The Symbolic Mediations of Religious Syncretism," Ethnohistory 37 (1990): 416- 37; Catherine M. Desbarats, "The Cost of Early Canada's Native Alliances: Reality and Scarcity's Rhetoric," WMQ 52 (1995): 609-30 . Cf. David S. Brose, "Rethinking the French Presence in the Upper Great Lakes," in Lulu Linear Punctated: Essays in Honor of George Irving Quimby, ed. Robert C. Dunnell and Donald K. Grayson (Ann Arbor, MI, 1983), 143-45.
43. White, The Middle Ground, chap. 4, esp. 143, 183; William J. Eccles, "Sovereignty-Association, 1500-1783," in Essays on New France (Toronto, 1987), 156-81; Cornelius J. Jaenen, "Characteristics of French-Amerindian Contact in New France," in Essays on the History of North American Discovery and Exploration, ed. Stanley H. Palmer and Dennis Reinhartz (College Station, TX, 1988), 85-87; Kenneth M. Morrison, "Baptism and Alliance: The Symbolic Mediations of Religious Syncretism," Ethnohistory 37 (1990): 416- 37; Catherine M. Desbarats, "The Cost of Early Canada's Native Alliances: Reality and Scarcity's Rhetoric," WMQ 52 (1995): 609-30 . Cf. David S. Brose, "Rethinking the French Presence in the Upper Great Lakes," in Lulu Linear Punctated: Essays in Honor of George Irving Quimby, ed. Robert C. Dunnell and Donald K. Grayson (Ann Arbor, MI, 1983), 143-45.
44. White, The Middle Ground, chap. 4, esp. 143, 183; William J. Eccles, "Sovereignty-Association, 1500-1783," in Essays on New France (Toronto, 1987), 156-81; Cornelius J. Jaenen, "Characteristics of French-Amerindian Contact in New France," in Essays on the History of North American Discovery and Exploration, ed. Stanley H. Palmer and Dennis Reinhartz (College Station, TX, 1988), 85-87; Kenneth M. Morrison, "Baptism and Alliance: The Symbolic Mediations of Religious Syncretism," Ethnohistory 37 (1990): 416-37; Catherine M. Desbarats, "The Cost of Early Canada's Native Alliances: Reality and Scarcity's Rhetoric," WMQ 52 (1995): 609-30 . Cf. David S. Brose, "Rethinking the French Presence in the Upper Great Lakes," in Lulu Linear Punctated: Essays in Honor of George Irving Quimby, ed. Robert C. Dunnell and Donald K. Grayson (Ann Arbor, MI, 1983), 143-45.
45. White, The Middle Ground, chap. 4, esp. 143, 183; William J. Eccles, "Sovereignty-Association, 1500-1783," in Essays on New France (Toronto, 1987), 156-81; Cornelius J. Jaenen, "Characteristics of French-Amerindian Contact in New France," in Essays on the History of North American Discovery and Exploration, ed. Stanley H. Palmer and Dennis Reinhartz (College Station, TX, 1988), 85-87; Kenneth M. Morrison, "Baptism and Alliance: The Symbolic Mediations of Religious Syncretism," Ethnohistory 37 (1990): 416- 37; Catherine M. Desbarats, "The Cost of Early Canada's Native Alliances: Reality and Scarcity's Rhetoric," WMQ 52 (1995): 609-30 . Cf. David S. Brose, "Rethinking the French Presence in the Upper Great Lakes," in Lulu Linear Punctated: Essays in Honor of George Irving Quimby, ed. Robert C. Dunnell and Donald K. Grayson (Ann Arbor, MI, 1983), 143-45.
46. White, The Middle Ground, chap. 4, esp. 143, 183; William J. Eccles, "Sovereignty-Association, 1500-1783," in Essays on New France (Toronto, 1987), 156-81; Cornelius J. Jaenen, "Characteristics of French-Amerindian Contact in New France," in Essays on the History of North American Discovery and Exploration, ed. Stanley H. Palmer and Dennis Reinhartz (College Station, TX, 1988), 85-87; Kenneth M. Morrison, "Baptism and Alliance: The Symbolic Mediations of Religious Syncretism," Ethnohistory 37 (1990): 416- 37; Catherine M. Desbarats, "The Cost of Early Canada's Native Alliances: Reality and Scarcity's Rhetoric," WMQ 52 (1995): 609-30 . Cf. David S. Brose, "Rethinking the French Presence in the Upper Great Lakes," in Lulu Linear Punctated: Essays in Honor of George Irving Quimby, ed. Robert C. Dunnell and Donald K. Grayson (Ann Arbor, MI, 1983), 143-45.
47. Francis Jennings et al., eds., The History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy: An Interdisciplinary Guide to the Treaties of the Six Nations and Their League (Syracuse, NY, 1985), 119-20; Paul A. W. Wallace, Indians in Pennsylvania (1961), 2d ed., rev. William A. Hunter (Harrisburg, PA, 1981), 58.
48. Francis Jennings et al., eds., The History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy: An Interdisciplinary Guide to the Treaties of the Six Nations and Their League (Syracuse, NY, 1985), 119-20; Paul A. W. Wallace, Indians in Pennsylvania (1961), 2d ed., rev. William A. Hunter (Harrisburg, PA, 1981), 58.
49. A French term denoting the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley region; means "the upper country." See White, The Middle Ground, x-xi.
50. Edward P. Hamilton, trans. and ed., Adventure in the Wilderness: The American Journals of Louis Antoine de Bougainville, 1756-1760 (Norman, OK, 1964), 204; Charles Thomson, An Enquiry into the Causes of the Alienation of the Delaware and Shawanese Indians from the British Interest, and into the Measures Taken for Recovering Their Friendship (1759; rpt. St. Clair Shores, MI, 1970), 81- 122; Matthew C. Ward, "Fighting the 'Old Women': Indian Strategy on the Virginia and Pennsylvania Frontier, 1754-1758," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 103 (1995): 297-320.
51. Edward P. Hamilton, trans. and ed., Adventure in the Wilderness: The American Journals of Louis Antoine de Bougainville, 1756-1760 (Norman, OK, 1964), 204; Charles Thomson, An Enquiry into the Causes of the Alienation of the Delaware and Shawanese Indians from the British Interest, and into the Measures Taken for Recovering Their Friendship (1759; rpt. St. Clair Shores, MI, 1970), 81-122; Matthew C. Ward, "Fighting the 'Old Women': Indian Strategy on the Virginia and Pennsylvania Frontier, 1754-1758," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 103 (1995): 297-320.
52. Edward P. Hamilton, trans. and ed., Adventure in the Wilderness: The American Journals of Louis Antoine de Bougainville, 1756-1760 (Norman, OK, 1964), 204; Charles Thomson, An Enquiry into the Causes of the Alienation of the Delaware and Shawanese Indians from the British Interest, and into the Measures Taken for Recovering Their Friendship (1759; rpt. St. Clair Shores, MI, 1970), 81- 122; Matthew C. Ward, "Fighting the 'Old Women': Indian Strategy on the Virginia and Pennsylvania Frontier, 1754-1758," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 103 (1995): 297-320.
53. "Stephen Carpenter Diary, Attleboro, MA, to Albany, NY, 1758, April 13-October 25," 27 August 1758 entry, typescript in Miscellaneous Collections, William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan (hereinafter WLCL); Lawrence Henry Gipson, The British Empire before the American Revolution, vol. 7 (New York, 1949), 273-74.
54. James Smith, An Account of the Remarkable Occurrences in the Life of James Smith (1799), rpt. in Horace Kephart, ed., Captives among the Indians (Oyster Bay, NY, 1915), 115 (quote); Edmund de Schweinitz, trans., "The Narrative of Marie Le Roy and Barbara Leininger, for Three Years Captive among the Indians," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography (hereinafter PMHB) 29 (1905): 412; Timothy Alden, ed., "An Account of the Captivity of Hugh Gibson among the Delaware Indians of the Big Beaver and the Muskingum, from the Latter Part of July 1756, to the Beginning of April 1759," Massachusetts Historical Society, Collections (hereinafter MHSC), 3d ser., 6 (1837): 149.
55. James Smith, An Account of the Remarkable Occurrences in the Life of James Smith (1799), rpt. in Horace Kephart, ed., Captives among the Indians (Oyster Bay, NY, 1915), 115 (quote); Edmund de Schweinitz, trans., "The Narrative of Marie Le Roy and Barbara Leininger, for Three Years Captive among the Indians," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography (hereinafter PMHB) 29 (1905): 412; Timothy Alden, ed., "An Account of the Captivity of Hugh Gibson among the Delaware Indians of the Big Beaver and the Muskingum, from the Latter Part of July 1756, to the Beginning of April 1759," Massachusetts Historical Society, Collections (hereinafter MHSC), 3d ser., 6 (1837): 149.
56. James Smith, An Account of the Remarkable Occurrences in the Life of James Smith (1799), rpt. in Horace Kephart, ed., Captives among the Indians (Oyster Bay, NY, 1915), 115 (quote); Edmund de Schweinitz, trans., "The Narrative of Marie Le Roy and Barbara Leininger, for Three Years Captive among the Indians," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography (hereinafter PMHB) 29 (1905): 412; Timothy Alden, ed., "An Account of the Captivity of Hugh Gibson among the Delaware Indians of the Big Beaver and the Muskingum, from the Latter Part of July 1756, to the Beginning of April 1759," Massachusetts Historical Society, Collections (hereinafter MHSC), 3d ser., 6 (1837): 149.
57. "Two Journals of Western Tours, by Charles [sic] Frederick Post," in Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, ed. Reuben G. Thwaites, vol. 1 (New York, 1966), 199. The 16 August 1758 discovery by a British scouting party of "5 Pieces of Bark with a Pipe full of Tobacco on each Piece" at an evacuated Indian encampment near Fort Duquesne may have attested to the Delawares' claims of knowledge of western Indian sentiments, as it provides circumstantial evidence of peace gestures between Indian groups in the region. See William A. Hunter, ed., "Thomas Barton and the Forbes Expedition," PMHB 95 (1971): 454; Donald J. Blakeslee, "The Calumet Ceremony and the Origin of Fur Trade Rituals," Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology 7, no. 2 (1977): 78- 88; James W. Springer, "An Ethnohistoric Study of the Smoking Complex in Eastern North America," Ethnohistory 28 (1981): 217-35 .
58. "Two Journals of Western Tours, by Charles [sic] Frederick Post," in Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, ed. Reuben G. Thwaites, vol. 1 (New York, 1966), 199. The 16 August 1758 discovery by a British scouting party of "5 Pieces of Bark with a Pipe full of Tobacco on each Piece" at an evacuated Indian encampment near Fort Duquesne may have attested to the Delawares' claims of knowledge of western Indian sentiments, as it provides circumstantial evidence of peace gestures between Indian groups in the region. See William A. Hunter, ed., "Thomas Barton and the Forbes Expedition," PMHB 95 (1971): 454; Donald J. Blakeslee, "The Calumet Ceremony and the Origin of Fur Trade Rituals," Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology 7, no. 2 (1977): 78- 88; James W. Springer, "An Ethnohistoric Study of the Smoking Complex in Eastern North America," Ethnohistory 28 (1981): 217-35 .
59. "Two Journals of Western Tours, by Charles [sic] Frederick Post," in Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, ed. Reuben G. Thwaites, vol. 1 (New York, 1966), 199. The 16 August 1758 discovery by a British scouting party of "5 Pieces of Bark with a Pipe full of Tobacco on each Piece" at an evacuated Indian encampment near Fort Duquesne may have attested to the Delawares' claims of knowledge of western Indian sentiments, as it provides circumstantial evidence of peace gestures between Indian groups in the region. See William A. Hunter, ed., "Thomas Barton and the Forbes Expedition," PMHB 95 (1971): 454; Donald J. Blakeslee, "The Calumet Ceremony and the Origin of Fur Trade Rituals," Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology 7, no. 2 (1977): 78-88; James W. Springer, "An Ethnohistoric Study of the Smoking Complex in Eastern North America," Ethnohistory 28 (1981): 217-35 .
60. "Two Journals of Western Tours, by Charles [sic] Frederick Post," in Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, ed. Reuben G. Thwaites, vol. 1 (New York, 1966), 199. The 16 August 1758 discovery by a British scouting party of "5 Pieces of Bark with a Pipe full of Tobacco on each Piece" at an evacuated Indian encampment near Fort Duquesne may have attested to the Delawares' claims of knowledge of western Indian sentiments, as it provides circumstantial evidence of peace gestures between Indian groups in the region. See William A. Hunter, ed., "Thomas Barton and the Forbes Expedition," PMHB 95 (1971): 454; Donald J. Blakeslee, "The Calumet Ceremony and the Origin of Fur Trade Rituals," Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology 7, no. 2 (1977): 78- 88; James W. Springer, "An Ethnohistoric Study of the Smoking Complex in Eastern North America," Ethnohistory 28 (1981): 217-35 .
61. Thwaites, "Post Journals," 207. The text of the Treaty of Easton appears in Samuel Hazard, ed., Minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania, vol. 8 (Harrisburg, PA, 1852), 174-223.
62. Thwaites, "Post Journals," 207. The text of the Treaty of Easton appears in Samuel Hazard, ed., Minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania, vol. 8 (Harrisburg, PA, 1852), 174-223.
63. Forbes to Generals James Abercromby and Jeffery Amherst, 26 November 1758, in Writings of General John Forbes Relating to His Service in North America, comp. and ed. Alfred P. James (Menasha, WI, 1938), 262; Thwaites, "Post Journals," 256; Walter T. Champion Jr., "Christian Frederick Post and the Winning of the West," PMHB 104 (1980): 308-25.
64. Forbes to Generals James Abercromby and Jeffery Amherst, 26 November 1758, in Writings of General John Forbes Relating to His Service in North America, comp. and ed. Alfred P. James (Menasha, WI, 1938), 262; Thwaites, "Post Journals," 256; Walter T. Champion Jr., "Christian Frederick Post and the Winning of the West," PMHB 104 (1980): 308-25.
65. Forbes to Generals James Abercromby and Jeffery Amherst, 26 November 1758, in Writings of General John Forbes Relating to His Service in North America, comp. and ed. Alfred P. James (Menasha, WI, 1938), 262; Thwaites, "Post Journals," 256; Walter T. Champion Jr., "Christian Frederick Post and the Winning of the West," PMHB 104 (1980): 308-25.
66. Thwaites, "Post Journals," 277-78, 283; "Conference with the Delaware Indians, 4 December 1758," in The Papers of Henry Bouquet, ed. Sylvester K. Stevens, Donald H. Kent, and Autumn L. Leonard, vol. 2 (Harrisburg, PA, 1951), 621-22 (quotes); Stephen F. Auth, The Ten Years' War: Indian-White Relations in Pennsylvania, 1755-1765 (New York, 1988), 55-61.
67. Thwaites, "Post Journals," 277-78, 283; "Conference with the Delaware Indians, 4 December 1758," in The Papers of Henry Bouquet, ed. Sylvester K. Stevens, Donald H. Kent, and Autumn L. Leonard, vol. 2 (Harrisburg, PA, 1951), 621-22 (quotes); Stephen F. Auth, The Ten Years' War: Indian-White Relations in Pennsylvania, 1755-1765 (New York, 1988), 55-61.
