The pursuit of Persian: Language in Mughal politics

Modern Asian Studies

Volumn 32, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 317-349

  Alam, Muzaffar ^a  

^a JAWAHARLAL NEHRU UNIVERSITY   (India)

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EID: 0345922435     PISSN: 0026749X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0026749X98002947     Document Type: Article

References (168)

1. Fuād Koprulu, 'Bābur - Literary Works' in Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition, vol. 1, pt 2, pp. 848-85; Mohibbul Hasan, Bābur: Founder of the Mughal Empire in India (Delhi, 1985), pp. 192-3; for a recent study of Bābur's poetry, see 'The Poetry and Autobiography of the Bābur-nāma', Journal of Asian Studies, 55, no. 3 (August 1996), pp. 635-64.
2. Fuād Koprulu, 'Bābur - Literary Works' in Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition, vol. 1, pt 2, pp. 848-85; Mohibbul Hasan, Bābur: Founder of the Mughal Empire in India (Delhi, 1985), pp. 192-3; for a recent study of Bābur's poetry, see 'The Poetry and Autobiography of the Bābur-nāma', Journal of Asian Studies, 55, no. 3 (August 1996), pp. 635-64.
3. Fuād Koprulu, 'Bābur - Literary Works' in Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition, vol. 1, pt 2, pp. 848-85; Mohibbul Hasan, Bābur: Founder of the Mughal Empire in India (Delhi, 1985), pp. 192-3; for a recent study of Bābur's poetry, see 'The Poetry and Autobiography of the Bābur-nāma', Journal of Asian Studies, 55, no. 3 (August 1996), pp. 635-64.
4. Sidi Ali Reis, The Travels and Adventures of Turkish Sidi Ali Reis, translated from the Turkish with notes by A. Vambery, reprint (Lahore, 1975), pp. 47, 49-51 and 52-3.
5. Cf. Bairam Khan, Diwan, edited by S. Husamuddin Rashidi and Muhammad Sabir with Introduction by Mahmudul Hasan Siddiqi, Karachi, Institute of Central and West Asian Studies, 1971.
6. M. A. Ghani, Pre-Mughal Persian in Hindustan (Allahabad, 1941), pp. 155-233 and 381-485, for Persian literature under the Ghaznavids and the Khaljīs and Tughlaqs.
7. Hāfiz Shīrāzī, Dīwān, edited with notes by Qazi Sajjad Husain (Delhi, 1972), p. 172.
8. For the history of Persian in the period, S. B. F. Husaini, A Critical Study of Indo-Persian Literature during Sayyid and Lodi Period, 1414-1526 (Delhi, 1988). Annemarie Schimmel, Islamic Literatures in India, part of vol. VII of Jan Gonda (ed.), A History of Indian Literature (Wiesbaden, 1973), p. 21.
9. For the history of Persian in the period, S. B. F. Husaini, A Critical Study of Indo-Persian Literature during Sayyid and Lodi Period, 1414-1526 (Delhi, 1988). Annemarie Schimmel, Islamic Literatures in India, part of vol. VII of Jan Gonda (ed.), A History of Indian Literature (Wiesbaden, 1973), p. 21.
10. For the history of Persian in the period, S. B. F. Husaini, A Critical Study of Indo-Persian Literature during Sayyid and Lodi Period, 1414-1526 (Delhi, 1988). Annemarie Schimmel, Islamic Literatures in India, part of vol. VII of Jan Gonda (ed.), A History of Indian Literature (Wiesbaden, 1973), p. 21.
11. Zahīr-ud-Dīn Muhammad Babur, Bābur-nāma, translated by A. S. Beveridge, reprint (Delhi, 1970), pp. 459-60.
12. Momin Mohiuddin, The Chancellery and Persian Epistolography under the Mughals, from Bābur to Shāhjahān, 1526-1658 (Calcutta, 1971), p. 28. Mohiuddin cites from Maulavi Muhammad Shaft's article in Oriental College Magazine (Lahore), May 1933, for a reference to a UP State Archives Document, No. 318, an edict of Sher Shah dated 947 AH.
