Education for national efficiency: Constructive nationalism in North India, 1909-7916

Modern Asian Studies

Volumn 31, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 339-374

  Watt, Carey A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

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EID: 0345976842     PISSN: 0026749X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0026749x00014335     Document Type: Article

References (171)

1. Sumit Sarkar, Modern India: 1885-1947 (Madras, Bombay, Delhi, Patna: Macmillan India Limited, 1985; originally published in 1983), p. 3.
2. It is worth additionally noting that the Arya Samaj saw tremendous growth in its membership and organizational infrastructure from the 1890s through to 1920. Between 1891 and 1901 there was a 131% increase in membership with over 92,000 Aryas counted in 1901; between 1901 and 1911 the increase was 163%; from 1911 to 1921 the growth was 100% with almost 500,000 Aryas enumerated in 1921, and by 1931 there were almost 1,000,000. The Aryas were strong both in the Punjab and the United Provinces. Charles Heimsath, Indian Nationalism and Hindu Social Reform (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1964), pp. 302-3. The Servants of India grew in numbers too and although it was never a large body its influence far exceeded that of its directly-administered programmes because Society members constituted a type of vanguard who worked through many other agencies. 'It has from the outset been the general policy of the Society to work through independent organizations, either by joining existing institutions or by starting new ones. On account of this policy, the Society is at a disadvantage in writing fully about the work of its members, which cannot be separated from that of those institutions ...'. A Brief Account of the Work of The Servants of India Society, Poona, second report, 1 Jan. 1917 to 30 June 1923, Poona, April 1924 (Poona: Printed at the Aryabhushan Press, January 1924, microfilm copy at the Centre of South Asian Studies, University of Cambridge), p. 4.
3. It is worth additionally noting that the Arya Samaj saw tremendous growth in its membership and organizational infrastructure from the 1890s through to 1920. Between 1891 and 1901 there was a 131% increase in membership with over 92,000 Aryas counted in 1901; between 1901 and 1911 the increase was 163%; from 1911 to 1921 the growth was 100% with almost 500,000 Aryas enumerated in 1921, and by 1931 there were almost 1,000,000. The Aryas were strong both in the Punjab and the United Provinces. Charles Heimsath, Indian Nationalism and Hindu Social Reform (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1964), pp. 302-3. The Servants of India grew in numbers too and although it was never a large body its influence far exceeded that of its directly-administered programmes because Society members constituted a type of vanguard who worked through many other agencies. 'It has from the outset been the general policy of the Society to work through independent organizations, either by joining existing institutions or by starting new ones. On account of this policy, the Society is at a disadvantage in writing fully about the work of its members, which cannot be separated from that of those institutions ...'. A Brief Account of the Work of The Servants of India Society, Poona, second report, 1 Jan. 1917 to 30 June 1923, Poona, April 1924 (Poona: Printed at the Aryabhushan Press, January 1924, microfilm copy at the Centre of South Asian Studies, University of Cambridge), p. 4.
4. Professor C. A. Bayly, personal communication, May 1994.
5. See G. R. Searle, The Quest for National Efficiency. A Study in British Politics and Political Thought (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1971), regarding the existence of a national efficiency movement in Britain between 1900 and 1910 which included prominent Fabians such as Sidney and Beatrice Webb and George Bernard Shaw.
6. C. A. Bayly, The Local Roots of Indian Politics. Allahabad 1880- 1920 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975), pp. 2-3 and 215.
7. Literally Of our own country', but here it refers to a movement for self-sufficiency in opposition to British colonial government.
8. Sarkar, Modern India 1885-1947, p. 113.
9. His view of the Servants of India Society changed too. Use the indexes to scan comments made in vols, x to xiii (November 1909 to October 1917) of Mohandas K. Gandhi, The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi (Delhi: The Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 1963).
10. In 1890-91 there were 949 signal offices, under 3.5 million telegrams with a value of f345,000 sent, while in 1912-13 there were 7,854 signal offices and 15.5 million telegrams sent worth f717,000. Royal Commission on the Public Services, in India [1913], 'Changed Conditions of India' (since the previous Public Services Commission in 1886-87), Parliamentary Papers (henceforth P.P.), Vol. VII-1916, p. 12.