68. Thwaites, "Post Journals," 277-78, 283; "Conference with the Delaware Indians, 4 December 1758," in The Papers of Henry Bouquet, ed. Sylvester K. Stevens, Donald H. Kent, and Autumn L. Leonard, vol. 2 (Harrisburg, PA, 1951), 621-22 (quotes); Stephen F. Auth, The Ten Years' War: Indian-White Relations in Pennsylvania, 1755-1765 (New York, 1988), 55-61.
69. George Mercer to John Forbes, Pittsburgh, 8 January 1759, in Stevens et al., Papers of Bouquet, vol. 3 (Harrisburg, PA, 1972), 25-26 (quote); Richard Aquila, The Iroquois Restoration: Iroquois Diplomacy on the Colonial Frontier, 1701-1754 (Detroit, MI, 1983), chap. 6.
70. George Mercer to John Forbes, Pittsburgh, 8 January 1759, in Stevens et al., Papers of Bouquet, vol. 3 (Harrisburg, PA, 1972), 25-26 (quote); Richard Aquila, The Iroquois Restoration: Iroquois Diplomacy on the Colonial Frontier, 1701-1754 (Detroit, MI, 1983), chap. 6.
71. M. Dumas, "Observations on Certain Peculations in New France, Paris, 5 April 1761," in Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York, ed. Edmund B. O'Callaghan (hereinafter NYCD), vol. 10 (Albany, NY, 1858), 1132.
72. Johnson to Amherst, 22 February 1759, Great Britain, Public Record Office (hereinafter PRO) General Jeffery Amherst Papers, War Office Papers Class 34, (hereinafter WO 34), v. 39; John W. Jordan, ed., "James Kenny's 'Journal to Ye Westward,' 1758-1759," PMHB 37 (1913): 419; James Kenny to Humphrey Marshall, 23 May 1759, Humphrey Marshall Papers, WLCL. In February 1759, the Indian captors of Marie Le Roy and Barbara Leininger left their winter hunting grounds to sell their pelts at "Pittsburg." See "Narrative . . . ," PMHB 29 (1905): 413.
73. Johnson to Amherst, 22 February 1759, Great Britain, Public Record Office (hereinafter PRO) General Jeffery Amherst Papers, War Office Papers Class 34, (hereinafter WO 34), v. 39; John W. Jordan, ed., "James Kenny's 'Journal to Ye Westward,' 1758-1759," PMHB 37 (1913): 419; James Kenny to Humphrey Marshall, 23 May 1759, Humphrey Marshall Papers, WLCL. In February 1759, the Indian captors of Marie Le Roy and Barbara Leininger left their winter hunting grounds to sell their pelts at "Pittsburg." See "Narrative . . . ," PMHB 29 (1905): 413.
74. Nicholas B. Wainwright, ed., "George Croghan's Journal, 1759-1763," PMHB 71 (1947): 316-17; Johnson to Amherst, 18 September 1759, WO 34/39.
75. Johnson to Amherst, 25 July 1759, WO 34/39; NYCD, vol. 7 (Albany, NY, 1856), 402-3; Pierre Pouchot, "Journal of the Siege of Niagara," NYCD, 10:987-88; Charles Lee to Sir William Bunbury, 4 August 1759, in "The Lee Papers," New York Historical Society Collections (hereinafter NYHSC) 4 (1871): 21; Howard H. Peckham, ed., "Thomas Gist's Indian Captivity," PMHB 80 (1956): 302; Pierre Pouchot, Memoir upon the Late War in North America, between the French and the English (1781), ed. Brian L. Dunnigan, trans. Michael Cardy (Youngstown, NY, 1994), 202-32.
76. Johnson to Amherst, 25 July 1759, WO 34/39; NYCD, vol. 7 (Albany, NY, 1856), 402-3; Pierre Pouchot, "Journal of the Siege of Niagara," NYCD, 10:987-88; Charles Lee to Sir William Bunbury, 4 August 1759, in "The Lee Papers," New York Historical Society Collections (hereinafter NYHSC) 4 (1871): 21; Howard H. Peckham, ed., "Thomas Gist's Indian Captivity," PMHB 80 (1956): 302; Pierre Pouchot, Memoir upon the Late War in North America, between the French and the English (1781), ed. Brian L. Dunnigan, trans. Michael Cardy (Youngstown, NY, 1994), 202-32.
77. Johnson to Amherst, 25 July 1759, WO 34/39; NYCD, vol. 7 (Albany, NY, 1856), 402-3; Pierre Pouchot, "Journal of the Siege of Niagara," NYCD, 10:987-88; Charles Lee to Sir William Bunbury, 4 August 1759, in "The Lee Papers," New York Historical Society Collections (hereinafter NYHSC) 4 (1871): 21; Howard H. Peckham, ed., "Thomas Gist's Indian Captivity,"
78. Johnson to Amherst, 25 July 1759, WO 34/39; NYCD, vol. 7 (Albany, NY, 1856), 402-3; Pierre Pouchot, "Journal of the Siege of Niagara," NYCD, 10:987-88; Charles Lee to Sir William Bunbury, 4 August 1759, in "The Lee Papers," New York Historical Society Collections (hereinafter NYHSC) 4 (1871): 21; Howard H. Peckham, ed., "Thomas Gist's Indian Captivity," PMHB 80 (1956): 302; Pierre Pouchot, Memoir upon the Late War in North America, between the French and the English (1781), ed. Brian L. Dunnigan, trans. Michael Cardy (Youngstown, NY, 1994), 202-32.
79. Johnson to Amherst, 25 July 1759, WO 34/39; NYCD, vol. 7 (Albany, NY, 1856), 402-3; Pierre Pouchot, "Journal of the Siege of Niagara," NYCD, 10:987-88; Charles Lee to Sir William Bunbury, 4 August 1759, in "The Lee Papers," New York Historical Society Collections (hereinafter NYHSC) 4 (1871): 21; Howard H. Peckham, ed., "Thomas Gist's Indian Captivity," PMHB 80 (1956): 302; Pierre Pouchot, Memoir upon the Late War in North America, between the French and the English (1781), ed. Brian L. Dunnigan, trans. Michael Cardy (Youngstown, NY, 1994), 202-32.
80. D. Peter MacLeod, "Microbes and Muskets: Smallpox and the Participation of the Amerindian Allies of New France in the Seven Years' War," Ethnohistory 39 (1992): 45 (Figure 1), 52; Wainwright, "Croghan's Journal," 349-50. An anonymous French survey of the western Indians taken after 1758 counted only the Potawatomi of St. Joseph as completely faithful allies of the French. See William R. Riddell, ed., "Last Official French Report on the Western Posts," Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 24 (1931): 580.
81. D. Peter MacLeod, "Microbes and Muskets: Smallpox and the Participation of the Amerindian Allies of New France in the Seven Years' War," Ethnohistory 39 (1992): 45 (Figure 1), 52; Wainwright, "Croghan's Journal," 349-50. An anonymous French survey of the western Indians taken after 1758 counted only the Potawatomi of St. Joseph as completely faithful allies of the French. See William R. Riddell, ed., "Last Official French Report on the Western Posts," Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 24 (1931): 580.
82. D. Peter MacLeod, "Microbes and Muskets: Smallpox and the Participation of the Amerindian Allies of New France in the Seven Years' War," Ethnohistory 39 (1992): 45 (Figure 1), 52; Wainwright, "Croghan's Journal," 349-50. An anonymous French survey of the western Indians taken after 1758 counted only the Potawatomi of St. Joseph as completely faithful allies of the French. See William R. Riddell, ed., "Last Official French Report on the Western Posts," Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 24 (1931): 580.
83. Claude Charles Le Roy, dit Bacqueville de La Potherie, "History of the Savage People Who Are Allies of New France" (Paris, 1753), in The Indian Tribes of the Upper Mississippi Valley and Region of the Great Lakes, ed. Emma H. Blair, 2 vols. (Cleveland, OH, 1911), 2:44; Elisabeth Tooker, "Clans and Moieties in North America," Current Anthropology 12 (1971): 357-76. See also Anthony F. C. Wallace, The Death and Rebirth of the Seneca (New York, 1969), 114; Russell L. Barsh, "The Nature and Spirit of North American Political Systems," AIQ 10 (summer 1986): 187-89.
84. Claude Charles Le Roy, dit Bacqueville de La Potherie, "History of the Savage People Who Are Allies of New France" (Paris, 1753), in The Indian Tribes of the Upper Mississippi Valley and Region of the Great Lakes, ed. Emma H. Blair, 2 vols. (Cleveland, OH, 1911), 2:44; Elisabeth Tooker, "Clans and Moieties in North America," Current Anthropology 12 (1971): 357-76. See also Anthony F. C. Wallace, The Death and Rebirth of the Seneca (New York, 1969), 114; Russell L. Barsh, "The Nature and Spirit of North American Political Systems," AIQ 10 (summer 1986): 187-89.
85. Claude Charles Le Roy, dit Bacqueville de La Potherie, "History of the Savage People Who Are Allies of New France" (Paris, 1753), in The Indian Tribes of the Upper Mississippi Valley and Region of the Great Lakes, ed. Emma H. Blair, 2 vols. (Cleveland, OH, 1911), 2:44; Elisabeth Tooker, "Clans and Moieties in North America," Current Anthropology 12 (1971): 357-76. See also Anthony F. C. Wallace, The Death and Rebirth of the Seneca (New York, 1969), 114; Russell L. Barsh, "The Nature and Spirit of North American Political Systems," AIQ 10 (summer 1986): 187-89.
86. Claude Charles Le Roy, dit Bacqueville de La Potherie, "History of the Savage People Who Are Allies of New France" (Paris, 1753), in The Indian Tribes of the Upper Mississippi Valley and Region of the Great Lakes, ed. Emma H. Blair, 2 vols. (Cleveland, OH, 1911), 2:44; Elisabeth Tooker, "Clans and Moieties in North America," Current Anthropology 12 (1971): 357-76. See also Anthony F. C. Wallace, The Death and Rebirth of the Seneca (New York, 1969), 114; Russell L. Barsh, "The Nature and Spirit of North American Political Systems," AIQ 10 (summer 1986): 187-89.
87. Wainwright, "Croghan's Journal," 350-64; Croghan to Johnson, 22 December 1759; Croghan to Johnson, 25 January 1760 (quote), WO 34/39.
88. Croghan to Johnson, 26 January 1760, PRO, WO 34/39; Wainwright, "Croghan's Journal," 365-66, 367 (quote). For the importance of the condolence ritual among the western Algonquians (sending presents to "cover the grave" of the offended tribe), see W. Vernon Kinietz, The Indians of the Western Great Lakes, 1615-1760) (Ann Arbor, MI, 1940), 64-69, 182-84, 197.
89. Croghan to Johnson, 26 January 1760, PRO, WO 34/39; Wainwright, "Croghan's Journal," 365-66, 367 (quote). For the importance of the condolence ritual among the western Algonquians (sending presents to "cover the grave" of the offended tribe), see W. Vernon Kinietz, The Indians of the Western Great Lakes, 1615-1760) (Ann Arbor, MI, 1940), 64-69, 182-84, 197.
90. "Indian Intelligence at Fort Pitt, 17 June 1760," The Military Papers of Colonel Henry Bouquet, British Library, Additional Manuscripts, (hereinafter BL Add. Mss.) 21655: f. 95; William A. Hunter, ed., "John Hays' Diary and Journal of 1760," Pennsylvania Archaeologist 24 (1954): 58.
91. "Indian Intelligence at Fort Pitt, 17 June 1760," The Military Papers of Colonel Henry Bouquet, British Library, Additional Manuscripts, (hereinafter BL Add. Mss.) 21655: f. 95; William A. Hunter, ed., "John Hays' Diary and Journal of 1760," Pennsylvania Archaeologist 24 (1954): 58.
92. Samuel Hazard, ed., Pennsylvania Archives, Ist ser., vol. 3 (Philadelphia, 1851), 744-46.
93. Ibid., 746-49; Auth, Ten Years' War, 143-46. At other times, the Great Lakes Algonquians had made similar efforts to join the Covenant Chain in order to share hunting territories with the Iroquois. See J. A. Brandão and William A. Starna, "The Treaties of 1701: A Triumph of Iroquois Diplomacy," Ethnohistory 43 (1996): 217-18.
94. Ibid., 746-49; Auth, Ten Years' War, 143-46. At other times, the Great Lakes Algonquians had made similar efforts to join the Covenant Chain in order to share hunting territories with the Iroquois. See J. A. Brandão and William A. Starna, "The Treaties of 1701: A Triumph of Iroquois Diplomacy," Ethnohistory 43 (1996): 217-18.
95. Ibid., 746-49; Auth, Ten Years' War, 143-46. At other times, the Great Lakes Algonquians had made similar efforts to join the Covenant Chain in order to share hunting territories with the Iroquois. See J. A. Brandão and William A. Starna, "The Treaties of 1701: A Triumph of Iroquois Diplomacy," Ethnohistory 43 (1996): 217-18.
96. Richard Peters to Robert Monckton, 4 September 1760, in "The Aspinwall Papers," MHSC, 4th ser., 9 (1871): 314; "Proceedings of a Court of Enquiry Held at Detroit, 21 February 1764" (quotes), enclosed in Major Henry Gladwin to General Thomas Gage, 24 March 1764, Thomas Gage Papers (hereinafter GP), WLCL (quote).
97. Richard Peters to Robert Monckton, 4 September 1760, in "The Aspinwall Papers," MHSC, 4th ser., 9 (1871): 314; "Proceedings of a Court of Enquiry Held at Detroit, 21 February 1764" (quotes), enclosed in Major Henry Gladwin to General Thomas Gage, 24 March 1764, Thomas Gage Papers (hereinafter GP), WLCL (quote).
98. Victor H. Paltsits, ed., "Journal of Robert Rogers the Ranger on His Expedition for Receiving the Capitulation of the Western French Posts," New York Public Library Bulletin 33 (1937): 268-69; Robert Rogers, A Concise Account of North America (1765; rpt. Ann Arbor, MI, 1966), 243.
99. Victor H. Paltsits, ed., "Journal of Robert Rogers the Ranger on His Expedition for Receiving the Capitulation of the Western French Posts," New York Public Library Bulletin 33 (1937): 268-69; Robert Rogers, A Concise Account of North America (1765; rpt. Ann Arbor, MI, 1966), 243.
100. "Lettre de Belestre au ministre, envoie le dernier conseil des différentes nations du Detroit, Paris, 16 juin 1762," Archives Nationales, Paris, Archives des Colonies, Series CIIA, microfilm copy in National Archives of Canada (hereinafter AC, CIIA), 105: f. 356; William R. Riddell, ed., "The Last Indian Council of the French at Detroit," Royal Society of Canada, Proceedings, 3d ser., 25 (1931): 165-68.
101. "Lettre de Belestre au ministre, envoie le dernier conseil des différentes nations du Detroit, Paris, 16 juin 1762," Archives Nationales, Paris, Archives des Colonies, Series CIIA, microfilm copy in National Archives of Canada (hereinafter AC, CIIA), 105: f. 356; William R. Riddell, ed., "The Last Indian Council of the French at Detroit," Royal Society of Canada, Proceedings, 3d ser., 25 (1931): 165-68.
102. "Indian Conference at Detroit, 3-5 December 1760," in Stevens et al., Papers of Bouquet, vol. 5 (Harrisburg, PA, 1984), 150-56.
