Science in Isolation: American Marine Geophysics Research, 1950-1968

Physics in Perspective

Volumn 2, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 293-312

  Hamblin, Jacob Darwin ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Cold War science; Earth science; Marine geophysics; Oceanography; Plate tectonics

Indexed keywords

EID: 0346041800     PISSN: 14226944     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s000160050047     Document Type: Article

References (93)

1. Alan D. Beyerchen, Scientists Under Hitler: Politics and the Physics Community in the Third Reich (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977); David Joravsky, The Lysenko Affair (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970).
2. Alan D. Beyerchen, Scientists Under Hitler: Politics and the Physics Community in the Third Reich (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977); David Joravsky, The Lysenko Affair (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970).
3. W. Jason Morgan, "Rises, Trenches, Great Faults, and Crustal Blocks," Journal of Geophysical Research 73 (1968), 1959-1983.
4. Naomi Oreskes, "The Rejection of Continental Drift," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 18 (1988), 339-343.
5. H. W. Menard, The Ocean of Truth: A Personal History of Global Tectonics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986), p. 167.
6. Robert Muir Wood, The Dark Side of the Earth (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1985), p. 210. Wood applied the term "Russian rift" to this issue.
7. Menard (ref. 4), pp. 167, 254.
8. Larry Laudan, Beyond Positivism and Relativism: Theory, Method, and Evidence (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996), p. 240.
9. This interpretation is also supported by H. E. LeGrand, who is not eager to choose either social and cognitive interests on the part of any researcher, Russian or otherwise; see H. E. LeGrand, Drifting Continents and Shifting Theories: The Modern Revolution in Geology and Scientific Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 275-276.
10. John A. Stewart, Drifting Continents and Colliding Paradigms: Perspectives on the Geoscience Revolution (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), pp. 214, 236-237.
11. Nikolai Krementsov, Stalinist Science (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997), p. 82.
12. Wood (ref. 5), pp. 217-219. The most influential Russian with sympathies toward plate tectonics was Peter Kropotkin, whose grandfather Prince Kropotkin was a renowned anarchist. Other Russian scientists who eventually supported plate tectonics in the 1970s were L. P. Zonenshayn, V. I. Smirnov, and V. Ye. Khain.
13. Louis N. Ridenour, "Military Support of American Science, A Danger?" Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 3 (1947), p. 222.
14. Harvey Sapolsky, Science and the Navy: The History of the Office of Naval Research (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), pp. 25, 118-119
15. Jessica Wang, American Science in an Age of Anxiety: Scientists, Anticommunism, and the Cold War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), p. 254.
16. Alan T. Waterman and Robert D. Conrad, "Office of Naval Research Discusses Ridenour's Views," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 3 (1947), p. 230.
17. William Wertenbaker, The Floor of the Sea: Maurice Ewing and the Search to Understand the Earth (Boston: Little, Brown, 1974), pp. 40-41, 46.
18. Menard (ref. 4), p. 111.
19. Ibid., pp. 58-63.
20. Ibid., pp. 90, 154-161.
21. Wertenbaker (ref. 16), p. 94.
22. Stewart (ref. 9), pp. 188-189.
23. th International Limnological Congress with Notes on Finnish and Russian Oceanography," prepared by R. S. Dietz, Scientific Liaison Officer. October 17, 1956. [Hereafter ONRL-98-56] Dietz papers, SIO UCSD, Box 5, "Dietz, Robert S., ONR Technical Reports, 1956," [Dietz papers, SIO UCSD = Robert Sinclair Dietz, Papers 1954-1986, MC 36, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego], pp. 3-5.