11. In 1890-91 there were 949 signal offices, under 3.5 million telegrams with a value of f345,000 sent, while in 1912-13 there were 7,854 signal offices and 15.5 million telegrams sent worth f717,000. Royal Commission on the Public Services, in India [1913], 'Changed Conditions of India' (since the previous Public Services Commission in 1886-87), Parliamentary Papers (henceforth P.P.), Vol. VII-1916, p. 12.
12. Between 1902-03 and 1911-12 the increase in the number of periodicals at the all-India level was from 691 to 2,269, a 300% increase; between 1890-91 and 1911-12 there was a seven-fold increase from 330 to 2,269). Statistical Abstract 1893-94 to 1902-03, P.P., Vol. XCIV-1905, Cd. 2299, 'Number of Printing Presses at Work, and Number of Newspapers, Periodicals, and Books Published', p. 123, and Statistical Abstract 1902-03 to 1911-12. P.P., Vol. XCVII-1914, Cd. 7078, 'Number of Printing Presses at Work, and Number of Newspapers, Periodicals, and Books Published', p. 123. One might wish to discount the effect of the print media on a society less than 10% literate but there were ways of overcoming the problem as the following comment from Gandhi illustrates: 'The Gujarati subscribers of Indian Opinion number about 800. I am aware that, for every subscriber, there are at least ten persons who read the paper with zest. Those who cannot read Gujarati have the paper read out to them'. A small original readership could thus grow exponentially which would in turn greatly facilitate the spread of knowledge. See the preface to Gandhi's Hind Swaraj (1909) in Collected Works, vol. x, p. 7.
13. Between 1902-03 and 1911-12 the increase in the number of periodicals at the all-India level was from 691 to 2,269, a 300% increase; between 1890-91 and 1911-12 there was a seven-fold increase from 330 to 2,269). Statistical Abstract 1893-94 to 1902-03, P.P., Vol. XCIV-1905, Cd. 2299, 'Number of Printing Presses at Work, and Number of Newspapers, Periodicals, and Books Published', p. 123, and Statistical Abstract 1902-03 to 1911-12. P.P., Vol. XCVII-1914, Cd. 7078, 'Number of Printing Presses at Work, and Number of Newspapers, Periodicals, and Books Published', p. 123. One might wish to discount the effect of the print media on a society less than 10% literate but there were ways of overcoming the problem as the following comment from Gandhi illustrates: 'The Gujarati subscribers of Indian Opinion number about 800. I am aware that, for every subscriber, there are at least ten persons who read the paper with zest. Those who cannot read Gujarati have the paper read out to them'. A small original readership could thus grow exponentially which would in turn greatly facilitate the spread of knowledge. See the preface to Gandhi's Hind Swaraj (1909) in Collected Works, vol. x, p. 7.
14. Between 1902-03 and 1911-12 the increase in the number of periodicals at the all-India level was from 691 to 2,269, a 300% increase; between 1890-91 and 1911-12 there was a seven-fold increase from 330 to 2,269). Statistical Abstract 1893-94 to 1902-03, P.P., Vol. XCIV-1905, Cd. 2299, 'Number of Printing Presses at Work, and Number of Newspapers, Periodicals, and Books Published', p. 123, and Statistical Abstract 1902-03 to 1911-12. P.P., Vol. XCVII-1914, Cd. 7078, 'Number of Printing Presses at Work, and Number of Newspapers, Periodicals, and Books Published', p. 123. One might wish to discount the effect of the print media on a society less than 10% literate but there were ways of overcoming the problem as the following comment from Gandhi illustrates: 'The Gujarati subscribers of Indian Opinion number about 800. I am aware that, for every subscriber, there are at least ten persons who read the paper with zest. Those who cannot read Gujarati have the paper read out to them'. A small original readership could thus grow exponentially which would in turn greatly facilitate the spread of knowledge. See the preface to Gandhi's Hind Swaraj (1909) in Collected Works, vol. x, p. 7.