103. Louise P. Kellogg, ed., "La Chapelle's Remarkable Retreat through the Mississippi Valley, 1760-61," Mississippi Valley Historical Review (hereinafter MVHR) 2.2. (1935): 64-68.
104. "Indian Intelligence from Croghan at Detroit," enclosed in Johnson to Amherst, 12 February 1761, PRO, wo 34/39.
105. "Speech Made by Delaware George at Fort Pitt, 2,6th May 1761," BM Add. Mss. 21655: f. 108; Auth, Ten Years' War, 90-91.
106. "Speech Made by Delaware George at Fort Pitt, 2,6th May 1761," BM Add. Mss. 21655: f. 108; Auth, Ten Years' War, 90-91.
107. Charles Callender, Social Organization of the Central Algonquian Indians (Milwaukee, wi, 1962), 22.
108. Bruce M. White, "A Skilled Game of Exchange: Ojibwa Fur Trade Protocol," Minnesota History 50 (1987): 240.
109. The classic statement of the infamous "Amherst policy" appears in Amherst to Johnson, 22 February 1761, in The Papers of Sir William Johnson, ed. James Sullivan (hereinafter WJP), vol. 3 (Albany, NY, 1921), 345. See also Johnson to Amherst, 12 February 1761, WO 34/39, in which a list of prospective trade goods sent by Johnson has all military items struck out; and Harry Kelsey, "The Amherst Plan: A Factor in the Pontiac Uprising," Ontario History 65 (1973): 149-58; "Order Limiting Trade with Shawnees, Fort Pitt, 13 May 1761," in Stevens et al., Papers of Bouquet, 5:477. Cf. Philip Pittman and George M. Covington, Don't Blame the Treaties: Native American Rights and the Michigan Indian Treaties (West Bloomfield, MI, 1992), 48-49.
110. The classic statement of the infamous "Amherst policy" appears in Amherst to Johnson, 22 February 1761, in The Papers of Sir William Johnson, ed. James Sullivan (hereinafter WJP), vol. 3 (Albany, NY, 1921), 345. See also Johnson to Amherst, 12 February 1761, WO 34/39, in which a list of prospective trade goods sent by Johnson has all military items struck out; and Harry Kelsey, "The Amherst Plan: A Factor in the Pontiac Uprising," Ontario History 65 (1973): 149-58; "Order Limiting Trade with Shawnees, Fort Pitt, 13 May 1761," in Stevens et al., Papers of Bouquet, 5:477. Cf. Philip Pittman and George M. Covington, Don't Blame the Treaties: Native American Rights and the Michigan Indian Treaties (West Bloomfield, MI, 1992), 48-49.
111. The classic statement of the infamous "Amherst policy" appears in Amherst to Johnson, 22 February 1761, in The Papers of Sir William Johnson, ed. James Sullivan (hereinafter WJP), vol. 3 (Albany, NY, 1921), 345. See also Johnson to Amherst, 12 February 1761, WO 34/39, in which a list of prospective trade goods sent by Johnson has all military items struck out; and Harry Kelsey, "The Amherst Plan: A Factor in the Pontiac Uprising," Ontario History 65 (1973): 149-58; "Order Limiting Trade with Shawnees, Fort Pitt, 13 May 1761," in Stevens et al., Papers of Bouquet, 5:477. Cf. Philip Pittman and George M. Covington, Don't Blame the Treaties: Native American Rights and the Michigan Indian Treaties (West Bloomfield, MI, 1992), 48-49.
112. The classic statement of the infamous "Amherst policy" appears in Amherst to Johnson, 22 February 1761, in The Papers of Sir William Johnson, ed. James Sullivan (hereinafter WJP), vol. 3 (Albany, NY, 1921), 345. See also Johnson to Amherst, 12 February 1761, WO 34/39, in which a list of prospective trade goods sent by Johnson has all military items struck out; and Harry Kelsey, "The Amherst Plan: A Factor in the Pontiac Uprising," Ontario History 65 (1973): 149-58; "Order Limiting Trade with Shawnees, Fort Pitt, 13 May 1761," in Stevens et al., Papers of Bouquet, 5:477. Cf. Philip Pittman and George M. Covington, Don't Blame the Treaties: Native American Rights and the Michigan Indian Treaties (West Bloomfield, MI, 1992), 48-49.
113. James Kenny to Humphrey Marshall, 6 December 1761, Humphrey Marshall Papers, WLCL.
114. "Return of the Detachment at Detroit and Dependent Forts, 18 September 1761," enclosed in D. Campbell to Amherst, 18 September 1761, WO 34/49.
115. Johnson to Amherst, 21 June 1761, Milton W. Hamilton and Albert B. Corey, ed., WJP, vol. 10 (Albany, NY, 1951), 291.
116. Steele, Warpaths, 235-36. For more on the conflict between settlers, traders, and imperial officials, and the potential political opportunities these rifts created for Indians, see Peter C. Mancall, Deadly Medicine: Indians and Alcohol in Early America (Ithaca, NY, 1995), 156-57; Gerald Sider, "When Parrots Learn to Talk and Why They Can't: Domination, Deception, and Self-Deception in Indian-White Relations," Comparative Studies in Society and History 29 (1987): 17-18; Clyde A. Milner II, "Indulgent Friends and Important Allies: Political Process on the Cis-Mississippi Frontier and Its Aftermath," in The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared, ed. Howard Lamar and Leonard Thompson (New Haven, CT, 1981), 123-24.
117. Steele, Warpaths, 235-36. For more on the conflict between settlers, traders, and imperial officials, and the potential political opportunities these rifts created for Indians, see Peter C. Mancall, Deadly Medicine: Indians and Alcohol in Early America (Ithaca, NY, 1995), 156-57; Gerald Sider, "When Parrots Learn to Talk and Why They Can't: Domination, Deception, and Self-Deception in Indian-White Relations," Comparative Studies in Society and History 29 (1987): 17-18; Clyde A. Milner II, "Indulgent Friends and Important Allies: Political Process on the Cis-Mississippi Frontier and Its Aftermath," in The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared, ed. Howard Lamar and Leonard Thompson (New Haven, CT, 1981), 123-24.
118. Steele, Warpaths, 235-36. For more on the conflict between settlers, traders, and imperial officials, and the potential political opportunities these rifts created for Indians, see Peter C. Mancall, Deadly Medicine: Indians and Alcohol in Early America (Ithaca, NY, 1995), 156-57; Gerald Sider, "When Parrots Learn to Talk and Why They Can't: Domination, Deception, and Self-Deception in Indian-White Relations," Comparative Studies in Society and History 29 (1987): 17-18; Clyde A. Milner II, "Indulgent Friends and Important Allies: Political Process on the Cis-Mississippi Frontier and Its Aftermath," in The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared, ed. Howard Lamar and Leonard Thompson (New Haven, CT, 1981), 123-24.
119. Steele, Warpaths, 235-36. For more on the conflict between settlers, traders, and imperial officials, and the potential political opportunities these rifts created for Indians, see Peter C. Mancall, Deadly Medicine: Indians and Alcohol in Early America (Ithaca, NY, 1995), 156-57; Gerald Sider, "When Parrots Learn to Talk and Why They Can't: Domination, Deception, and Self-Deception in Indian-White Relations," Comparative Studies in Society and History 29 (1987): 17-18; Clyde A. Milner II, "Indulgent Friends and Important Allies: Political Process on the Cis-Mississippi Frontier and Its Aftermath," in The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared, ed. Howard Lamar and Leonard Thompson (New Haven, CT, 1981), 123-24.
120. "Coppy of an Indian Council," enclosed in D. Campbell to Amherst, 17 June 1761, PRO, WO 34/49. Also see D. Campbell to Bouquet, 21 June 1761, "Aspinwall Papers," 427-29. Francis Jennings, in Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies, and Tribes in the Seven Years' War in North America (New York, 1988), 440, locates the origins of the 1761 war belt in the Iroquois Council at Onondaga. The evidence fails to substantiate his claim of official sanction from the Iroquois League. Interviewed by Croghan on 27 July 1761, the two Senecas testified that the plan was entirely their own, and they made no mention of consultation with league chiefs. See Wainwright, "Croghan's Journal," 410- 11; White, The Middle Ground, 272; and McConnell, A Country Between, 171. Croghan later determined that the Onondaga Council had no hand at all in the 1761 Seneca belts. See George Croghan to Robert Monckton, 3 October 1761, Cadwalader Family Papers, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Box 5, folder 12.
121. "Coppy of an Indian Council," enclosed in D. Campbell to Amherst, 17 June 1761, PRO, WO 34/49. Also see D. Campbell to Bouquet, 21 June 1761, "Aspinwall Papers," 427-29. Francis Jennings, in Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies, and Tribes in the Seven Years' War in North America (New York, 1988), 440, locates the origins of the 1761 war belt in the Iroquois Council at Onondaga. The evidence fails to substantiate his claim of official sanction from the Iroquois League. Interviewed by Croghan on 27 July 1761, the two Senecas testified that the plan was entirely their own, and they made no mention of consultation with league chiefs. See Wainwright, "Croghan's Journal," 410- 11; White, The Middle Ground, 272; and McConnell, A Country Between, 171. Croghan later determined that the Onondaga Council had no hand at all in the 1761 Seneca belts. See George Croghan to Robert Monckton, 3 October 1761, Cadwalader Family Papers, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Box 5, folder 12.
122. "Coppy of an Indian Council," enclosed in D. Campbell to Amherst, 17 June 1761, PRO, WO 34/49. Also see D. Campbell to Bouquet, 21 June 1761, "Aspinwall Papers," 427-29. Francis Jennings, in Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies, and Tribes in the Seven Years' War in North America (New York, 1988), 440, locates the origins of the 1761 war belt in the Iroquois Council at Onondaga. The evidence fails to substantiate his claim of official sanction from the Iroquois League. Interviewed by Croghan on 27 July 1761, the two Senecas testified that the plan was entirely their own, and they made no mention of consultation with league chiefs. See Wainwright, "Croghan's Journal," 410- 11; White, The Middle Ground, 272; and McConnell, A Country Between, 171. Croghan later determined that the Onondaga Council had no hand at all in the 1761 Seneca belts. See George Croghan to Robert Monckton, 3 October 1761, Cadwalader Family Papers, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Box 5, folder 12.
123. "Coppy of an Indian Council," enclosed in D. Campbell to Amherst, 17 June 1761, PRO, WO 34/49. Also see D. Campbell to Bouquet, 21 June 1761, "Aspinwall Papers," 427-29. Francis Jennings, in Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies, and Tribes in the Seven Years' War in North America (New York, 1988), 440, locates the origins of the 1761 war belt in the Iroquois Council at Onondaga. The evidence fails to substantiate his claim of official sanction from the Iroquois League. Interviewed by Croghan on 27 July 1761, the two Senecas testified that the plan was entirely their own, and they made no mention of consultation with league chiefs. See Wainwright, "Croghan's Journal," 410-11; White, The Middle Ground, 272; and McConnell, A Country Between, 171. Croghan later determined that the Onondaga Council had no hand at all in the 1761 Seneca belts. See George Croghan to Robert Monckton, 3 October 1761, Cadwalader Family Papers, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Box 5, folder 12.
124. "Coppy of an Indian Council," enclosed in D. Campbell to Amherst, 17 June 1761, PRO, WO 34/49. Also see D. Campbell to Bouquet, 21 June 1761, "Aspinwall Papers," 427-29. Francis Jennings, in Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies, and Tribes in the Seven Years' War in North America (New York, 1988), 440, locates the origins of the 1761 war belt in the Iroquois Council at Onondaga. The evidence fails to substantiate his claim of official sanction from the Iroquois League. Interviewed by Croghan on 27 July 1761, the two Senecas testified that the plan was entirely their own, and they made no mention of consultation with league chiefs. See Wainwright, "Croghan's Journal," 410- 11; White, The Middle Ground, 272; and McConnell, A Country Between, 171. Croghan later determined that the Onondaga Council had no hand at all in the 1761 Seneca belts. See George Croghan to Robert Monckton, 3 October 1761, Cadwalader Family Papers, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Box 5, folder 12.
125. "Coppy of an Indian Council," enclosed in D. Campbell to Amherst, 17 June 1761, PRO, WO 34/49. Also see D. Campbell to Bouquet, 21 June 1761, "Aspinwall Papers," 427-29. Francis Jennings, in Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies, and Tribes in the Seven Years' War in North America (New York, 1988), 440, locates the origins of the 1761 war belt in the Iroquois Council at Onondaga. The evidence fails to substantiate his claim of official sanction from the Iroquois League. Interviewed by Croghan on 27 July 1761, the two Senecas testified that the plan was entirely their own, and they made no mention of consultation with league chiefs. See Wainwright, "Croghan's Journal," 410- 11; White, The Middle Ground, 272; and McConnell, A Country Between, 171. Croghan later determined that the Onondaga Council had no hand at all in the 1761 Seneca belts. See George Croghan to Robert Monckton, 3 October 1761, Cadwalader Family Papers, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Box 5, folder 12.
126. "At a Council at the Wiandot Town near Fort Detroit, 3 July 1761 . . ." enclosed in D. Campbell to Amherst, 8 July 1761, PRO, WO 34/49; James Sterling to John Duncan, 8 July 1761, James Sterling Letterbook, WLCL.
127. D. Campbell to Bouquet, 22 July 1761, "Bouquet Papers," Michigan Pioneer and Historical Society Collections (hereinafter MPHSC), vol. 19 (1892; rpt. Lansing, MI, 1911), 95.
128. "Council with Onondaga at Oswego, 21 July 1761," WJP, 3:444.
129. "Minutes of Detroit Council, 1761," PRO, WO 34/39. See also the printed version in WJP, 3:474-93, and Johnson's notes in "Journal to Detroit, July 4- October 30, 1761," Milton W. Hamilton and Albert B. Corey, ed., WJP, vol. 13 (Albany, NY, 1962), 254-74. For the importance Indians attached to recognition from Johnson, see Wilbur R. Jacobs, Wilderness Politics and Indian Gifts: The Northern Colonial Frontier, 1748-1763 (Lincoln, NE, 1950), 78, 184-85.
130. "Minutes of Detroit Council, 1761," PRO, WO 34/39. See also the printed version in WJP, 3:474-93, and Johnson's notes in "Journal to Detroit, July 4- October 30, 1761," Milton W. Hamilton and Albert B. Corey, ed., WJP, vol. 13 (Albany, NY, 1962), 254-74. For the importance Indians attached to recognition from Johnson, see Wilbur R. Jacobs, Wilderness Politics and Indian Gifts: The Northern Colonial Frontier, 1748-1763 (Lincoln, NE, 1950), 78, 184-85.
131. "Minutes of Detroit Council, 1761," PRO, WO 34/39. See also the printed version in WJP, 3:474-93, and Johnson's notes in "Journal to Detroit, July 4-October 30, 1761," Milton W. Hamilton and Albert B. Corey, ed., WJP, vol. 13 (Albany, NY, 1962), 254-74. For the importance Indians attached to recognition from Johnson, see Wilbur R. Jacobs, Wilderness Politics and Indian Gifts: The Northern Colonial Frontier, 1748-1763 (Lincoln, NE, 1950), 78, 184-85.