24. Menard (ref. 4), pp. 90, 111.
25. Ibid., pp. 48-49.
26. Ibid., pp. 208, 219, 243.
27. Roger Revelle and Arthur E. Maxwell, "Heat Flow through the Floor of the Eastern North Pacific Ocean," Nature 170 (1952) 199-200. R. S. Dietz, H. W. Menard, and E. L. Hamilton, "Echograms of the Mid-Pacific Expedition," Deep-Sea Research 1 (1954), 258-272. R. W. Raitt, "Seismic-refraction Studies of the Pacific Ocean Basin," Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 67 (1956), 1623-1640.
28. Roger Revelle and Arthur E. Maxwell, "Heat Flow through the Floor of the Eastern North Pacific Ocean," Nature 170 (1952) 199-200. R. S. Dietz, H. W. Menard, and E. L. Hamilton, "Echograms of the Mid-Pacific Expedition," Deep-Sea Research 1 (1954), 258-272. R. W. Raitt, "Seismic-refraction Studies of the Pacific Ocean Basin," Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 67 (1956), 1623-1640.
29. Roger Revelle and Arthur E. Maxwell, "Heat Flow through the Floor of the Eastern North Pacific Ocean," Nature 170 (1952) 199-200. R. S. Dietz, H. W. Menard, and E. L. Hamilton, "Echograms of the Mid-Pacific Expedition," Deep-Sea Research 1 (1954), 258-272. R. W. Raitt, "Seismic-refraction Studies of the Pacific Ocean Basin," Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 67 (1956), 1623-1640.
30. Menard (ref. 4), p. 73.
31. Ronald G. Mason and Arthur D. Raff, "Magnetic Survey Off the West Coast of North America, 32° N. Latitude to 42° N. Latitude," Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, 72 (1961), 1259-1266.
32. Victor Vacquier, Arthur D. Raff, and Robert E. Warren, "Horizontal Displacements in the Floor of the Northeastern Pacific Ocean," Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 72 (1961), 1251-1258.
33. Menard to Bruce C. Heezen, March 20, 1957. Menard papers, Box 69, f. 6, "[for Ocean of Truth] Heezen 1957-1984." [Menard papers, SIO UCSD = Henry William Menard, Papers 1938-1986, MC 18, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego].
34. Heezen to Menard, March 29, 1957. Menard papers, SIO UCSD, Box 69, f. 6, "[for Ocean of Truth] Heezen 1957-1984."
35. Wood (ref. 5), p. 139.
36. J. D. H. Wiseman to Menard, November 5, 1953, and Menard to Wiseman, January 11, 1954. Menard papers, SIO UCSD, Box 2, f. 24, "Correspondence 1954."
37. Menard (ref. 4), pp. 63-64.
38. F. J. Vine and D. H. Matthews, "Magnetic Anomalies Over Oceanic Ridges," Nature 199 (1963), 947-949.
39. Wertenbaker (ref. 16), p. 147.
40. ONRL-91-55, Dietz papers, SIO UCSD, p. 1.
41. Ibid., p. 4.
42. ONRL-98-56, Dietz papers, SIO UCSD, p. 17.
43. Wertenbaker (ref. 16), p. 184.
44. ONRL-91-55, Dietz papers, SIO UCSD, p. 4.
45. Gleb Udintsev to Menard, March 12, 1960. Translation by G. Peyton. Menard papers, SIO UCSD, Box 3, f. 3, "Correspondence 1960."
46. Menard to Udintsev, September 16, 1960. Menard papers, SIO UCSD, Box 3, f. 3, "Correspondence 1960."
47. Gleb Udintsev to Menard. n.d. Translation date July 28, 1961 by G. Peyton. Menard papers, SIO UCSD, Box 3, f. 4, "Correspondence 1961."
48. Heezen to Menard, March 29, 1957. Menard papers, SIO UCSD, Box 69, f. 6, "[for Ocean of Truth] Heezen 1957-1984."
49. Menard to N. Zenkevitch, May 11, 1959. Menard papers, SIO UCSD, Box 3, f. 2, "Correspondence, 1959."
50. Menard to Zenkevitch, May 11, 1959. Menard papers, SIO UCSD, Box 3, f. 2, "Correspondence, 1959."
51. For a discussion of the search for the world-girdling rift system, see Menard (ref. 4).
52. Udintsev to Menard, n.d. Menard papers, SIO UCSD, Box 3, f. 3, "Correspondence, 1960."
53. Menard to Udintsev, February 25, 1960. Menard papers, SIO UCSD, Box 3, f. 2, "Correspondence, 1959."
54. Menard (ref. 4), pp. 59-60.
55. Bruce C. Heezen and Marie Tharp, "Physiographic Diagram of the North Atlantic," Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 67 (1956), 1704. See also Menard (ref. 2), 64.