15. The Leader, 21 Dec. 1911, pp. 6-7.
16. Gopal Krishna Gokhale, 'East and West in India' in G. Spiller (ed.), Inter-Racial Problems. Papers from the First Universal Races Congress Held in London in 1911 (New York: The Citadel Press, 1970), pp. 157-8.
17. Ibid., p. 161. Aside from Gokhale, there were many other prominent names - Indian and British - affiliated with the Universal Races Congress.
18. Ibid., p. 165.
19. Lajpat Rai, 'Social Efficiency' in Vijaya Chandra Joshi (ed.), Lala Lajpal Rai: Writings and Speeches, vol. one 1888-1919 (Delhi and Jullundur: University Publishers, 1966), pp. 151-9. Lajpat Rai's comments were originally published in the Modern Review in 1908.
20. Lajpat Rai, 'Social Efficiency' in Vijaya Chandra Joshi (ed.), Lala Lajpal Rai: Writings and Speeches, vol. one 1888-1919 (Delhi and Jullundur: University Publishers, 1966), pp. 151-9. Lajpat Rai's comments were originally published in the Modern Review in 1908.
21. Speeches and Writings of Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, first edition (Madras: G. A. Natesan & Co., 1919), pp. 87-9.
22. Malaviya, 'The Benares Hindu University - Why it is wanted and what it aims at', written shortly before the 1911 Imperial Durbar in Delhi, in V. A. Sundaram (ed.), Benares Hindu University, 1905 to 1935 (Benares: The Tara Printing Works, 1936), p. 27.
23. The Leader, 27 Dec. 1910, p. 3.
24. The Leader, 27 Dec. 1911, special supplement.
25. The Leader, 28 Dec. 1910, p. 3.
26. The Leader, 24, June 1910, p. 3.
27. Prem, 24 Dec. 1913, United Provinces Native Newspaper Reports (henceforth UPNNR) 1914.
28. Musafir, 15 March 1910, UPNNR 1910.
29. Trishul, 8 Sept. 1910, UPNNR 1910.
30. Abhyudaya, 3 Jan. 1914, UPNNR 1914.
31. Malaviya, 'The First Prospectus', written in 1904, in Sundaram (ed.), Benares Hindu University, p. vii.
32. Gandhi, Collected Works, vol. xiii, 'Interview to "The Madras Mail" ', 22 April 1915, pp. 54-6.
33. Lajpat Rai, 'The One Pressing Need of India', written in 1907, in Joshi (ed.), Writings and Speeches, p. 55.
34. Lajpat Rai, 'Social Efficiency', published in 1908, in ibid., p. 158.
35. Speeches and Writings of Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, p. 113.
36. Sidney and Beatrice Webb, The Webbs in Asia. The 1911-12 Travel Diary, edited and introduced by George Feaver (London and elsewhere: The Macmillan Press Ltd, 1992), Poona, 8-10 April 1912, p. 327.
37. The Servants of India Society, report 2, 1917-1923, pp. 59-61.
38. W. M. Hailey reply to Hardinge's 'Memorandum by H. E. the Viceroy Upon Questions Likely to Arise in India at the End of the War' (circulated in late August 1915 and submitted to the Secretary of State for India, Lord Crewe, in October 1915)- Delhi, 17 Sept. 1915, Hardinge Papers 116, Cambridge University Library (henceforth CUL), p. 117.
39. The Leader, 10 April 1910, p. 6.
40. The Servants of India Society, report 1, 1905-17, pp. 8-9.
41. Information about the British Indian population is from the Royal Commission on the Public Services in India [1913], pp. 11-16. Major north Indian cities include Cawnpore, Allahabad, Agra, Bareilly, and Meerut. These same cities saw slight decreases in population between 1901 and 1911 despite their long-term growth. Lucknow lost population during both periods although it was only a 1.6% decrease between 1901 and 1911 and an 8.8% decrease from 1872 to 1911. Lahore and Delhi saw tremendous growth in the two time spans - 82% and 50% growth over the long term, respectively. 'Population of Principal Towns', Statistical Abstracts 1902-03 to 1911-12, P.P., Vol. XCVII-1914, Cd. 7078, p. 278, and 'Main Statistics for Cities (including Cantonments)', Statistical Abstracts 1908-09 to 1917-18, P.P., Vol. XLIX - 1920, Cd. 725, p. 4.