132. "Minutes of Detroit Council, 1761," PRO, WO 34/39. See also the printed version in WJP, 3:474-93, and Johnson's notes in "Journal to Detroit, July 4- October 30, 1761," Milton W. Hamilton and Albert B. Corey, ed., WJP, vol. 13 (Albany, NY, 1962), 254-74. For the importance Indians attached to recognition from Johnson, see Wilbur R. Jacobs, Wilderness Politics and Indian Gifts: The Northern Colonial Frontier, 1748-1763 (Lincoln, NE, 1950), 78, 184-85.
133. Johnson, "Journal to Detroit," WJP, 13:254.
134. Johnson to Gage, 12 January 1764, GP, WLCL. On the importance of private conferences as part of Johnson's negotiating style, see Johnson to Sir Frederick Haldimand, 25 November 1773, BL Add. Mss. 21760, f. 95; and Druke, "Iroquois Treaties: Common Forms, Varying Interpretations," in Jennings et al., History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy, 87-88.
135. See, for example, John Bartram, Travels in Pensilvania and Canada (1751; rpt. Ann Arbor, MI, 1966), 50, 54. See also generally Jennings, Ambiguous Iroquois Empire, chap. 19.
136. See, for example, John Bartram, Travels in Pensilvania and Canada (1751; rpt. Ann Arbor, MI, 1966), 50, 54. See also generally Jennings, Ambiguous Iroquois Empire, chap. 19.
137. WJP, 3:484-87, 492-93, 494-97. A traditional account of the Ojibwas' reception of a "silver chain" from the British to replace the rusted and broken "steel chain" of the French appears in Peter Jones, History of the Ojebway Indians, with Especial Reference to Their Conversion to Christianity (London, 1861), 129.
138. WJP, 3:484-87, 492-93, 494-97. A traditional account of the Ojibwas' reception of a "silver chain" from the British to replace the rusted and broken "steel chain" of the French appears in Peter Jones, History of the Ojebway Indians, with Especial Reference to Their Conversion to Christianity (London, 1861), 129.
139. John W. Jordan, ed., "The Journal of James Kenny," PMHB 37 (1913): 24. For more on the history of (largely unsuccessful) Six Nations attempts to exert influence over the Ohio Valley and Great Lakes tribes, see Erminie Wheeler- Voegelin and Helen H. Tanner, Indians of Ohio and Indiana prior to 1795 (New York, 1974), 393-463.
140. John W. Jordan, ed., "The Journal of James Kenny," PMHB 37 (1913): 24. For more on the history of (largely unsuccessful) Six Nations attempts to exert influence over the Ohio Valley and Great Lakes tribes, see Erminie Wheeler-Voegelin and Helen H. Tanner, Indians of Ohio and Indiana prior to 1795 (New York, 1974), 393-463.
141. [Unknown Quaker Woman] Journal, Easton, PA, 4-12 August 1761, "Some Account of a Visit divers Friends made to the Indians at the time of the Treaty of Easton . . . ," 12, Quaker Collection, WLCL.
142. Bouquet to James Livingston, 31 October 1761, BL Add. Mss. 21653: f. 91.
143. Orders for Lieut. Elias Meyer, 12 August 1761, BL Add. Mss. 21653: f. 78.
144. D. Campbell to Amherst, 8 November 1761, PRO, WO 34/49.
145. "Lieutenant James Gorrell's Journal," Collections of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, vol. 1 (1854; rpt. Madison, WI, 1903), 26; Alexander Henry, Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories, between the Years 1760 and 1776, in Two Parts (1809; rpt. Ann Arbor, MI, 1966), 43.
146. "Lieutenant James Gorrell's Journal," Collections of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, vol. 1 (1854; rpt. Madison, WI, 1903), 26; Alexander Henry, Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories, between the Years 1760 and 1776, in Two Parts (1809; rpt. Ann Arbor, MI, 1966), 43.
147. See Daniel J. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, and Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1783 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1992), 127. Usner describes social banditry as a means for the Indians to express their displeasure with the current state of diplomatic affairs. For archaeological evidence suggesting the primarily military (rather than trading) orientation of the English western posts after 1760, see Lyle M. Stone, Fort Michilimackinac, 1715-1781: An Archaeological Perspective on the Revolutionary Frontier (Lansing, MI, 1974) 353-55.
148. See Daniel J. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, and Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1783 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1992), 127. Usner describes social banditry as a means for the Indians to express their displeasure with the current state of diplomatic affairs. For archaeological evidence suggesting the primarily military (rather than trading) orientation of the English western posts after 1760, see Lyle M. Stone, Fort Michilimackinac, 1715-1781: An Archaeological Perspective on the Revolutionary Frontier (Lansing, MI, 1974) 353-55.
149. Bouquet to Fauquier, 8 February 1762, Papers of Bouquet, vol. 6 (Harrisburg, PA, 1994), 44; Ensign Christopher Pauli to Bouquet, 19 February 1762; Stevens et al., ibid., 46; Bouquet to Amherst, 1 April 1762, ibid., 72; Francis Gordon to Bouquet, 19 September 1762, ibid., 112.
150. Bouquet to Fauquier, 8 February 1762, Papers of Bouquet, vol. 6 (Harrisburg, PA, 1994), 44; Ensign Christopher Pauli to Bouquet, 19 February 1762; Stevens et al., ibid., 46; Bouquet to Amherst, 1 April 1762, ibid., 72; Francis Gordon to Bouquet, 19 September 1762, ibid., 112.
151. Bouquet to Fauquier, 8 February 1762, Papers of Bouquet, vol. 6 (Harrisburg, PA, 1994), 44; Ensign Christopher Pauli to Bouquet, 19 February 1762; Stevens et al., ibid., 46; Bouquet to Amherst, 1 April 1762, ibid., 72; Francis Gordon to Bouquet, 19 September 1762, ibid., 112.
152. Bouquet to Fauquier, 8 February 1762, Papers of Bouquet, vol. 6 (Harrisburg, PA, 1994), 44; Ensign Christopher Pauli to Bouquet, 19 February 1762; Stevens et al., ibid., 46; Bouquet to Amherst, 1 April 1762, ibid., 72; Francis Gordon to Bouquet, 19 September 1762, ibid., 112.
153. Sterling to James Syme, 8 June 1762 (quote); same to same, 17 June 1762 (quote); Sterling to John Sterling, 26 August 1762; same to same, 2 October 1762; Sterling to John Duncan, 25 October 1762; Sterling to Capt. Walter Rutherford, 27 November 1762, Sterling Letterbook, WLCL.
154. Lieutenant Edward Jenkins to Gladwin, 29 July 1762, WJP, 10:476; Wainwright, "Croghan's Journal," 430; Jordan, "Kenny Journal," 167; Carl A. Brasseaux and Michael J. Leblanc, "Franco-Indian Diplomacy in the Mississippi Valley, 1754-1763: Prelude to Pontiac's Uprising?" Journal de la Société des Américanistes 68 (1982): 59-71.
155. Lieutenant Edward Jenkins to Gladwin, 29 July 1762, WJP, 10:476; Wainwright, "Croghan's Journal," 430; Jordan, "Kenny Journal," 167; Carl A. Brasseaux and Michael J. Leblanc, "Franco-Indian Diplomacy in the Mississippi Valley, 1754-1763: Prelude to Pontiac's Uprising?" Journal de la Société des Américanistes 68 (1982): 59-71.
156. Lieutenant Edward Jenkins to Gladwin, 29 July 1762, WJP, 10:476; Wainwright, "Croghan's Journal," 430; Jordan, "Kenny Journal," 167; Carl A. Brasseaux and Michael J. Leblanc, "Franco-Indian Diplomacy in the Mississippi Valley, 1754-1763: Prelude to Pontiac's Uprising?" Journal de la Société des Américanistes 68 (1982): 59-71.
157. Lieutenant Edward Jenkins to Gladwin, 29 July 1762, WJP, 10:476; Wainwright, "Croghan's Journal," 430; Jordan, "Kenny Journal," 167; Carl A. Brasseaux and Michael J. Leblanc, "Franco-Indian Diplomacy in the Mississippi Valley, 1754-1763: Prelude to Pontiac's Uprising?" Journal de la Société des Américanistes 68 (1982): 59-71.
158. "Return of the Garrison of Detroit and Dependent Posts, 5 September 1762," enclosed in Gladwin to Amherst, 8 September 1762, PRO, WO 34/49; "A List of the Number of Fighting Men of the Different Tribes, 1762," Shelburne Mss. 48:31, WLCL. See also John Shy, Toward Lexington: The Role of the British Army in the Coming of the American Revolution (Princeton, NJ, 1965), 99-103.
159. "Return of the Garrison of Detroit and Dependent Posts, 5 September 1762," enclosed in Gladwin to Amherst, 8 September 1762, PRO, WO 34/49; "A List of the Number of Fighting Men of the Different Tribes, 1762," Shelburne Mss. 48:31, WLCL. See also John Shy, Toward Lexington: The Role of the British Army in the Coming of the American Revolution (Princeton, NJ, 1965), 99-103.
160. "Return of the Garrison of Detroit and Dependent Posts, 5 September 1762," enclosed in Gladwin to Amherst, 8 September 1762, PRO, WO 34/49; "A List of the Number of Fighting Men of the Different Tribes, 1762," Shelburne Mss. 48:31, WLCL. See also John Shy, Toward Lexington: The Role of the British Army in the Coming of the American Revolution (Princeton, NJ, 1965), 99-103.
161. D. Campbell to Amherst, 21 June 1762, PRO, WO 34/49; Gladwin to Amherst, 23 November 1762, ibid. A mysterious fire forced the tiny garrison at St. Mary's to retreat to Fort Michilimackinac on 21 December 1762. See Captain George Etherington to Gladwin, 20 January 1763, ibid.; Todd E. Harburn, "A Most Unfortunate Officer: Lieutenant John Jamet of the 6oth Royal American Regiment," Michigan History 72, no. 2 (1988): 44-48.
162. Lieutenant Francis Gordon to Bouquet, 19 September 1762, BL Add. Mss. 21648, f. 356 (quote); Wainwright, "Croghan's Journal," 432-33 (quotes). For more on the integration of appeals to pity into the terminology of the fur trade and diplomacy between Indians and Europeans, see Bruce M. White, "Encounters with Spirits: Ojibwa and Dakota Theories about the French and Their Merchandise," Ethnohistory 41 (1994): 369-405.
163. Lieutenant Francis Gordon to Bouquet, 19 September 1762, BL Add. Mss. 21648, f. 356 (quote); Wainwright, "Croghan's Journal," 432-33 (quotes). For more on the integration of appeals to pity into the terminology of the fur trade and diplomacy between Indians and Europeans, see Bruce M. White, "Encounters with Spirits: Ojibwa and Dakota Theories about the French and Their Merchandise," Ethnohistory 41 (1994): 369-405.
164. Ensign Robert Holmes to Gladwin, 30 March 1763, enclosed in Gladwin to Amherst, 20 April 1763, PRO, WO 34/49.
165. Gladwin to Amherst, 21 February 1763, PRO, WO 34/49; Croghan to Johnson, 24 April 1763, WJP, 10:659-60.
166. Hunter, "Hay's Diary and Journal of 1760," 76-77; Jordan, "Kenny Journal," 42, 172, 175; John Heckewelder, History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Tribes Who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania and the Neighbouring States (1876; rpt. New York, 1971), 290-94; Charles E. Hunter, "The Delaware Nativist Revival of the Mid-Eighteenth Century," Ethnohistory 18 (1971): 39-49; Duane Champagne, "The Delaware Revitalization Movement of the Early 1760s: A Suggested Reinterpretation," AIQ 12 (1988): 107-26; Dowd, A Spirited Resistance, 33-36.
167. Hunter, "Hay's Diary and Journal of 1760," 76-77; Jordan, "Kenny Journal," 42, 172, 175; John Heckewelder, History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Tribes Who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania and the Neighbouring States (1876; rpt. New York, 1971), 290-94; Charles E. Hunter, "The Delaware Nativist Revival of the Mid-Eighteenth Century," Ethnohistory 18 (1971): 39-49; Duane Champagne, "The Delaware Revitalization Movement of the Early 1760s: A Suggested Reinterpretation," AIQ 12 (1988): 107-26; Dowd, A Spirited Resistance, 33-36.
168. Hunter, "Hay's Diary and Journal of 1760," 76-77; Jordan, "Kenny Journal," 42, 172, 175; John Heckewelder, History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Tribes Who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania and the Neighbouring States (1876; rpt. New York, 1971), 290-94; Charles E. Hunter, "The Delaware Nativist Revival of the Mid-Eighteenth Century," Ethnohistory 18 (1971): 39-49; Duane Champagne, "The Delaware Revitalization Movement of the Early 1760s: A Suggested Reinterpretation," AIQ 12 (1988): 107-26; Dowd, A Spirited Resistance, 33-36.
169. Hunter, "Hay's Diary and Journal of 1760," 76-77; Jordan, "Kenny Journal," 42, 172, 175; John Heckewelder, History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Tribes Who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania and the Neighbouring States (1876; rpt. New York, 1971), 290-94; Charles E. Hunter, "The Delaware Nativist Revival of the Mid-Eighteenth Century," Ethnohistory 18 (1971): 39-49; Duane Champagne, "The Delaware Revitalization Movement of the Early 1760s: A Suggested Reinterpretation," AIQ 12 (1988): 107-26; Dowd, A Spirited Resistance, 33-36.
170. Hunter, "Hay's Diary and Journal of 1760," 76-77; Jordan, "Kenny Journal," 42, 172, 175; John Heckewelder, History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Tribes Who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania and the Neighbouring States (1876; rpt. New York, 1971), 290-94; Charles E. Hunter, "The Delaware Nativist Revival of the Mid-Eighteenth Century," Ethnohistory 18 (1971): 39-49; Duane Champagne, "The Delaware Revitalization Movement of the Early 1760s: A Suggested Reinterpretation," AIQ 12 (1988): 107-26; Dowd, A Spirited Resistance, 33-36.
171. Hunter, "Hay's Diary and Journal of 1760," 76-77; Jordan, "Kenny Journal," 42, 172, 175; John Heckewelder, History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Tribes Who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania and the Neighbouring States (1876; rpt. New York, 1971), 290-94; Charles E. Hunter, "The Delaware Nativist Revival of the Mid-Eighteenth Century," Ethnohistory 18 (1971): 39-49; Duane Champagne, "The Delaware Revitalization Movement of the Early 1760s: A Suggested Reinterpretation," AIQ 12 (1988): 107-26; Dowd, A Spirited Resistance, 33-36.
172. Gregory Evans Dowd, "Thinking and Believing: Nativism and Unity in the Ages of Pontiac and Tecumseh," AIQ 16 (1992): 309-35, argues convincingly that Pontiac took the religious message of Neolin seriously.
173. "Indian Congress at Johnson Hall, 15 December 1763," WJP 10:965; Clarence Monroe Burton, ed., Journal of Pontiac's Conspiracy (Detroit, MI, 1912), 18- 30 (quote 30); Dowd, "The French King Wakes Up in Detroit," 261-63. The incineration of the Delaware village of Wyoming on 19 April 1763 (possibly caused by some persistent and bellicose Connecticut settlers) may have inspired the sending of belts to Pontiac. See Anthony F. C. Wallace, King of the Delawares: Teedyuscung, 1700-1763, 2d ed. (Syracuse, NY, 1990), 258-66. See also Jack M. Sosin, Whitehall and the Wilderness: The Middle West in British Colonial Policy, 1760-1775 (Lincoln, NE, 1961), 65-66. Sosin hypothesizes that an advertisement for a proposed interior colony called New Wales in the 21 April 1763 edition of the Pennsylvania Gazette triggered the Indians' attacks.