13. Momin Mohiuddin, The Chancellery and Persian Epistolography under the Mughals, from Bābur to Shāhjahān, 1526-1658 (Calcutta, 1971), p. 28. Mohiuddin cites from Maulavi Muhammad Shaft's article in Oriental College Magazine (Lahore), May 1933, for a reference to a UP State Archives Document, No. 318, an edict of Sher Shah dated 947 AH.
14. F. Richards, The Mughal Empire: The New Cambridge History of India, 1.5 (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 11 and 19; for Shah Ismāil Safavī's help to Bābur, see Mohibbul Hasan, Bābur, pp. 40-3.
15. F. Richards, The Mughal Empire: The New Cambridge History of India, 1.5 (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 11 and 19; for Shah Ismāil Safavī's help to Bābur, see Mohibbul Hasan, Bābur, pp. 40-3.
16. Abul Fath Gīlānī, Ruq'āt-i Abul Fath Gīlānī, éd. Muhammad Bashir Husain (Lahore, 1968), pp. 116-20.
17. Riyazul Islam, A Calendar of Documents on Indo-Persian Relations, 1500-1750 (Karachi, 1979), I, pp. 117-20.
18. Abul Fazl, Akbar-nāma, ed. Agha Ahmad Ali and Abdur Rahim, III (Calcutta, 1886), p. 747; Mullā Qāti' Heravī, Tazkira Majma'-ush-Shu'arā-i Jahāngīr Shāhī, ed. Saleem Akhtar (Karachi, 1979), pp. 35 and 203.
19. Abul Fazl, Akbar-nāma, ed. Agha Ahmad Ali and Abdur Rahim, III (Calcutta, 1886), p. 747; Mullā Qāti' Heravī, Tazkira Majma'-ush-Shu'arā-i Jahāngīr Shāhī, ed. Saleem Akhtar (Karachi, 1979), pp. 35 and 203.
20. R. Islam, Calendar, I, pp. 106-7.
21. Aziz Ahmad, 'Safavid Poets and India', Iran, 14 (1976), pp. 117-32; see also Hadi Hasan, Mughal Poetry: Its Cultural and Histoncal Value (Madras, 1952), passim, and Zabihullah Safa, Tārīkh-i Adabīyāt-i Irān (Tehran, 1363), pt 1, for some Iranian poets in India.
22. Aziz Ahmad, 'Safavid Poets and India', Iran, 14 (1976), pp. 117-32; see also Hadi Hasan, Mughal Poetry: Its Cultural and Histoncal Value (Madras, 1952), passim, and Zabihullah Safa, Tārīkh-i Adabīyāt-i Irān (Tehran, 1363), pt 1, for some Iranian poets in India.
23. Aziz Ahmad, 'Safavid Poets and India', Iran, 14 (1976), pp. 117-32; see also Hadi Hasan, Mughal Poetry: Its Cultural and Histoncal Value (Madras, 1952), passim, and Zabihullah Safa, Tārīkh-i Adabīyāt-i Irān (Tehran, 1363), pt 1, for some Iranian poets in India.
24. 'Abd-un Nabī Qazwīnī, Tazkira-i Maikhāna (Tehran, 1340), p. 809.
25. 'Abd-ul-Qādir Badāonī, Muntakhab-ut-Tawārīkh, tr. W. H. Lowe, reprint (Delhi, 1973), II, p. 253.
26. R. Islam, Calendar, I, pp. 101-2, emphasis added; see also his 'Akbar's Intellectual Contacts with Iran' in Milton Israel and N. K. Wagle (eds), Islamic Culture and Society: Essays in Honour of Aziz Ahmad (Delhi, 1983), pp. 351-73, for the text of the letter.
27. R. Islam, Calendar, I, pp. 101-2, emphasis added; see also his 'Akbar's Intellectual Contacts with Iran' in Milton Israel and N. K. Wagle (eds), Islamic Culture and Society: Essays in Honour of Aziz Ahmad (Delhi, 1983), pp. 351-73, for the text of the letter.