42. Information about the British Indian population is from the Royal Commission on the Public Services in India [1913], pp. 11-16. Major north Indian cities include Cawnpore, Allahabad, Agra, Bareilly, and Meerut. These same cities saw slight decreases in population between 1901 and 1911 despite their long-term growth. Lucknow lost population during both periods although it was only a 1.6% decrease between 1901 and 1911 and an 8.8% decrease from 1872 to 1911. Lahore and Delhi saw tremendous growth in the two time spans - 82% and 50% growth over the long term, respectively. 'Population of Principal Towns', Statistical Abstracts 1902-03 to 1911-12, P.P., Vol. XCVII-1914, Cd. 7078, p. 278, and 'Main Statistics for Cities (including Cantonments)', Statistical Abstracts 1908-09 to 1917-18, P.P., Vol. XLIX - 1920, Cd. 725, p. 4.
43. Information about the British Indian population is from the Royal Commission on the Public Services in India [1913], pp. 11-16. Major north Indian cities include Cawnpore, Allahabad, Agra, Bareilly, and Meerut. These same cities saw slight decreases in population between 1901 and 1911 despite their long-term growth. Lucknow lost population during both periods although it was only a 1.6% decrease between 1901 and 1911 and an 8.8% decrease from 1872 to 1911. Lahore and Delhi saw tremendous growth in the two time spans - 82% and 50% growth over the long term, respectively. 'Population of Principal Towns', Statistical Abstracts 1902-03 to 1911-12, P.P., Vol. XCVII-1914, Cd. 7078, p. 278, and 'Main Statistics for Cities (including Cantonments)', Statistical Abstracts 1908-09 to 1917-18, P.P., Vol. XLIX - 1920, Cd. 725, p. 4.
44. Royal Commission on the Public Services in India [1913], 'Changed Conditions of India', pp. 11-16.
45. Ibid., pp. 13-14. See also 'Minute by Abdur Rahim' (who was a judge of the Madras High Court) dated 14 Aug. 1915, p. 397.
46. Ibid., pp. 13-14. See also 'Minute by Abdur Rahim' (who was a judge of the Madras High Court) dated 14 Aug. 1915, p. 397.
47. 'Secret note' on 'Free Elementary Education', 13 May 1911, Butler Papers, vol. 68, Mss. F 116, India Office Library.
48. The Leader, 6 March 1913, p. 5.
49. 'Summary of the Administration of Lord Hardinge of Penshurst, Viceroy and Governor-General of India, November 1910 to March 1916', Hardinge Papers 131, CUL, p. 79.
50. The Webbs in Asia, Chandan Chowki, 4 Feb. 1912, pp. 237-8.
51. The Webbs in Asia, Allahabad, 11-16 Jan. 1912, p. 219.
52. The Webbs in Asia, Poona, 8-10 April 1912, pp. 326-7.
53. 45 Ibid.
54. 'Secret note' on 'Free Elementary Education', 13 May 1911. See the longer quotation above.
55. Lajpat Rai, A History of the Arya Samaj. An Account of its Origin, Doctrines and Activities with a Biographical Sketch of the Founder, revised, expanded and edited by Sri Ram Sharma (Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, New Delhi: Orient Longmans, 1967), pp. 140-51, originally written by Lajpat Rai in 1914, and The Leader, 11 March 1913, p. 6.
56. Lajpat Rai, A History of the Arya Samaj. An Account of its Origin, Doctrines and Activities with a Biographical Sketch of the Founder, revised, expanded and edited by Sri Ram Sharma (Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, New Delhi: Orient Longmans, 1967), pp. 140-51, originally written by Lajpat Rai in 1914, and The Leader, 11 March 1913, p. 6.