56. Udintsev to Menard, n.d. Menard papers, SIO UCSD, Box 3, f. 3, "Correspondence, 1960."
57. Menard to Udintsev, February 25, 1960. Menard papers, SIO UCSD, Box 3, f. 2, "Correspondence, 1959."
58. Menard (ref. 4), p. 42.
59. Menard to Udintsev, February 25, 1960. Menard papers, SIO UCSD, Box 3, f. 2, "Correspondence, 1959."
60. Udintsev to Menard, July 28, 1961. Menard papers, SIO UCSD, Box 3, f. 4, "Correspondence, 1961."
61. Menard to Harrison Brown, March 11, 1963. Menard papers, SIO UCSD, Box 16, f. 3, "OST 1962-1966, Russia [Office of Science and Technology]."
62. Lawrence C. Mitchell to Menard, March 26, 1963. Menard papers, SIO UCSD, Box 16, f. 3, "OST 1962-1966, Russia [Office of Science and Technology]."
63. For a discussion of NSF's role in IGY, see J. Merton England, A Patron for Pure Science: The National Science Foundation's Formative Years, 1945-57 (Washington: National Science Foundation, 1982).
64. Menard (ref. 4), p. 167.
65. Heezen to Menard, August 29, 1960. Menard papers, SIO UCSD, Box 69, f. 6, "[for Ocean of Truth] Heezen 1957-1984."
66. ONRL-98-56, Dietz papers, SIO UCSD, p. 5.
67. See Loren R. Graham's introduction to Loren R. Graham, ed., Science and the Soviet Social Order (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990). For a Marxist perspective, see Dominique Lecourt, Proletarian Science? The Case of Lysenko (Norfolk: New Left Books, 1977), p. 102.
68. See Loren R. Graham's introduction to Loren R. Graham, ed., Science and the Soviet Social Order (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990). For a Marxist perspective, see Dominique Lecourt, Proletarian Science? The Case of Lysenko (Norfolk: New Left Books, 1977), p. 102.
69. V. V. Beloussov, "An Open Letter to J. Tuzo Wilson," Geotimes 13 (1968), p. 17.
70. Loren R. Graham, What Have We Learned About Science and Technology from the Russian Experience? (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998), pp. 93-97.
71. H. H. Hess, "History of the Ocean Basins," in A. E. J. Engel, Harold L. James, and B. F. Leonard, eds., Petrologic Studies: A Volume to Honor A. F. Buddington (New York: Geological Society of America, 1962), p. 599.
72. Laudan (ref. 7), p. 240.
73. F. J. Vine and D. H. Matthews, "Magnetic Anomalies Over Oceanic Ridges," Nature 199 (1963), 947-949.
74. For a discussion of the results of the Eltanin expedition, see William Glen, The Road to Jaramillo: Critical Years of the Revolution in Earth Science (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1982).
75. See Stewart (ref. 9) for a comprehensible account of Beloussov's theory.
76. Lynn Sykes, "Papers on Plate Tectonics." Menard papers, SIO UCSD, Box 70, f. 24 "[Ocean of Truth] Sykes, 1984."
77. J. Tuzo Wilson, "A Revolution in Earth Science," Geotimes 13 (1968), p. 16.
78. V. V. Beloussov, "An Open Letter to J. Tuzo Wilson," Geotimes 13 (1968), pp. 17-18.
79. Edward Crisp Bullard, "The Emergence of Plate Tectonics: A Personal View," Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 3 (1975), p. 21.
80. Menard (ref. 4), p. 234.
81. T. C. Chamberlin, "The Method of Multiple Working Hypotheses," Science 15 (1890), p. 92.
82. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962).
83. Menard (ref. 4), p. 273.
84. Wilson (ref. 73), p. 12.
85. Beloussov (ref. 74), p. 19.
86. Wilson, "A Reply to V. V. Beloussov," Geotimes, 13 (1968), p. 22. Kuhn's book was actually published in 1962.
87. Wood (ref. 5), pp. 214-216.
88. Lynn Sykes, "Papers on Plate Tectonics." Menard papers, SIO UCSD, Box 70, f. 24 "[Ocean of Truth] Sykes, 1984."
89. Morgan (ref. 2). Also see D. P. McKenzie and R. L. Parker, "The North Pacific: An Example of Tectonics of a Sphere," Nature 216 (1967).
90. For a discussion of "research programmes," see Imre Lakatos, "Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes," in Imre Lakatos and Alan Musgrave, eds., Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965).
91. Wilson (ref. 73), p. 16.
92. Wood (ref. 5), p. 160.
93. Ibid., p. 207.