28. Israel and Wagle (eds), Islamic Culture, p. 356.
29. Gulbadan Begum, Humāyūn-nāma, tr. A. S. Beveridge (London, 1902), p. 79.
30. Compare H. Ethé, Catalogue of the Persian Manuscripts in the Library of the India Office (Oxford, I, 1903), 322, ff. 2. Sirhindī was a reputed littérateur and philologist. Cf. his Madār ul-Afāzil, ed. Muhammad Baqar (Lahore, 1345).
31. Compare H. Ethé, Catalogue of the Persian Manuscripts in the Library of the India Office (Oxford, I, 1903), 322, ff. 2. Sirhindī was a reputed littérateur and philologist. Cf. his Madār ul-Afāzil, ed. Muhammad Baqar (Lahore, 1345).
32. Abul Fazl, Akbar-nāma, I (Calcutta, 1873), p. 271.
33. Abul Fazl, Ā'īn-i Akbarī, ed. H. Blochmann (Calcutta, I, 1872), pp. 617-80.
34. Badāonī, III, pp. 171-388; Khwāja Nizām-ud-Dīn Ahmad, Tabaqāt-i Akbar̄, ed. B. De (Calcutta, II, 1927), pp. 484-520.
35. Badāonī, III, pp. 171-388; Khwāja Nizām-ud-Dīn Ahmad, Tabaqāt-i Akbar̄, ed. B. De (Calcutta, II, 1927), pp. 484-520.
36. 'Abd-ul-Bāqī Nihāwandī, Ma'āsir-i Rahīmī, ed. H. Hosain (Calcutta, III, 1931), pp. 9-114 and 115-1576. Evidently many of these poets were also from Central Asia, but few of them could earn a coveted place in Mughal courts. Mutribī Samarqandī also notes some Central Asian Persian poets in his report on his meetings and conversations with Jāhangīr, cf. Khātirāt, ed. A. G. Mirzoyef (Karachi, 1977)
37. 'Abd-ul-Bāqī Nihāwandī, Ma'āsir-i Rahīmī, ed. H. Hosain (Calcutta, III, 1931), pp. 9-114 and 115-1576. Evidently many of these poets were also from Central Asia, but few of them could earn a coveted place in Mughal courts. Mutribī Samarqandī also notes some Central Asian Persian poets in his report on his meetings and conversations with Jāhangīr, cf. Khātirāt, ed. A. G. Mirzoyef (Karachi, 1977)
38. Cf. Nūr-ud-Dīn Jahāngīr, Tuzak-i Jahāngīrī, ed. Syud Ahmad, Allygurh (Aligarh, 1863-64), pp. 103, 245, 303, 316 and 431; Tazkirat-ush-Shu'arā, ed. Abdul Ghani Mirzoyef (Karachi, 1976), passim; Mutribī Samarqandī, Khātirāt, pp. 44, 48-9, 56-61 and 66; see also Shibli Numani, Shi'r-ul-'Ajam (Azamgarh, 1945), III, pp. 5 and 148.
39. Cf. Nūr-ud-Dīn Jahāngīr, Tuzak-i Jahāngīrī, ed. Syud Ahmad, Allygurh (Aligarh, 1863-64), pp. 103, 245, 303, 316 and 431; Tazkirat-ush-Shu'arā, ed. Abdul Ghani Mirzoyef (Karachi, 1976), passim; Mutribī Samarqandī, Khātirāt, pp. 44, 48-9, 56-61 and 66; see also Shibli Numani, Shi'r-ul-'Ajam (Azamgarh, 1945), III, pp. 5 and 148.
40. Cf. Nūr-ud-Dīn Jahāngīr, Tuzak-i Jahāngīrī, ed. Syud Ahmad, Allygurh (Aligarh, 1863-64), pp. 103, 245, 303, 316 and 431; Tazkirat-ush-Shu'arā, ed. Abdul Ghani Mirzoyef (Karachi, 1976), passim; Mutribī Samarqandī, Khātirāt, pp. 44, 48-9, 56-61 and 66; see also Shibli Numani, Shi'r-ul-'Ajam (Azamgarh, 1945), III, pp. 5 and 148.