57. The Webbs in Asia, Poona, 8-10 April 1912, p. 329. The Webbs' comments were based on knowledge gained in several meetings with Lajpat Rai, senior Aryas and others who knew him.
58. The Webbs in Asia, Lahore, 20 Feb. to 3 March 1912, p. 272.
59. The Leader, 5 June 1910, pp. 6-7.
60. A residential school that the orthodox or Mahatma's section of the Arya Samaj conducted along the lines of the supposed traditional schools of Hindu antiquity.
61. Lajpat Rai, History of the Arya Samaj, p. 150.
62. The Leader, 4 Jan. 1912, p. 6.
63. Lajpat Rai, History of the Arya Samaj, p. 142.
64. Kenneth W. Jones, Socio-religious Reform Movements in British India, The New Cambridge History of India, III. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 101-2. Jones does not make it clear exactly which year the Kanya Mahavidyalaya became a college but J. R. Graham states that it was after 1911 in his 'The Arya Samaj as Reformation in Hinduism with Special Reference to Caste' (Yale University Ph.D. thesis, 1942, microfilm copy at the Centre of South Asian Studies, University of Cambridge), p. 439.
65. Kenneth W. Jones, Socio-religious Reform Movements in British India, The New Cambridge History of India, III. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 101-2. Jones does not make it clear exactly which year the Kanya Mahavidyalaya became a college but J. R. Graham states that it was after 1911 in his 'The Arya Samaj as Reformation in Hinduism with Special Reference to Caste' (Yale University Ph.D. thesis, 1942, microfilm copy at the Centre of South Asian Studies, University of Cambridge), p. 439.
66. The Leader, 3 Dec. 1910, p. 7.
67. Graham, 'Arya Samaj as a Reformation', p. 439.
68. Ibid., p. 437. Graham dates the commencement of the Stri Samaj at approximately 1912.
69. For Arya women literacy was 80 individuals per 1000 versus 6 per 1000 in the general population; among Arya men the numbers were 230 per 1000 as opposed to 63 per 1000 in the rest of the population. Cited in ibid., pp. 424 and 443.
70. The Servants of India Society, report 2, 1917-23, pp. 59-61.
71. The Servants of India Society, report 1, 1905-17, p. 12.
72. Ibid.
73. Ibid., pp. 15-16.
74. Ibid.
75. Ibid., p. 16. The year 1916 needs to be confirmed; I have assumed it was 1916 because the report was written in 1917 and referred to the conference in January 'of the previous year'.
76. Arya Mitra, 16 July 1910, UPNNR 1910.
77. Abhyudaya, 21 July 1910, UPNNR 1910.
78. The Leader, 11 Feb. 1911, UPNNR 1911.
79. Abhyudaya, 8 Dec. 1912, UPNNR 1912.
80. Abhyudaya, 11 and 15 Sept. 1910, UPNNR 1910.
81. Abhyudaya, 11 Sept. 1910, UPNNR 1910.
82. Abhyudaya, 15 Sept. 1910, UPNNR 1910.
83. The Leader, 13 Sept. 1910, UPNNR 1910.
84. The Leader, 22 Sept. 1910 (the actual letter to the editor was dated 14 Sept.), p. 2.
85. The Leader, 27 Dec. 1911, special supplement, p. 8.
86. Sir M. Ismail, Dewan of Mysore, 'Madan Mohan Malaviya: Reminiscences and Appreciation', Malaviya Commemoration Volume, organized by Benares Hindu University in 1932 (Allahabad: Indian Press Ltd, c. 1932 - the exact date is not given but all of the commemorative papers were prepared for Malaviya's seventy-first birthday in 1932), p. 994.
87. Malaviya said this during a speech in the Imperial Legislative Council on 1 Oct. 1915 (the day assent for the university project was granted). Sundaram (ed.), Benares Hindu University, p. 222.
88. Malaviya, 'The Benares Hindu University - Why it is wanted and what it aims at' in Sundaram (ed.), Benares Hindu University, pp. 25-64.