174. "Indian Congress at Johnson Hall, 15 December 1763," WJP 10:965; Clarence Monroe Burton, ed., Journal of Pontiac's Conspiracy (Detroit, MI, 1912), 18-30 (quote 30); Dowd, "The French King Wakes Up in Detroit," 261-63. The incineration of the Delaware village of Wyoming on 19 April 1763 (possibly caused by some persistent and bellicose Connecticut settlers) may have inspired the sending of belts to Pontiac. See Anthony F. C. Wallace, King of the Delawares: Teedyuscung, 1700-1763, 2d ed. (Syracuse, NY, 1990), 258-66. See also Jack M. Sosin, Whitehall and the Wilderness: The Middle West in British Colonial Policy, 1760-1775 (Lincoln, NE, 1961), 65-66. Sosin hypothesizes that an advertisement for a proposed interior colony called New Wales in the 21 April 1763 edition of the Pennsylvania Gazette triggered the Indians' attacks.
175. "Indian Congress at Johnson Hall, 15 December 1763," WJP 10:965; Clarence Monroe Burton, ed., Journal of Pontiac's Conspiracy (Detroit, MI, 1912), 18- 30 (quote 30); Dowd, "The French King Wakes Up in Detroit," 261-63. The incineration of the Delaware village of Wyoming on 19 April 1763 (possibly caused by some persistent and bellicose Connecticut settlers) may have inspired the sending of belts to Pontiac. See Anthony F. C. Wallace, King of the Delawares: Teedyuscung, 1700-1763, 2d ed. (Syracuse, NY, 1990), 258-66. See also Jack M. Sosin, Whitehall and the Wilderness: The Middle West in British Colonial Policy, 1760-1775 (Lincoln, NE, 1961), 65-66. Sosin hypothesizes that an advertisement for a proposed interior colony called New Wales in the 21 April 1763 edition of the Pennsylvania Gazette triggered the Indians' attacks.
176. "Indian Congress at Johnson Hall, 15 December 1763," WJP 10:965; Clarence Monroe Burton, ed., Journal of Pontiac's Conspiracy (Detroit, MI, 1912), 18- 30 (quote 30); Dowd, "The French King Wakes Up in Detroit," 261-63. The incineration of the Delaware village of Wyoming on 19 April 1763 (possibly caused by some persistent and bellicose Connecticut settlers) may have inspired the sending of belts to Pontiac. See Anthony F. C. Wallace, King of the Delawares: Teedyuscung, 1700-1763, 2d ed. (Syracuse, NY, 1990), 258-66. See also Jack M. Sosin, Whitehall and the Wilderness: The Middle West in British Colonial Policy, 1760-1775 (Lincoln, NE, 1961), 65-66. Sosin hypothesizes that an advertisement for a proposed interior colony called New Wales in the 21 April 1763 edition of the Pennsylvania Gazette triggered the Indians' attacks.
177. "Indian Congress at Johnson Hall, 15 December 1763," WJP 10:965; Clarence Monroe Burton, ed., Journal of Pontiac's Conspiracy (Detroit, MI, 1912), 18- 30 (quote 30); Dowd, "The French King Wakes Up in Detroit," 261-63. The incineration of the Delaware village of Wyoming on 19 April 1763 (possibly caused by some persistent and bellicose Connecticut settlers) may have inspired the sending of belts to Pontiac. See Anthony F. C. Wallace, King of the Delawares: Teedyuscung, 1700-1763, 2d ed. (Syracuse, NY, 1990), 258-66. See also Jack M. Sosin, Whitehall and the Wilderness: The Middle West in British Colonial Policy, 1760-1775 (Lincoln, NE, 1961), 65-66. Sosin hypothesizes that an advertisement for a proposed interior colony called New Wales in the 21 April 1763 edition of the Pennsylvania Gazette triggered the Indians' attacks.
178. "Indian Congress at Johnson Hall, 15 December 1763," WJP 10:965; Clarence Monroe Burton, ed., Journal of Pontiac's Conspiracy (Detroit, MI, 1912), 18- 30 (quote 30); Dowd, "The French King Wakes Up in Detroit," 261-63. The incineration of the Delaware village of Wyoming on 19 April 1763 (possibly caused by some persistent and bellicose Connecticut settlers) may have inspired the sending of belts to Pontiac. See Anthony F. C. Wallace, King of the Delawares: Teedyuscung, 1700-1763, 2d ed. (Syracuse, NY, 1990), 258-66. See also Jack M. Sosin, Whitehall and the Wilderness: The Middle West in British Colonial Policy, 1760-1775 (Lincoln, NE, 1961), 65-66. Sosin hypothesizes that an advertisement for a proposed interior colony called New Wales in the 21 April 1763 edition of the Pennsylvania Gazette triggered the Indians' attacks.
179. Gladwin to Amherst, 14 May 1763, Sir Jeffery Amherst Papers, WLCL (quote); Burton, Pontiac's Journal, 44-66.
180. The best narrative accounts of the siege of Detroit appear in Burton, Pantide's Journal, 54-242, and Peckham, Pontiac, 116-236. Some evidence of the rapidity of the spread of news about the attacks appears in Ecuyer to Bouquet, 29 May 1763, in Stevens et al., Papers of Bouquet, 6:193; Ecuyer mentions Delawares and Mingoes coming into Fort Pitt on 27 May 1763 and selling three hundred pounds sterling worth of furs "very hastily with which they bought as much powder and lead as they could get."
181. The best narrative accounts of the siege of Detroit appear in Burton, Pantide's Journal, 54-242, and Peckham, Pontiac, 116-236. Some evidence of the rapidity of the spread of news about the attacks appears in Ecuyer to Bouquet, 29 May 1763, in Stevens et al., Papers of Bouquet, 6:193; Ecuyer mentions Delawares and Mingoes coming into Fort Pitt on 27 May 1763 and selling three hundred pounds sterling worth of furs "very hastily with which they bought as much powder and lead as they could get."
182. The best narrative accounts of the siege of Detroit appear in Burton, Pantide's Journal, 54-242, and Peckham, Pontiac, 116-236. Some evidence of the rapidity of the spread of news about the attacks appears in Ecuyer to Bouquet, 29 May 1763, in Stevens et al., Papers of Bouquet, 6:193; Ecuyer mentions Delawares and Mingoes coming into Fort Pitt on 27 May 1763 and selling three hundred pounds sterling worth of furs "very hastily with which they bought as much powder and lead as they could get."
183. Burton, Pontiac's Journal, 40; Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac, 1:217, refers to Pontiac as the principal conspirator, "the Satan of this forest paradise." Peckham, Pontiac, 107-11, challenges the conspiracy thesis.
184. Burton, Pontiac's Journal, 40; Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac, 1:217, refers to Pontiac as the principal conspirator, "the Satan of this forest paradise." Peckham, Pontiac, 107-11, challenges the conspiracy thesis.
185. Burton, Pontiac's Journal, 40; Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac, 1:217, refers to Pontiac as the principal conspirator, "the Satan of this forest paradise." Peckham, Pontiac, 107-11, challenges the conspiracy thesis.
186. Cf. "Pontiac's War: British Forts Affected," in Atlas of Great Lakes Indian History, ed. Helen H. Tanner (Norman, OK, 1987), 49, map 10; William J. Eccles, Michael N. McConnell, and Susan Laskin, "Indian Defensive War, 1763-1764," in Historical Atlas of Canada, vol. 1, From the Beginning to 1800, ed. R. Cole Harris (Toronto, 1987), plate 44.
187. Cf. "Pontiac's War: British Forts Affected," in Atlas of Great Lakes Indian History, ed. Helen H. Tanner (Norman, OK, 1987), 49, map 10; William J. Eccles, Michael N. McConnell, and Susan Laskin, "Indian Defensive War, 1763-1764," in Historical Atlas of Canada, vol. 1, From the Beginning to 1800, ed. R. Cole Harris (Toronto, 1987), plate 44.
188. For casualty estimates see Jennings, Empire of Fortune, 446.
189. Gladwin to Amherst, 26 July 1763, Amherst Papers, WLCL. The use of such tactics had a long history in Anglo-Indian warfare. See Bernard W. Sheehan, Savagism and Civility: Indians and Englishmen in Colonial Virginia (Cambridge, 1980), 174. See also Ian K. Steele, Guerillas and Grenadiers: The Struggle for Canada, 1689-1760 (Toronto, 1969), 5.
190. Gladwin to Amherst, 26 July 1763, Amherst Papers, WLCL. The use of such tactics had a long history in Anglo-Indian warfare. See Bernard W. Sheehan, Savagism and Civility: Indians and Englishmen in Colonial Virginia (Cambridge, 1980), 174. See also Ian K. Steele, Guerillas and Grenadiers: The Struggle for Canada, 1689-1760 (Toronto, 1969), 5.
191. Amherst to Gladwin, 22 June 1763, Amherst Papers, WLCL.
192. Ibid., (quote); Amherst to Johnson, 7 July 1763, WJP, 10:733.
193. A. T. Volwiler, ed., "William Trent's Journal at Fort Pitt, 1763," MVHR 11 (1924-25): 400 (quote); Amherst to Bouquet, 7 July 1763, "Bouquet Papers," MPHSC, 19:207. See also Bernard Knollenberg, "General Amherst and Germ Warfare," MVHR 41 (1954-55): 489-94, and Donald H. Kent's rejoinder, ibid., 762-63.
194. A. T. Volwiler, ed., "William Trent's Journal at Fort Pitt, 1763," MVHR 11 (1924-25): 400 (quote); Amherst to Bouquet, 7 July 1763, "Bouquet Papers," MPHSC, 19:207. See also Bernard Knollenberg, "General Amherst and Germ Warfare," MVHR 41 (1954-55): 489-94, and Donald H. Kent's rejoinder, ibid., 762-63.
195. A. T. Volwiler, ed., "William Trent's Journal at Fort Pitt, 1763," MVHR 11 (1924-25): 400 (quote); Amherst to Bouquet, 7 July 1763, "Bouquet Papers," MPHSC, 19:207. See also Bernard Knollenberg, "General Amherst and Germ Warfare," MVHR 41 (1954-55): 489-94, and Donald H. Kent's rejoinder, ibid., 762-63.
196. A. T. Volwiler, ed., "William Trent's Journal at Fort Pitt, 1763," MVHR 11 (1924-25): 400 (quote); Amherst to Bouquet, 7 July 1763, "Bouquet Papers," MPHSC, 19:207. See also Bernard Knollenberg, "General Amherst and Germ Warfare," MVHR 41 (1954-55): 489-94, and Donald H. Kent's rejoinder, ibid., 762-63.
197. Lieutenant James MacDonald to Horatio Gates, 8 August 1763, Michigan Collection, WLCL; Sterling to John Sterling, 7 August 1763; Sterling to William MacAdam, 7 August 1763, Sterling Letterbook, WLCL.
198. Bouquet to Amherst, 6 August 1763, BL Add. Mss. 21653, f. 203; Bouquet to Lieutenant James MacDonald, 6 August 1763, in History of Colonel Henry Bouquet and the Western Frontiers of Pennsylvania, 1747-1764, ed. Mary C. Darlington (1920; rpt. New York, 1971), 202. See also Louis M. Waddell, "The American Career of Henry Bouquet, 1755-1765," Swiss American Historical Society Newsletter 17 (1981): 25-26; and, for a more balanced view, Leroy V. Eid, "'A Kind of Running Fight': Indian Battlefield Tactics in the Late Eighteenth Century," Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine (hereinafter WPHM) 71 (1988): 166-68.
199. Bouquet to Amherst, 6 August 1763, BL Add. Mss. 21653, f. 203; Bouquet to Lieutenant James MacDonald, 6 August 1763, in History of Colonel Henry Bouquet and the Western Frontiers of Pennsylvania, 1747-1764, ed. Mary C. Darlington (1920; rpt. New York, 1971), 202. See also Louis M. Waddell, "The American Career of Henry Bouquet, 1755-1765," Swiss American Historical Society Newsletter 17 (1981): 25-26; and, for a more balanced view, Leroy V. Eid, "'A Kind of Running Fight': Indian Battlefield Tactics in the Late Eighteenth Century," Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine (hereinafter WPHM) 71 (1988): 166-68.
200. Bouquet to Amherst, 6 August 1763, BL Add. Mss. 21653, f. 203; Bouquet to Lieutenant James MacDonald, 6 August 1763, in History of Colonel Henry Bouquet and the Western Frontiers of Pennsylvania, 1747-1764, ed. Mary C. Darlington (1920; rpt. New York, 1971), 202. See also Louis M. Waddell, "The American Career of Henry Bouquet, 1755-1765," Swiss American Historical Society Newsletter 17 (1981): 25-26; and, for a more balanced view, Leroy V. Eid, "'A Kind of Running Fight': Indian Battlefield Tactics in the Late Eighteenth Century," Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine (hereinafter WPHM) 71 (1988): 166-68.
201. "Deposition du nommé Charlot, sauvage française, Fort de Chartres, 27 octobre 1763," AC, CIIA, 105: ff. 416-416V.
202. J. Clarence Webster, ed., "Journal of John Montresor's Expedition to
203. Relations of Some Transactions at Detroit in Sept. and Oct. 1763, BL Add. Mss. 21655, ff. 221-22.
204. Gladwin to Gage, 9 January 1764, GP, WLCL.
205. 7 December 1763 entry, Jehu Hay, MS "Diary of the Siege of Detroit, 1763-1765," WLCL.
206. "Copy of the Embassy, sent to the Illinois by the Indians at Detroit . . . ," enclosed in Gladwin to Gage, 24 March 1764, GP, WLCL. See also Peckham, Pontiac, 147-49.
207. "Copy of the Embassy, sent to the Illinois by the Indians at Detroit . . . ," enclosed in Gladwin to Gage, 24 March 1764, GP, WLCL. See also Peckham, Pontiac, 147-49.
208. Ohio Iroquois, Delaware, and Shawnee delegates offered their French father twenty British scalps taken near Fort Pitt at Fort de Chartres, which were returned. See "Paroles des iroquoise, Loups, Chaouanons, Fort de Chartres, 2 novembre 1763," AC, CIIA, 105: ff. 410-412V; Villiers to d'Abbadie, 1 December 1763, Collections of the Illinois State Historical Library (hereinafter IHC), vol. 10 (Springfield, IL, 1915), 49-57.
209. Ohio Iroquois, Delaware, and Shawnee delegates offered their French father twenty British scalps taken near Fort Pitt at Fort de Chartres, which were returned. See "Paroles des iroquoise, Loups, Chaouanons, Fort de Chartres, 2 novembre 1763," AC, CIIA, 105: ff. 410-412V; Villiers to d'Abbadie, 1 December 1763, Collections of the Illinois State Historical Library (hereinafter IHC), vol. 10 (Springfield, IL, 1915), 49-57.
210. "Lettre de Monsieur de Neyon à Pondiak, Fort de Chartres, octobre 1763," AC, CIIA, 105: ff. 418V-419.
211. Olive P. Dickason, "Amerindians between French and English in Nova Scotia, 1713-1763," American Indian Culture and Research Journal (hereinafter AICRJ) 10, no. 4 (1986): 48-50.