41. Cf. Nūr-ud-Dīn Jahāngīr, Tuzak-i Jahāngīrī, ed. Syud Ahmad, Allygurh (Aligarh, 1863-64), pp. 103, 245, 303, 316 and 431; Tazkirat-ush-Shu'arā, ed. Abdul Ghani Mirzoyef (Karachi, 1976), passim; Mutribī Samarqandī, Khātirāt, pp. 44, 48-9, 56-61 and 66; see also Shibli Numani, Shi'r-ul-'Ajam (Azamgarh, 1945), III, pp. 5 and 148.
42. Compare 'Abd-ush-Shakūr Bazmī, Dāstān-i Padmāvat, ed. A. H. Abidi (Tehran, 1350). See also editor's Introduction for twelve other renderings of Padmāvat, pp. 16-26.
43. Compare 'Abd-ush-Shakūr Bazmī, Dāstān-i Padmāvat, ed. A. H. Abidi (Tehran, 1350). See also editor's Introduction for twelve other renderings of Padmāvat, pp. 16-26.
44. Compare recently edited published volumes of Aurangzeb's writings, e.g. Shaikh Abul Fath Qabil Khan, Ādāb-i 'Ālamgīrī, ed. Abdul Ghafur Chaudhari, 2 vols (Lahore, 1971); 'Ināyatullāh Khān Kashmīrī, Kalimāt-i Tayyibāt, ed. S. Azizuddin Husain (Delhi, 1982); Ashraf Khān Husainī, Ragāim-i Karāim, ed. S. Azizuddin Husain (Delhi, 1990); see also Najib Ashraf Nadvi, Muqaddima-i Ruqa'āt-i 'Ālamgir (Azamgarh, 1981).
45. Compare recently edited published volumes of Aurangzeb's writings, e.g. Shaikh Abul Fath Qabil Khan, Ādāb-i 'Ālamgīrī, ed. Abdul Ghafur Chaudhari, 2 vols (Lahore, 1971); 'Ināyatullāh Khān Kashmīrī, Kalimāt-i Tayyibāt, ed. S. Azizuddin Husain (Delhi, 1982); Ashraf Khān Husainī, Ragāim-i Karāim, ed. S. Azizuddin Husain (Delhi, 1990); see also Najib Ashraf Nadvi, Muqaddima-i Ruqa'āt-i 'Ālamgir (Azamgarh, 1981).
46. Compare recently edited published volumes of Aurangzeb's writings, e.g. Shaikh Abul Fath Qabil Khan, Ādāb-i 'Ālamgīrī, ed. Abdul Ghafur Chaudhari, 2 vols (Lahore, 1971); 'Ināyatullāh Khān Kashmīrī, Kalimāt-i Tayyibāt, ed. S. Azizuddin Husain (Delhi, 1982); Ashraf Khān Husainī, Ragāim-i Karāim, ed. S. Azizuddin Husain (Delhi, 1990); see also Najib Ashraf Nadvi, Muqaddima-i Ruqa'āt-i 'Ālamgir (Azamgarh, 1981).
47. Compare recently edited published volumes of Aurangzeb's writings, e.g. Shaikh Abul Fath Qabil Khan, Ādāb-i 'Ālamgīrī, ed. Abdul Ghafur Chaudhari, 2 vols (Lahore, 1971); 'Ināyatullāh Khān Kashmīrī, Kalimāt-i Tayyibāt, ed. S. Azizuddin Husain (Delhi, 1982); Ashraf Khān Husainī, Ragāim-i Karāim, ed. S. Azizuddin Husain (Delhi, 1990); see also Najib Ashraf Nadvi, Muqaddima-i Ruqa'āt-i 'Ālamgir (Azamgarh, 1981).
48. Ghulām Husain Tabatabā'ī, Siyar-ul-Muta'akhkhirīn (Lucknow, 1876), I, p. 200.
49. Hamid-ud-Dīn, Ālamgīrī-i 'Ālamgīrī, ed. and tr. J. N. Sarkar (Calcutta, 1912), p. 53.
50. Badāonī, III.
51. Abul Fazl, Ā'īn, I, pp. 201-2; see also N. N. Law, Promotion of Learning in India during Mohammadan Rule (London, 1916), pp. 161-71.