89. Ibid., p. 16.
90. Ibid., p. 27.
91. About the Congress speech see Speeches and Writings of Malaviya, p. 89, and regarding the Indian Industrial Commission see B. J. Akkad, Malaviyaji (A brief life sketch of Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya) (Bombay: Vora and Co. Publishers Ltd., 1948), p. 25.
92. About the Congress speech see Speeches and Writings of Malaviya, p. 89, and regarding the Indian Industrial Commission see B. J. Akkad, Malaviyaji (A brief life sketch of Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya) (Bombay: Vora and Co. Publishers Ltd., 1948), p. 25.
93. 'The Draft Scheme of the Proposed Hindu University' in Sundaram (ed.), Benares Hindu University, pp. 68-9.
94. Ibid., p. 68.
95. This passage and information in the preceding paragraph are from Malaviya, The Benares Hindu University - Why it is wanted and what it aims at' in Sundaram (ed.), Benares Hindu University, p. 64.
96. The Leader, 19 Dec. 1911, p. 6.
97. The Leader, 4 Jan. 1912, p. 5.
98. The Leader, 28 Dec. 1911, p. 6.
99. Ibid, and The Leader, 19 Feb. 1913, p. 9.
100. Ibid, and The Leader, 19 Feb. 1913, p. 9.
101. The Leader, 8 Dec. 1911, p. 3.
102. The Leader, 24 March 1915.
103. The Leader, 1 March 1913, p. 7.
104. The Servants of India Society, report 2, 1917-23, pp. 59-61.
105. Lajpat Rai, History of the Arya Samaj, p. 148. The visitor was Myron H. Phelps. Lajpat Raj does not give the date that Phelps was at the Gurukul but it was almost certainly in 1911 since The Leader published some of Phelps' comments in December of that year.
106. Jones, Socio-religious Reform, p. 198.
107. The Leader, 16 Feb. 1910, p. 4.
108. Abhyudaya, 5 Feb. 1911, UPNNR 1911.
109. The Leader, 26 Dec. 1912, UPNNR 1912.
110. 'Summary of the Administration of Lord Hardinge', Hardinge Papers 131, CUL, p. 77.
111. The Leader, 30 Dec. 1911, p. 6., and for a more detailed account of the Government of Bombay order see The Leader, 9 Jan. 1912, p. 9.
112. The Leader, 30 Dec. 1911, p. 6., and for a more detailed account of the Government of Bombay order see The Leader, 9 Jan. 1912, p. 9.
113. The Servants of India Society, report 2, 1917-23, pp. 59-61.
114. The Servants of India Society, report 1, 1905-17, pp. 15-16.
115. Ibid.
116. Ibid, p. 17.
117. The Webbs in Asia, Lahore, 29 Feb. to 3 March 1912, p. 265.
118. Leader, 5 June 1910, pp. 6-7.
119. The Webbs in Asia, Ajmer, 19-21 March 1912, p. 306.
120. The Webbs in Asia, Baroda, 3-5 April 1912, p. 319.
121. Musafir (of Agra), 30 June 1910, UPNNR 1910.
122. The Leader, 22 Dec. 1910, p. 6.
123. A report produced by the Servants of Society in 1917 said that concern and agitation over indentured emigration reached its peak in 1913 'and threatened to set the whole of India ablaze'. Between 1900 and 1917 the United Provinces lost 107,327 individuals through the port Calcutta - a rather startling amount when you consider that in 1911 Moradabad had a population of 81,168 or Bareilly 129,462. The volume of indentured emigration from the United Provinces was higher than that of any other region of India by a significant margin. See The Servants of India Society, report 1, 1905-17, p. 9; Statistical Abstracts 1902-03 to 1911-12, P.P., Vol. XCVII - 1914, Cd. 7078, 'Population of Principal Towns', p. 278, and 'Ports of Shipment and Districts from which the Emigrants were drawn', p. 229; and Statistical Abstracts 1908-09 1917-18, P.P., Vol. XLIX - 1920, Cd. 725, 'Ports of Shipment and Provinces from which the Emigrants were drawn', p. 203.