212. Egremont to Amherst, 9 July 1763 (quote), Amherst Papers, WLCL; Gage to Earl of Halifax, 9 December 1763; Gage to Johnson, 12 January 1764, GP, WLCL. For the text of the proclamation, see Adam Shortt and Arthur G. Doughty, eds., Documents Relative to the Constitutional History of Canada, 1759-1791 (Ottawa, ON, 1918), 163-68. For an excellent analysis of the imperial planning behind the proclamation, see Jack Stagg, Anglo-Indian Relations in America to 1763 and an Analysis of the Royal Proclamation of 7 October 1763 (Ottawa, ON, 1981), 284-369. The Proclamation of 1763 is referred to as a "provisional arrangement" in Lords of Trade to Shelburne, PRO, Colonial Office Papers, Class 5 (hereinafter CO5) vol. 68, f. 220. See also Sosin, Whitehall and the Wilderness, 27-53, and Dwight L. Smith, "A North American Neutral Zone: Persistence of a British Idea," Northwest Ohio Quarterly 61 (1989): 48-50.
213. Egremont to Amherst, 9 July 1763 (quote), Amherst Papers, WLCL; Gage to Earl of Halifax, 9 December 1763; Gage to Johnson, 12 January 1764, GP, WLCL. For the text of the proclamation, see Adam Shortt and Arthur G. Doughty, eds., Documents Relative to the Constitutional History of Canada, 1759-1791 (Ottawa, ON, 1918), 163-68. For an excellent analysis of the imperial planning behind the proclamation, see Jack Stagg, Anglo-Indian Relations in America to 1763 and an Analysis of the Royal Proclamation of 7 October 1763 (Ottawa, ON, 1981), 284-369. The Proclamation of 1763 is referred to as a "provisional arrangement" in Lords of Trade to Shelburne, PRO, Colonial Office Papers, Class 5 (hereinafter CO5) vol. 68, f. 220. See also Sosin, Whitehall and the Wilderness, 27-53, and Dwight L. Smith, "A North American Neutral Zone: Persistence of a British Idea," Northwest Ohio Quarterly 61 (1989): 48-50.
214. Egremont to Amherst, 9 July 1763 (quote), Amherst Papers, WLCL; Gage to Earl of Halifax, 9 December 1763; Gage to Johnson, 12 January 1764, GP, WLCL. For the text of the proclamation, see Adam Shortt and Arthur G. Doughty, eds., Documents Relative to the Constitutional History of Canada, 1759-1791 (Ottawa, ON, 1918), 163-68. For an excellent analysis of the imperial planning behind the proclamation, see Jack Stagg, Anglo-Indian Relations in America to 1763 and an Analysis of the Royal Proclamation of 7 October 1763 (Ottawa, ON, 1981), 284-369. The Proclamation of 1763 is referred to as a "provisional arrangement" in Lords of Trade to Shelburne, PRO, Colonial Office Papers, Class 5 (hereinafter CO5) vol. 68, f. 220. See also Sosin, Whitehall and the Wilderness, 27-53, and Dwight L. Smith, "A North American Neutral Zone: Persistence of a British Idea," Northwest Ohio Quarterly 61 (1989): 48-50.
215. Egremont to Amherst, 9 July 1763 (quote), Amherst Papers, WLCL; Gage to Earl of Halifax, 9 December 1763; Gage to Johnson, 12 January 1764, GP, WLCL. For the text of the proclamation, see Adam Shortt and Arthur G. Doughty, eds., Documents Relative to the Constitutional History of Canada, 1759-1791 (Ottawa, ON, 1918), 163-68. For an excellent analysis of the imperial planning behind the proclamation, see Jack Stagg, Anglo-Indian Relations in America to 1763 and an Analysis of the Royal Proclamation of 7 October 1763 (Ottawa, ON, 1981), 284-369. The Proclamation of 1763 is referred to as a "provisional arrangement" in Lords of Trade to Shelburne, PRO, Colonial Office Papers, Class 5 (hereinafter CO5) vol. 68, f. 220. See also Sosin, Whitehall and the Wilderness, 27-53, and Dwight L. Smith, "A North American Neutral Zone: Persistence of a British Idea," Northwest Ohio Quarterly 61 (1989): 48-50.
216. Gage to Johnson, 12 January 1764 (quote); same to same, 6 February 1764, GP, WLCL.
217. Amherst to Gage, 17 November 1763, GP, WLCL; Joseph Shippen to James Burd, 3 January 1764, Native American History Collection, WLCL.
218. Egremont to Gage, 13 August 1763; Johnson to Gage, 14 February 1765 (Private), GP, WLCL. As late as May 1765, Johnson and Gage awaited clear orders on how to implement the 1763 boundary line, while reports of Maryland and Virginia inhabitants "removing fast over the Allegheny Mountains, in order to settle and live there," came into headquarters. See Bouquet to Gage, 19 May 1765 (quote), GP, WLCL. For more on the response of American colonists to the proclamation of 1763, see Woody Holton, "The Ohio Indians and the Coming of the Revolution in Virginia," Journal of Southern History 60 (1994): 453-78. Indeed, one of the unintended and ironic results of the proclamation of 1763 was the acceleration of speculators' activities in the Indian-claimed western lands, since they hoped to preempt any future Crown attempts contrary to their interests. See Robert A. Williams Jr., The American Indian in Western Legal Thought: The Discourses of Conquest (New York, 1990), 255-56. See also Canada, Department of Indian and Northern Affairs, Claims and Historical Research Directorate, "The Application in British North America of the Royal Proclamation, 1763-1774," typescript, Dept. of Indian and Northern Affairs, Hull, Ottawa, ON, 1971, 10-11; Robert J. Surtees, "Land Cessions, 1763-1830," in Aboriginal Ontario: Historical Perspectives on the First Nations, ed. Edward S. Rogers and Donald B. Smith (Toronto, 1994), 92-94.
219. Egremont to Gage, 13 August 1763; Johnson to Gage, 14 February 1765 (Private), GP, WLCL. As late as May 1765, Johnson and Gage awaited clear orders on how to implement the 1763 boundary line, while reports of Maryland and Virginia inhabitants "removing fast over the Allegheny Mountains, in order to settle and live there," came into headquarters. See Bouquet to Gage, 19 May 1765 (quote), GP, WLCL. For more on the response of American colonists to the proclamation of 1763, see Woody Holton, "The Ohio Indians and the Coming of the Revolution in Virginia," Journal of Southern History 60 (1994): 453-78. Indeed, one of the unintended and ironic results of the proclamation of 1763 was the acceleration of speculators' activities in the Indian-claimed western lands, since they hoped to preempt any future Crown attempts contrary to their interests. See Robert A. Williams Jr., The American Indian in Western Legal Thought: The Discourses of Conquest (New York, 1990), 255-56. See also Canada, Department of Indian and Northern Affairs, Claims and Historical Research Directorate, "The Application in British North America of the Royal Proclamation, 1763-1774," typescript, Dept. of Indian and Northern Affairs, Hull, Ottawa, ON, 1971, 10-11; Robert J. Surtees, "Land Cessions, 1763-1830," in Aboriginal Ontario: Historical Perspectives on the First Nations, ed. Edward S. Rogers and Donald B. Smith (Toronto, 1994), 92-94.
220. Egremont to Gage, 13 August 1763; Johnson to Gage, 14 February 1765 (Private), GP, WLCL. As late as May 1765, Johnson and Gage awaited clear orders on how to implement the 1763 boundary line, while reports of Maryland and Virginia inhabitants "removing fast over the Allegheny Mountains, in order to settle and live there," came into headquarters. See Bouquet to Gage, 19 May 1765 (quote), GP, WLCL. For more on the response of American colonists to the proclamation of 1763, see Woody Holton, "The Ohio Indians and the Coming of the Revolution in Virginia," Journal of Southern History 60 (1994): 453-78. Indeed, one of the unintended and ironic results of the proclamation of 1763 was the acceleration of speculators' activities in the Indian-claimed western lands, since they hoped to preempt any future Crown attempts contrary to their interests. See Robert A. Williams Jr., The American Indian in Western Legal Thought: The Discourses of Conquest (New York, 1990), 255-56. See also Canada, Department of Indian and Northern Affairs, Claims and Historical Research Directorate, "The Application in British North America of the Royal Proclamation, 1763-1774," typescript, Dept. of Indian and Northern Affairs, Hull, Ottawa, ON, 1971, 10-11; Robert J. Surtees, "Land Cessions, 1763-1830," in Aboriginal Ontario: Historical Perspectives on the First Nations, ed. Edward S. Rogers and Donald B. Smith (Toronto, 1994), 92-94.
221. Egremont to Gage, 13 August 1763; Johnson to Gage, 14 February 1765 (Private), GP, WLCL. As late as May 1765, Johnson and Gage awaited clear orders on how to implement the 1763 boundary line, while reports of Maryland and Virginia inhabitants "removing fast over the Allegheny Mountains, in order to settle and live there," came into headquarters. See Bouquet to Gage, 19 May 1765 (quote), GP, WLCL. For more on the response of American colonists to the proclamation of 1763, see Woody Holton, "The Ohio Indians and the Coming of the Revolution in Virginia," Journal of Southern History 60 (1994): 453-78. Indeed, one of the unintended and ironic results of the proclamation of 1763 was the acceleration of speculators' activities in the Indian-claimed western lands, since they hoped to preempt any future Crown attempts contrary to their interests. See Robert A. Williams Jr., The American Indian in Western Legal Thought: The Discourses of Conquest (New York, 1990), 255-56. See also Canada, Department of Indian and Northern Affairs, Claims and Historical Research Directorate, "The Application in British North America of the Royal Proclamation, 1763-1774," typescript, Dept. of Indian and Northern Affairs, Hull, Ottawa, ON, 1971, 10-11; Robert J. Surtees, "Land Cessions, 1763-1830," in Aboriginal Ontario: Historical Perspectives on the First Nations, ed. Edward S. Rogers and Donald B. Smith (Toronto, 1994), 92-94.
222. Gage to Johnson, 26 December 1763, GP, WLCL.
223. Gage to Johnson, 12 January 1764; same to same, 31 January 1764; same to same, 16 March 1764 (quote), GP, WLCL.
224. Johnson to Gage, 27 January 1764; same to same, 19 February 1764 (quote); same to same, 16 March 1764, GP, WLCL.
225. Johnson to Gage, 23 December 1763 (quote); same to same, 16 April 1764, GP, WLCL; Johnson to Bradstreet, 2 March 1764, WJP, vol. 4, ed. Alexander C. Flick (Albany, NY, 1925), 349;
226. Johnson to Cadwallader Golden, 16 March 1764, ibid., 365. Johnson to Lords of Trade, 11 May 1764, PRO CO, Class 323 (hereinafter CO 323) vol. 18, f. 20V; Johnson to Lord Halifax, 22 May 1764, PRO CO5/65, pt. 3, f. 107.
227. Most of the Huron reorganized themselves with the Petun nation and became known as the Wyandot after the Iroquois attacks on Huronia in 1649, but the Huron who resettled at Michilimackinac and later at Detroit retained their original tribal name. See James A. Clifton, "The Re-emergent Wyandot: A Study of Ethnogenesis on the Detroit River Borderland, 1747," in The Western District, ed. K. G. Pryke and L. L. Kulisek (Windsor, ON, 1983), 8-9; Susan Branstner, "Tionontate Hurons at Michilimackinac," Michigan History 73 (November-December 1989): 24-31.
228. Most of the Huron reorganized themselves with the Petun nation and became known as the Wyandot after the Iroquois attacks on Huronia in 1649, but the Huron who resettled at Michilimackinac and later at Detroit retained their original tribal name. See James A. Clifton, "The Re-emergent Wyandot: A Study of Ethnogenesis on the Detroit River Borderland, 1747," in The Western District, ed. K. G. Pryke and L. L. Kulisek (Windsor, ON, 1983), 8-9; Susan Branstner, "Tionontate Hurons at Michilimackinac," Michigan History 73 (November-December 1989): 24-31.
229. 10 June 1764 entry, Hay Diary, WLCL. Deputy Superintendent of Indian Affairs Daniel Claus described the custom of returning successful war parties giving outgoing war parties a token gift of a scalp or prisoner, so that "should they be unsuccessful they might still have some spoil to show on the way home." See Claus to Haldimand, 3 May 1779, BL Add. Mss. 21774, f. 41.
230. "Council of Three Jebbeways-Niagara, 26 May 1764," enclosed in Capt. William Browning to Gage, 1 June 1764, GP, WLCL. Johnson to Lord Hillsborough, 20 July 1768, PRO CO5/69, f. 233; Johnson to Secretary of State, 26 December 1772, PRO CO5/228, f. 115. Ojibwa peoples in the Niagara region, though often referred to as Mississauga, were part of the self-described Anishnabeg linguistic family, encompassing tribes from modern Quebec to North Dakota. See Donald B. Smith, "Who Are the Mississauga?" Ontario History 67 (1975): 211-22; Peter S. Schmalz, The Ojibwa of Southern Ontario (Toronto, 1991), 3-5.
231. "Council of Three Jebbeways-Niagara, 26 May 1764," enclosed in Capt. William Browning to Gage, 1 June 1764, GP, WLCL. Johnson to Lord Hillsborough, 20 July 1768, PRO CO5/69, f. 233; Johnson to Secretary of State, 26 December 1772, PRO CO5/228, f. 115. Ojibwa peoples in the Niagara region, though often referred to as Mississauga, were part of the self-described Anishnabeg linguistic family, encompassing tribes from modern Quebec to North Dakota. See Donald B. Smith, "Who Are the Mississauga?" Ontario History 67 (1975): 211-22; Peter S. Schmalz, The Ojibwa of Southern Ontario (Toronto, 1991), 3-5.
232. "Extrait d'une lettre de M. de Neyon, commandant aux Illinois à M. D'Abbadie, 13 mars 1764," in D'Abbadie to Minister, 29 June 1764, AC, C13A, 44: f. 92.
233. "Copie d'une lettre de M. de Neyon à M. D'Abbadie, 20 avril 1764," ibid., f. 93.
234. 9 June 1764 entry, Hay Diary, WLCL.
235. "Copy of an Indian Council held at Ft. Chartres, 15 & 17 April 1764," enclosed in Major Robert Farmar to Gage, 21 December 1764, GP, WLCL.
236. 31 December 1763, 14 February 1764, 20 February 1764, 14 March 1764, 18 March 1764, 28 April 1764, 2 June 1764, and 3 June 1764 entries, Hay Diary, WLCL.
237. 29 July 1764 entry, Hay Diary, WLCL.
238. "Instructions to Colonel Bouquet, March [?] 1764"; "Instructions for Colonel Bradstreet," enclosed in Gage to Bradstreet, 2 April 1764, GP, WLCL. See also Gage to Gladwin, 25 April 1764, GP, WLCL, for orders that any French inhabitants "proved highly culpable" in assisting and abetting the Indians' uprising "shou'd be tried and punished on the spot."
239. 1 and 4 July 1764 entries, Hay Diary, WLCL. For Indian oral tradition about the destructive effects of smallpox, see Andrew J. Blackbird, History of the Ottawa and Chippewa Indians of Michigan (1887; rpt. Petoskey, MI, 1977), 9-10.
240. "Conference with Foreign Nations, 9-14 July 1764," WJP, 4:466-88; "Journal 1764 - To Niagara - John Montresor," NYHSC 14 (1881): 167; Johnson to Lords of Trade, 30 August 1764, NYCD, 7:648. See also "A List of the Different Nations of Indians That Met Sir William Johnson at Niagara, July 1764, to Make Peace in Behalf of Their Tribes, Enclosed in a Letter from Colonel Joseph Goldthwait, to Dr. Stiles, A.D. 1766," MHSC, 1st ser., 10 (1809): 121-22.