124. A report produced by the Servants of Society in 1917 said that concern and agitation over indentured emigration reached its peak in 1913 'and threatened to set the whole of India ablaze'. Between 1900 and 1917 the United Provinces lost 107,327 individuals through the port Calcutta - a rather startling amount when you consider that in 1911 Moradabad had a population of 81,168 or Bareilly 129,462. The volume of indentured emigration from the United Provinces was higher than that of any other region of India by a significant margin. See The Servants of India Society, report 1, 1905-17, p. 9; Statistical Abstracts 1902-03 to 1911-12, P.P., Vol. XCVII - 1914, Cd. 7078, 'Population of Principal Towns', p. 278, and 'Ports of Shipment and Districts from which the Emigrants were drawn', p. 229; and Statistical Abstracts 1908-09 1917-18, P.P., Vol. XLIX - 1920, Cd. 725, 'Ports of Shipment and Provinces from which the Emigrants were drawn', p. 203.
125. A report produced by the Servants of Society in 1917 said that concern and agitation over indentured emigration reached its peak in 1913 'and threatened to set the whole of India ablaze'. Between 1900 and 1917 the United Provinces lost 107,327 individuals through the port Calcutta - a rather startling amount when you consider that in 1911 Moradabad had a population of 81,168 or Bareilly 129,462. The volume of indentured emigration from the United Provinces was higher than that of any other region of India by a significant margin. See The Servants of India Society, report 1, 1905-17, p. 9; Statistical Abstracts 1902-03 to 1911-12, P.P., Vol. XCVII - 1914, Cd. 7078, 'Population of Principal Towns', p. 278, and 'Ports of Shipment and Districts from which the Emigrants were drawn', p. 229; and Statistical Abstracts 1908-09 1917-18, P.P., Vol. XLIX - 1920, Cd. 725, 'Ports of Shipment and Provinces from which the Emigrants were drawn', p. 203.
126. A report produced by the Servants of Society in 1917 said that concern and agitation over indentured emigration reached its peak in 1913 'and threatened to set the whole of India ablaze'. Between 1900 and 1917 the United Provinces lost 107,327 individuals through the port Calcutta - a rather startling amount when you consider that in 1911 Moradabad had a population of 81,168 or Bareilly 129,462. The volume of indentured emigration from the United Provinces was higher than that of any other region of India by a significant margin. See The Servants of India Society, report 1, 1905-17, p. 9; Statistical Abstracts 1902-03 to 1911-12, P.P., Vol. XCVII - 1914, Cd. 7078, 'Population of Principal Towns', p. 278, and 'Ports of Shipment and Districts from which the Emigrants were drawn', p. 229; and Statistical Abstracts 1908-09 1917-18, P.P., Vol. XLIX - 1920, Cd. 725, 'Ports of Shipment and Provinces from which the Emigrants were drawn', p. 203.
127. The Leader, 18 Dec. 1909, p. 5.
128. The Leader, 3 March 1910, p. 6.
129. The Leader, 6 Jan. 1910, p. 2.
130. Lajpat Rai was listed as the founder of the Servants of the People Society in a footnote in Gandhi, Collected Works, vol. xi (April 1911-March 1913), p. 457, and this corresponds to other information about the organization from a Leader article of 17 Jan. 1910, p. 5 (wherein a 1907 Punjabee story was cited) which unfortunately did not list the organization's name.
131. Lajpat Rai was listed as the founder of the Servants of the People Society in a footnote in Gandhi, Collected Works, vol. xi (April 1911-March 1913), p. 457, and this corresponds to other information about the organization from a Leader article of 17 Jan. 1910, p. 5 (wherein a 1907 Punjabee story was cited) which unfortunately did not list the organization's name.
132. The Leader, 6 March 1913, p. 5.
133. Ibid., p. 6.
134. The Leader, 23 Feb. 1913, pp. 4-5.
135. The Leader, 7 April 1910, p. 3.
136. Malaviya, 'The First Prospectus' in Sundaram (ed.), Benares Hindu University, p. vii. This and the other words and phrases (from various newspapers) in the sentence were also cited earlier.