241. "Conference with Foreign Nations, 9-14 July 1764," WJP, 4:466-88; "Journal 1764 - To Niagara - John Montresor," NYHSC 14 (1881): 167; Johnson to Lords of Trade, 30 August 1764, NYCD, 7:648. See also "A List of the Different Nations of Indians That Met Sir William Johnson at Niagara, July 1764, to Make Peace in Behalf of Their Tribes, Enclosed in a Letter from Colonel Joseph Goldthwait, to Dr. Stiles, A.D. 1766," MHSC, 1st ser., 10 (1809): 121-22.
242. "Conference with Foreign Nations, 9-14 July 1764," WJP, 4:466-88; "Journal 1764 - To Niagara - John Montresor," NYHSC 14 (1881): 167; Johnson to Lords of Trade, 30 August 1764, NYCD, 7:648. See also "A List of the Different Nations of Indians That Met Sir William Johnson at Niagara, July 1764, to Make Peace in Behalf of Their Tribes, Enclosed in a Letter from Colonel Joseph Goldthwait, to Dr. Stiles, A.D. 1766," MHSC, 1st ser., 10 (1809): 121-22.
243. "Conference with Foreign Nations, 9-14 July 1764," WJP, 4:466-88; "Journal 1764 - To Niagara - John Montresor," NYHSC 14 (1881): 167; Johnson to Lords of Trade, 30 August 1764, NYCD, 7:648. See also "A List of the Different Nations of Indians That Met Sir William Johnson at Niagara, July 1764, to Make Peace in Behalf of Their Tribes, Enclosed in a Letter from Colonel Joseph Goldthwait, to Dr. Stiles, A.D. 1766," MHSC, 1st ser., 10 (1809): 121-22.
244. Henry, Travels and Adventures, 183-84. Johnson to Halifax, 30 August 1764, PRO CO5/65, pt. 3, ff. 109-109V.
245. Gage failed to consider the unpunished massacre of twenty Moravian Indians at the hands of western Pennsylvania settlers in December 1763 as a motivating factor for the frontier raids of 1764. See "A Narrative of the Late Massacres, in Lancaster County . . . ," in The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, ed. Leonard W. Labaree vol. 11 (New Haven, CT, 1967), 47-69; John R. Dunbar, ed., The Paxton Papers (The Hague, 1957); Alden T. Vaughan, "Frontier Banditti and the Indians: The Paxton Boys' Legacy, 1763-1775," Pennsylvania History 51 (1984): 21-29.
246. Gage failed to consider the unpunished massacre of twenty Moravian Indians at the hands of western Pennsylvania settlers in December 1763 as a motivating factor for the frontier raids of 1764. See "A Narrative of the Late Massacres, in Lancaster County . . . ," in The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, ed. Leonard W. Labaree vol. 11 (New Haven, CT, 1967), 47-69; John R. Dunbar, ed., The Paxton Papers (The Hague, 1957); Alden T. Vaughan, "Frontier Banditti and the Indians: The Paxton Boys' Legacy, 1763-1775," Pennsylvania History 51 (1984): 21-29.
247. Gage failed to consider the unpunished massacre of twenty Moravian Indians at the hands of western Pennsylvania settlers in December 1763 as a motivating factor for the frontier raids of 1764. See "A Narrative of the Late Massacres, in Lancaster County . . . ," in The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, ed. Leonard W. Labaree vol. 11 (New Haven, CT, 1967), 47-69; John R. Dunbar, ed., The Paxton Papers (The Hague, 1957); Alden T. Vaughan, "Frontier Banditti and the Indians: The Paxton Boys' Legacy, 1763-1775," Pennsylvania History 51 (1984): 21-29.
248. "Niagara Conference, 17 July-4 August 1764," WJP, vol. 11 (Albany, NY, 1953), 278-324; Gage to Johnson, 31 October 1764, GP, WLCL; "Testimony of Thomas King, Sandusky, 3 October 1764," WJP, 4:552.
249. "Niagara Conference, 17 July-4 August 1764," WJP, vol. 11 (Albany, NY, 1953), 278-324; Gage to Johnson, 31 October 1764, GP, WLCL; "Testimony of Thomas King, Sandusky, 3 October 1764," WJP, 4:552.
250. Bouquet to Gage, 27 May 1764; Gage to Gladwin, 10 June 1764 (quote), GP, WLCL; "Description and History of Louisiana, Moreau de St. Méry, 1756-1806," series F. 3, vol. 25, in Report of the Canadian Archives for the Year 1905, 2 vols. (Ottawa, ON, 1906), 1:470-71. Gage's charge appears speculative, as no direct evidence of involvement on the part of Pontiac and his allies exists. See Gerald O. Haffner, ed., "Major Arthur Loftus' Journal of the Proceedings of His Majesty's Twenty-second Regiment up the River Mississippi in 1764," Louisiana History 20 (1979): 325-34; and Robert R. Rea, "Assault on the Mississippi - The Loftus Expedition, 1764," Alabama Review 26 (1973): 173-93.
251. Bouquet to Gage, 27 May 1764; Gage to Gladwin, 10 June 1764 (quote), GP, WLCL; "Description and History of Louisiana, Moreau de St. Méry, 1756- 1806," series F. 3, vol. 25, in Report of the Canadian Archives for the Year 1905, 2 vols. (Ottawa, ON, 1906), 1:470-71. Gage's charge appears speculative, as no direct evidence of involvement on the part of Pontiac and his allies exists. See Gerald O. Haffner, ed., "Major Arthur Loftus' Journal of the Proceedings of His Majesty's Twenty-second Regiment up the River Mississippi in 1764," Louisiana History 20 (1979): 325-34; and Robert R. Rea, "Assault on the Mississippi - The Loftus Expedition, 1764," Alabama Review 26 (1973): 173-93.
252. Bouquet to Gage, 27 May 1764; Gage to Gladwin, 10 June 1764 (quote), GP, WLCL; "Description and History of Louisiana, Moreau de St. Méry, 1756- 1806," series F. 3, vol. 25, in Report of the Canadian Archives for the Year 1905, 2 vols. (Ottawa, ON, 1906), 1:470-71. Gage's charge appears speculative, as no direct evidence of involvement on the part of Pontiac and his allies exists. See Gerald O. Haffner, ed., "Major Arthur Loftus' Journal of the Proceedings of His Majesty's Twenty-second Regiment up the River Mississippi in 1764," Louisiana History 20 (1979): 325-34; and Robert R. Rea, "Assault on the Mississippi - The Loftus Expedition, 1764," Alabama Review 26 (1973): 173-93.
253. Gage to Bradstreet, 25 June 1764, GP, WLCL. See also McConnell, A Country Between, 197.
254. Bradstreet to Gage, 5 August 1764 (quote); Gage to Johnson, 15 August 1764, GP, WLCL. For continued frontier attacks, see Pennsylvania Gazette, nos. 1849 (31 May 1764), 1850 (7 June 1764), 1851 (14 June 1764 [siege of Ft. Dinwiddie]), and 1853 (28 June 1764).
255. "Montresor Journal, 1764," 280-81; Thomas Mante, History of the Late War in North America, and the Islands of the West Indies, Including the Campaigns of MDCCLXIII and MDCCLXIV against His Majesty's Indian Enemies (1772; rpt. New York, 1970), 510-12; C. M. Boissonault, "Les Canadiens et la révolte de Pontiac," Revue de l'Université de Laval 2 (1948): 784-87.
256. "Montresor Journal, 1764," 280-81; Thomas Mante, History of the Late War in North America, and the Islands of the West Indies, Including the Campaigns of MDCCLXIII and MDCCLXIV against His Majesty's Indian Enemies (1772; rpt. New York, 1970), 510-12; C. M. Boissonault, "Les Canadiens et la révolte de Pontiac," Revue de l'Université de Laval 2 (1948): 784-87.
257. "Montresor Journal, 1764," 280-81; Thomas Mante, History of the Late War in North America, and the Islands of the West Indies, Including the Campaigns of MDCCLXIII and MDCCLXIV against His Majesty's Indian Enemies (1772; rpt. New York, 1970), 510-12; C. M. Boissonault, "Les Canadiens et la révolte de Pontiac," Revue de l'Université de Laval 2 (1948): 784-87.
258. "Articles of Peace, Camp at L'Ance aux Feuilles, 12 August 1764," enclosed in Bradstreet to Gage, 14 August 1764, GP, WLCL.
259. Bradstreet to Gage, 28 August 1764, GP, WLCL; "Journal of Captain Thomas Morris of His Majesty's XVII Regiment of Infantry, Detroit, 25 September 1764," in Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, ed. Reuben G. Thwaites, vol. 1 (1904; rpt. New York, 1966), 293-318. Morris got only as far as the Miamis' town before being turned back by hostile Indians. See White, The Middle Ground, 298-99.
260. Bradstreet to Gage, 28 August 1764, GP, WLCL; "Journal of Captain Thomas Morris of His Majesty's XVII Regiment of Infantry, Detroit, 25 September 1764," in Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, ed. Reuben G. Thwaites, vol. 1 (1904; rpt. New York, 1966), 293-318. Morris got only as far as the Miamis' town before being turned back by hostile Indians. See White, The Middle Ground, 298-99.
261. D'Abbadie to Minister, 30 September 1764, AC, C13A, 44: ff. 129-30.
262. "Transactions of a Congress, Detroit, 9 September 1764," enclosed in Bradstreet to Gage, 12 September 1764, GP, WLCL; "Journal of Captain Elias Dayton on an Expedition to Detroit in 1764," New Jersey Historical Society, Proceedings, 2d ser., 9 (1863-64): 178-79. For the destruction of Pontiac's peace belt, see "Montresor Journal, 1764," 284-87. Cf. Jennings, Empire of Fortune, 450. Jennings asserts that Bradstreet "forced" the western Indians to accept George III as their "father," which he believes conferred sovereignty over Indian lands and people to Great Britain.
263. "Transactions of a Congress, Detroit, 9 September 1764," enclosed in Bradstreet to Gage, 12 September 1764, GP, WLCL; "Journal of Captain Elias Dayton on an Expedition to Detroit in 1764," New Jersey Historical Society, Proceedings, 2d ser., 9 (1863-64): 178-79. For the destruction of Pontiac's peace belt, see "Montresor Journal, 1764," 284-87. Cf. Jennings, Empire of Fortune, 450. Jennings asserts that Bradstreet "forced" the western Indians to accept George III as their "father," which he believes conferred sovereignty over Indian lands and people to Great Britain.
264. "Transactions of a Congress, Detroit, 9 September 1764," enclosed in Bradstreet to Gage, 12 September 1764, GP, WLCL; "Journal of Captain Elias Dayton on an Expedition to Detroit in 1764," New Jersey Historical Society, Proceedings, 2d ser., 9 (1863-64): 178-79. For the destruction of Pontiac's peace belt, see "Montresor Journal, 1764," 284-87. Cf. Jennings, Empire of Fortune, 450. Jennings asserts that Bradstreet "forced" the western Indians to accept George III as their "father," which he believes conferred sovereignty over Indian lands and people to Great Britain.
265. "Transactions of a Congress, Detroit, 9 September 1764," enclosed in Bradstreet to Gage, 12 September 1764, GP, WLCL; "Journal of Captain Elias Dayton on an Expedition to Detroit in 1764," New Jersey Historical Society, Proceedings, 2d ser., 9 (1863-64): 178-79. For the destruction of Pontiac's peace belt, see "Montresor Journal, 1764," 284-87. Cf. Jennings, Empire of Fortune, 450. Jennings asserts that Bradstreet "forced" the western Indians to accept George III as their "father," which he believes conferred sovereignty over Indian lands and people to Great Britain.
266. Bouquet to Bradstreet, 5 September 1764, enclosed in Bouquet to Gage, 12 September 1764, GP, WLCL. For details of the frontier incidents, see Pennsylvania Gazette, nos. 1858 (9 August 1764) and 1862 (30 August 1764). See also Cyrus Cort, ed., Memorial of Enoch Brown and Eleven Scholars Who Were Massacred in Antrim Township, Franklin County, PA, by the Indians during the Pontiac War, July 26, 1764 (Lancaster, PA, 1886).
267. Bouquet to Bradstreet, 5 September 1764, enclosed in Bouquet to Gage, 12 September 1764, GP, WLCL. For details of the frontier incidents, see Pennsylvania Gazette, nos. 1858 (9 August 1764) and 1862 (30 August 1764). See also Cyrus Cort, ed., Memorial of Enoch Brown and Eleven Scholars Who Were Massacred in Antrim Township, Franklin County, PA, by the Indians during the Pontiac War, July 26, 1764 (Lancaster, PA, 1886).
268. Gage to Johnson, 2 September 1764; Johnson to Gage, 11 September 1764, GP, WLCL. Bouquet agreed with Johnson's assessment of the military motives behind the L'Ance aux Feuilles peace message. See Bouquet to Gage, 16 September 1764, GP, WLCL.
269. Johnson to Gage, 31 October 1764 (Private), GP, WLCL. Later, Johnson expressed his tacit approval of the destruction of Pontiac's belt, criticizing only Bradstreet's failure to fulfill the action signified by that gesture (i.e., the execution of Pontiac). See Johnson to Gage, 6 July 1765, GP, WLCL.
270. "At a Meeting with the Wyandots of Sandusky, Sept. 29th, 1764," enclosed in Bradstreet to Gage, 29 September 1764, GP, WLCL.
271. Bouquet to Gage, 12 September 1764; same to same, 26 September 1764; same to same, 2 October 1764 (quote); same to same, 21 October 1764; Gage to Bouquet, 25 September 1764, GP, WLCL. See also 22 October 1764 entry, Hay Diary, WLCL.
272. William Smith, An Historical Account of the Expedition against the Ohio Indians in the Year 1764 (1765; rpt. Ann Arbor, MI, 1966), 4; Edward G. Williams, ed., "The Orderly Book of Colonel Henry Bouquet's Expedition against the Ohio Indians, 1764," WPHM 42 (1959): 184.
273. William Smith, An Historical Account of the Expedition against the Ohio Indians in the Year 1764 (1765; rpt. Ann Arbor, MI, 1966), 4; Edward G. Williams, ed., "The Orderly Book of Colonel Henry Bouquet's Expedition against the Ohio Indians, 1764," WPHM 42 (1959): 184.
274. Bouquet to Gage, 15 November 1764, GP, WLCL, contains enclosures of all councils held with the Ohio tribes and Bouquet's journal of the entire expedition. Also see council proceedings in BL Add. Mss. 21655: ff. 235-45.
275. See 9 November 1764 entry in Bouquet's Journal of Occurrences, enclosed in Bouquet to Gage, 15 November 1764, GP, WLCL.
276. Johnson to Lords of Trade, 20 August 1762, WJP, 3:868 (quote); Johnson to Earl of Egremont, May [?] 1762, WJP, 10:464 (quote).
277. Johnson to Lords of Trade, 20 August 1762, WJP, 3:868 (quote); Johnson to Earl of Egremont, May [?] 1762, WJP, 10:464 (quote).
278. "Plan for the Future Management of Indian Affairs," enclosed in Lords of Trade to Johnson, 10 July 1764, NYCD, 7:637-41. Unfortunately for Johnson, the board could not even submit the plan to Parliament without the guarantee of an American revenue, and the plan ultimately foundered on the 1766 repeal of the 1765 Stamp Act. See Gage to Johnson, 2 September 1765, GP, WLCL; Marjorie G. Reid, "The Quebec Fur Traders and Western Policy, 1763-1774," Canadian Historical Review 6 (1925): 20-21; Peter Marshall, "Colonial Protest and Imperial Retrenchment: Indian Policy, 1764-1768," Journal of American Studies 5 (1971): 1-17; David R. Farrell, "Anchors of Empire: Detroit, Montreal, and the Continental Interior, 1760-1775," American Review of Canadian Studies 7 (1977): 40-41. For the responses of the colonial governors and officials in the Indian Department to the 1764 Plan, see PRO CO 323/20.
279. "Plan for the Future Management of Indian Affairs," enclosed in Lords of Trade to Johnson, 10 July 1764, NYCD, 7:637-41. Unfortunately for Johnson, the board could not even submit the plan to Parliament without the guarantee of an American revenue, and the plan ultimately foundered on the 1766 repeal of the 1765 Stamp Act. See Gage to Johnson, 2 September 1765, GP, WLCL; Marjorie G. Reid, "The Quebec Fur Traders and Western Policy, 1763-1774," Canadian Historical Review 6 (1925): 20-21; Peter Marshall, "Colonial Protest and Imperial Retrenchment: Indian Policy, 1764-1768," Journal of American Studies 5 (1971): 1-17; David R. Farrell, "Anchors of Empire: Detroit, Montreal, and the Continental Interior, 1760-1775," American Review of Canadian Studies 7 (1977): 40-41. For the responses of the colonial governors and officials in the Indian Department to the 1764 Plan, see PRO CO 323/20.
280. "Plan for the Future Management of Indian Affairs," enclosed in Lords of Trade to Johnson, 10 July 1764, NYCD, 7:637-41. Unfortunately for Johnson, the board could not even submit the plan to Parliament without the guarantee of an American revenue, and the plan ultimately foundered on the 1766 repeal of the 1765 Stamp Act. See Gage to Johnson, 2 September 1765, GP, WLCL; Marjorie G. Reid, "The Quebec Fur Traders and Western Policy, 1763-1774," Canadian Historical Review 6 (1925): 20-21; Peter Marshall, "Colonial Protest and Imperial Retrenchment: Indian Policy, 1764-1768," Journal of American Studies 5 (1971): 1-17; David R. Farrell, "Anchors of Empire: Detroit, Montreal, and the Continental Interior, 1760-1775," American Review of Canadian Studies 7 (1977): 40-41. For the responses of the colonial governors and officials in the Indian Department to the 1764 Plan, see PRO CO 323/20.
281. "Plan for the Future Management of Indian Affairs," enclosed in Lords of Trade to Johnson, 10 July 1764, NYCD, 7:637-41. Unfortunately for Johnson, the board could not even submit the plan to Parliament without the guarantee of an American revenue, and the plan ultimately foundered on the 1766 repeal of the 1765 Stamp Act. See Gage to Johnson, 2 September 1765, GP, WLCL; Marjorie G. Reid, "The Quebec Fur Traders and Western Policy, 1763-1774," Canadian Historical Review 6 (1925): 20-21; Peter Marshall, "Colonial Protest and Imperial Retrenchment: Indian Policy, 1764-1768," Journal of American Studies 5 (1971): 1-17; David R. Farrell, "Anchors of Empire: Detroit, Montreal, and the Continental Interior, 1760-1775," American Review of Canadian Studies 7 (1977): 40-41. For the responses of the colonial governors and officials in the Indian Department to the 1764 Plan, see PRO CO 323/20.
282. Johnson to Gage, 18 December 1764, GP, WLCL; Captain Louis St. Ange de Belrive to Governor Jean-Jacques Blaise d'Abbadie, 9 September 1764, NYCD, 10:1157-58; Governor Charles Philippe Aubry to Minister Dubuq, 4 February 1765, IHC, 10:429-31; Aubry to Minister, 12 February 1765, AC, C13A, 45: ff. 38-40.
283. Johnson to Gage, 18 December 1764, GP, WLCL; Captain Louis St. Ange de Belrive to Governor Jean-Jacques Blaise d'Abbadie, 9 September 1764, NYCD, 10:1157-58; Governor Charles Philippe Aubry to Minister Dubuq, 4 February 1765, IHC, 10:429-31; Aubry to Minister, 12 February 1765, AC, C13A, 45: ff. 38-40.
284. Gage to Lieutenant-Colonel John Campbell, 18 January 1765 (quote); Gage to Croghan, 30 December 1764; Gage to Lieutenant Alexander Fraser, 30 December 1764, GP, WLCL.
285. Fraser to Gage, 21 March 1765; Croghan to Gage, 22 March 1765, GP, WLCL.
286. Croghan's Journal, 28 February-11 May 1765, PRO CO5/66, f. 91.
287. Croghan to Gage, 12 May 1765, GP, WLCL; "Croghan's Journal," PRO CO5/66, f. 92.
288. W. Smith, Historical Account of the Expedition against the Ohio Indians, 34; "Croghan's Journal," PRO CO5/66, ff. 95-96.
289. W. Smith, Historical Account of the Expedition against the Ohio Indians, 34; "Croghan's Journal," PRO CO5/66, ff. 95-96.
290. "Conference with the Deputies from the Ohio, 4-14 July 1765," NYCD, 7:750-58 (quotes 753, 755; emphasis added); McConnell, A Country Between, 205-6.
291. "Conference with the Deputies from the Ohio, 4-14 July 1765," NYCD, 7:750- 58 (quotes 753, 755; emphasis added); McConnell, A Country Between, 205-6.
292. Fraser to Gage, June 1765, GP, WLCL.
293. "Indian Intelligence from Capt. Wm. Howard-Michilimackinac, 15 April 1765," enclosed in Johnson to Gage, 25 July 1765, GP, WLCL; 17 May 1765 entry and 25 May 1765 entry (quote), Hay Diary, WLCL. For nineteenth- century Ottawa tradition concerning British attempts to redefine their role as father, see Edward Jacker, "The Mental Capacity of the American Indian as Indicated by His Speech," American Catholic Quarterly Review 3 (1878): 277-78.
294. "Indian Intelligence from Capt. Wm. Howard-Michilimackinac, 15 April 1765," enclosed in Johnson to Gage, 25 July 1765, GP, WLCL; 17 May 1765 entry and 25 May 1765 entry (quote), Hay Diary, WLCL. For nineteenth-century Ottawa tradition concerning British attempts to redefine their role as father, see Edward Jacker, "The Mental Capacity of the American Indian as Indicated by His Speech," American Catholic Quarterly Review 3 (1878): 277-78.
295. Two versions of "Croghan's Journal" from 15 May to 8 October 1765 exist. The first, shorter version, prepared for persons interested in western land speculation, appears in IHC, vol. 11 (Springfield, IL, 1916), 23-37. The official journal appears, amalgamated with the shorter version, in Thwaites, Early Western Travels, 1:126-73, and intact in PRO CO5/66, ff. 101-11; IHC, 11:38- 57; and NYCD, 7:779-88. For brevity and clarity, all citations are taken from the official MS of Croghan's journal.
296. Two versions of "Croghan's Journal" from 15 May to 8 October 1765 exist. The first, shorter version, prepared for persons interested in western land speculation, appears in IHC, vol. 11 (Springfield, IL, 1916), 23-37. The official journal appears, amalgamated with the shorter version, in Thwaites, Early Western Travels, 1:126-73, and intact in PRO CO5/66, ff. 101-11; IHC, 11:38- 57; and NYCD, 7:779-88. For brevity and clarity, all citations are taken from the official MS of Croghan's journal.
297. Two versions of "Croghan's Journal" from 15 May to 8 October 1765 exist. The first, shorter version, prepared for persons interested in western land speculation, appears in IHC, vol. 11 (Springfield, IL, 1916), 23-37. The official journal appears, amalgamated with the shorter version, in Thwaites, Early Western Travels, 1:126-73, and intact in PRO CO5/66, ff. 101-11; IHC, 11:38-57; and NYCD, 7:779-88. For brevity and clarity, all citations are taken from the official MS of Croghan's journal.
298. Two versions of "Croghan's Journal" from 15 May to 8 October 1765 exist. The first, shorter version, prepared for persons interested in western land speculation, appears in IHC, vol. 11 (Springfield, IL, 1916), 23-37. The official journal appears, amalgamated with the shorter version, in Thwaites, Early Western Travels, 1:126-73, and intact in PRO CO5/66, ff. 101-11; IHC, 11:38- 57; and NYCD, 7:779-88. For brevity and clarity, all citations are taken from the official MS of Croghan's journal.
299. "Meeting with Chiefs of Ouitonons, Kecopees, Mascoutens, and Ottawas, Ft. Ouiatanon, 13 July 1765," enclosed in Gage to Johnson, 13 July 1765 (actually enclosed in Gage to Johnson, 18 August 1765 - see note on MS folder), GP, WLCL; "Croghan's Journal," PRO CO5/66, f. 102.
300. Croghan to Gage, 17 August 1765, GP, WLCL. The Creek expressed similar notions of territorial sovereignty when Lieutenant-Colonel Augustine Prevost arrived to take "possession" of West Florida in late summer 1763, advising the English "that they had only the Land lying under the guns of Pensacola, since that was all they had ceded to the Spanish." See Milo B. Howard Jr., trans., and Robert R. Rea, ed., The Memoire Justificaitif of the Chevalier Montault de Monberaut: Indian Diplomacy in British West Florida, 1763-1765 (University, AL, 1965), 10-11.
301. Croghan to Gage, 16 January 1767, Shelburne Mss. 48: 12, WLCL.
302. "Croghan's Journal," PRO CO5/66, ff. 102-3.
303. "Croghan's Journal," PRO CO5/66, ff. 103-10; J. Campbell to Gage, 25 August 1765, GP, WLCL (emphasis in original); Patricia Albers and Jeanne Kay, "Sharing the Land: A Study in American Indian Territoriality," in A Cultural Geography of North American Indians, ed. Thomas E. Ross and Tyrel G. Moore (Boulder, CO, 1987), 47-91. Shortly after the end of this conference, Pontiac himself sold at least two tracts of land bordering the Detroit River. See his deed of 3 September 1765 to George McDougall, PRO CO323/24, f. 81, and his 18 September 1765 "Grant of Land in Sandwich Township to Alexis Maisonville," National Archives of Canada, MG 19, F3.
304. "Croghan's Journal," PRO CO5/66, ff. 103-10; J. Campbell to Gage, 25 August 1765, GP, WLCL (emphasis in original); Patricia Albers and Jeanne Kay, "Sharing the Land: A Study in American Indian Territoriality," in A Cultural Geography of North American Indians, ed. Thomas E. Ross and Tyrel G. Moore (Boulder, CO, 1987), 47-91. Shortly after the end of this conference, Pontiac himself sold at least two tracts of land bordering the Detroit River. See his deed of 3 September 1765 to George McDougall, PRO CO323/24, f. 81, and his 18 September 1765 "Grant of Land in Sandwich Township to Alexis Maisonville," National Archives of Canada, MG 19, F3.
305. "Croghan's Journal," PRO CO5/66, ff. 103-10; J. Campbell to Gage, 25 August 1765, GP, WLCL (emphasis in original); Patricia Albers and Jeanne Kay, "Sharing the Land: A Study in American Indian Territoriality," in A Cultural Geography of North American Indians, ed. Thomas E. Ross and Tyrel G. Moore (Boulder, CO, 1987), 47-91. Shortly after the end of this conference, Pontiac himself sold at least two tracts of land bordering the Detroit River. See his deed of 3 September 1765 to George McDougall, PRO CO323/24, f. 81, and his 18 September 1765 "Grant of Land in Sandwich Township to Alexis Maisonville," National Archives of Canada, MG 19, F3.
306. Charles A. Bishop, "Territoriality among Northeastern Algonquians," Anthropologica 28 (1986): 51-53. Cf. the simultaneous developments between the British and the Choctaw in the Southeast in Patricia K. Galloway, "'So Many Little Republics': British Negotiations with the Choctaw Confederacy, 1765," Ethnohistory 41 (1994): 523-27.
307. Charles A. Bishop, "Territoriality among Northeastern Algonquians," Anthropologica 28 (1986): 51-53. Cf. the simultaneous developments between the British and the Choctaw in the Southeast in Patricia K. Galloway, "'So Many Little Republics': British Negotiations with the Choctaw Confederacy, 1765," Ethnohistory 41 (1994): 523-27.
308. Captain Thos. Sterling to Gage, 15 December 1765, GP, WLCL.
309. Capt. Thos. Sterling to Gage, 18 October 1765; Gage to Johnson, 30 December 1765 (quote), GP, WLCL.
310. Roberts to Johnson, 31 June [sic] 1766, ed. Alexander C. Flick, WJP, 5 (Albany, NY, 1927): 294-95.
311. "Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with Pondiac and Other Indians," NYCD, 7:854-67.
312. Cf. Jones, License for Empire, 59-60; Jennings, Empire of Fortune, 445-46; Michael J. Mullin, "Sir William Johnson's Reliance on the Six Nations at the Conclusion of the Anglo-Indian War of 1763-65," AICRJ 17, no. 4 (1993): 69-90.
313. Cf. Jones, License for Empire, 59-60; Jennings, Empire of Fortune, 445-46; Michael J. Mullin, "Sir William Johnson's Reliance on the Six Nations at the Conclusion of the Anglo-Indian War of 1763-65," AICRJ 17, no. 4 (1993): 69-90.
314. Cf. Jones, License for Empire, 59-60; Jennings, Empire of Fortune, 445-46; Michael J. Mullin, "Sir William Johnson's Reliance on the Six Nations at the Conclusion of the Anglo-Indian War of 1763-65," AICRJ 17, no. 4 (1993): 69-90.
315. Johnson to George Clinton, 12 March 1754, ed. Almon W. Lauber and Alexander C. Flick, WJP, vol. 9 (Albany, NY, 1939), 127; Guy Johnson to Haldimand, 11 January 1783, BL Add. Mss. 21678, f. 128. Cf. Pontiac's 28 July 1766 speech at Oswego, NYCD, 7:862. See also White, The Middle Ground, 122.
316. Johnson to George Clinton, 12 March 1754, ed. Almon W. Lauber and Alexander C. Flick, WJP, vol. 9 (Albany, NY, 1939), 127; Guy Johnson to Haldimand, 11 January 1783, BL Add. Mss. 21678, f. 128. Cf. Pontiac's 28 July 1766 speech at Oswego, NYCD, 7:862. See also White, The Middle Ground, 122.
317. Johnson to George Clinton, 12 March 1754, ed. Almon W. Lauber and Alexander C. Flick, WJP, vol. 9 (Albany, NY, 1939), 127; Guy Johnson to Haldimand, 11 January 1783, BL Add. Mss. 21678, f. 128. Cf. Pontiac's 28 July 1766 speech at Oswego, NYCD, 7:862. See also White, The Middle Ground, 122.
318. Jay Gitlin, "On the Boundaries of Empire: Connecting the West to Its Imperial Past," in Under an Open Sky: Rethinking America's Western Past, ed. William Cronon, George Miles, and Jay Gitlin (New York, 1992), 81-82.