137. Lajpat Rai, 'Social Efficiency' in Joshi (ed.), Writings and Speeches, pp. 152-3.
138. Akkad, Malaviyaji, p. 51. Akkad also mentioned that Malaviya was a 'mischievous child' in his school days, p. 8.
139. Akkad, Malaviyaji, p. 51. Akkad also mentioned that Malaviya was a 'mischievous child' in his school days, p. 8.
140. Ibid., p. 51. This passage was written in Hindi although most of the book is in English. It was translated for me by Dr Bidyut Chakrabarti.
141. Lajpat Rai, History of the Arya Samaj, p. 147. For the comment about bathing in the Ganges, see Heimsath, Indian Nationalism, p. 296.
142. Lajpat Rai, History of the Arya Samaj, p. 147. For the comment about bathing in the Ganges, see Heimsath, Indian Nationalism, p. 296.
143. The Leader, 9 March 1913, p. 6.
144. The Webbs in Asia, Hardwar, 24-26 Feb. 1912, pp. 259-60.
145. Ibid.
146. Students took two other vows as well: poverty and obedience.
147. The Webbs in Asia, Hardwar, 24-26 Feb. 1912, pp. 259-60. Indeed, of the school's first two graduates one became a professor in the gurukul college and the other became editor of his father's vernacular newspaper.
148. The Servants of India Society, report 2, 1917-23, pp. 59-61.
149. Gandhi, Hind Swaraj (1909) in Collected Works, vol. x, pp. 51-2. Satyagraha literally means 'the way of truth' but is generally equated with passive resistance or non-violent non-cooperation.
150. Gandhi, Hind Swaraj (1909) in Collected Works, vol. x, pp. 51-2. Satyagraha literally means 'the way of truth' but is generally equated with passive resistance or non-violent non-cooperation.
151. Joseph S. Alter, 'Somatic Nationalism: Indian Wrestling and Militant Hinduism', Modern Asian Studies, 28, 3 (1994), pp. 572-8.
152. Joseph S. Alter, The Wrestler's Body: Identity and Ideology in North India (Berkeley, Los Angeles and Oxford: University of California Press, 1992), p. 17.
153. Nita Kumar, Artisans of Banaras. Popular Culture and Identity, 1880-1986 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), pp. 124 and 117.
154. Alter, The Wrestler's Body, p. 229. Regarding Malaviya as a brahmachari, Alter cited a 1972 Kamala Prasad Singh article in the wrestling journal Bharatiya Kushti (Indian Wrestling).
155. The Leader, 12 July 1910, p. 2.
156. The Webbs in Asia, Lahore, 29 Feb.-3 March 1912, p. 272.
157. The Leader, 17 Dec. 1911, p. 5.
158. Lajpat Rai, History of the Arya Samaj, p. 144.
159. Ibid., pp. 140 and 144.
160. 'The Draft Scheme of the Proposed Hindu University' in Sundaram (ed.), Benares Hindu University, pp. 73 and 76.
161. Malaviya, 'The Hindu University of Benares - Why it is wanted and what it aims at' in ibid., p. 61.
162. Malaviya, 'The First Prospectus of 1904' in ibid., p. 1.
163. 'Pandit Malaviya's Convocation Address' of 1919 in ibid., p. 357.
164. The Leader, 9 Dec. 1909, p. 6.
165. The Leader, 24 Aug. 1910, p. 2.
166. The Leader, 24 April 1910, p. 2.
167. 147 Ibid.
168. See The Leader, 16 Oct. 1910, p. 2 regarding the Hindi conference, and 2 Oct. 1910, p. 3, for the textbook committee.
169. See The Leader, 16 Oct. 1910, p. 2 regarding the Hindi conference, and 2 Oct. 1910, p. 3, for the textbook committee.
170. Lajpat Rai, History of the Arya Samaj, p. 143.
171. 'The Hindu University of Benares' in Sundaram (ed.), Benares Hindu University, p. 24.