52. Abul Fazl, Ā'īn, I, pp. 201-2; see also N. N. Law, Promotion of Learning in India during Mohammadan Rule (London, 1916), pp. 161-71.
53. Bālkrishan, Arzdāsht . . ., Br. M. Add. 16859 cited in Mohiuddin, Chancellery, p. 41; see also Syed Muhammad Abdullah, Adabīyāt-i Fārsī men Hindū-on kā Hissa (Lahore, 1967), pp. 240-3.
54. Bālkrishan, Arzdāsht . . ., Br. M. Add. 16859 cited in Mohiuddin, Chancellery, p. 41; see also Syed Muhammad Abdullah, Adabīyāt-i Fārsī men Hindū-on kā Hissa (Lahore, 1967), pp. 240-3.
55. Bālkrishan, Arzdāsht . . ., Br. M. Add. 16859 cited in Mohiuddin, Chancellery, p. 41; see also Syed Muhammad Abdullah, Adabīyāt-i Fārsī men Hindū-on kā Hissa (Lahore, 1967), pp. 240-3.
56. Ibid., p. 42.
57. Abul Hasanat Nadvi, Hindustān kī Qadīm Islamī Darsgāhēn (Azamgarh, 1971), Pp. 28-9; Abdullah, Adabīyāt, p. 240.
58. Abul Hasanat Nadvi, Hindustān kī Qadīm Islamī Darsgāhēn (Azamgarh, 1971), Pp. 28-9; Abdullah, Adabīyāt, p. 240.
59. Bābur-nāma, p. 518.
60. Chandrabhān Brahman, Chār Chaman, cited in Abdullah, Adabīyāt, pp. 241-3.
61. Chandrabhān Brahman, Chār Chaman, cited in Abdullah, Adabīyāt, pp. 241-3.
62. For an analysis, see Mohiuddin, Chancellery, pp. 215-20.
63. Muhammad Abdul Hamid Faruqui, Chandra Bhān Brahman: Life and Works with a Critical Edition of his Dīwān (Ahmadabad, 1966); for his prose, see Mohiuddin, Chancellery, pp. 228-34.
64. Muhammad Abdul Hamid Faruqui, Chandra Bhān Brahman: Life and Works with a Critical Edition of his Dīwān (Ahmadabad, 1966); for his prose, see Mohiuddin, Chancellery, pp. 228-34.
65. Abdullah, Adabīyāt, pp. 121-68.
66. Even in Bengal, the administrative papers prepared and issued in the name of the local Hindu intermediaries were in Persian. Persian inshā, indeed, had influenced the Bengali prose, Promesh Acharya, 'Pedagogy and Social Learning: Tol and Pāthsāla in Bengal', Studies in History (New Series), 10, 2 (July-December 1994), pp. 255-72.
67. Badāonī, II, pp. 285.
68. Inshā-i Abul Fazl (Lucknow, I, 1280 AH), pp. 57-67; Majma'-ul-Inshd of Muhammad Amīn Banī Isrāil, MS Paris, Persian Supplement, 461, ff. 38a-41a.
69. Inshā-i Abul Fazl (Lucknow, I, 1280 AH), pp. 57-67; Majma'-ul-Inshd of Muhammad Amīn Banī Isrāil, MS Paris, Persian Supplement, 461, ff. 38a-41a.
70. Compare Gopāl bin Govind's Preface to his Persian translation of Rāmāyana, Paris, MS, Blochet, I, 222.
71. Mir Jamāl-ud-Dīn Husain Injū Shīrazī, Farhang-i Jahāngīrī, ed. Rahīm Afifi, 3 vols (Meshhed, 1972), I, pp. 14-22; Sirāj-ud-Dīn Alī Khān Ārzū, Muthmir, ed. Rehana Khatoon (Karachi, 1991), pp. 6, 7 and 14-17.
72. Mir Jamāl-ud-Dīn Husain Injū Shīrazī, Farhang-i Jahāngīrī, ed. Rahīm Afifi, 3 vols (Meshhed, 1972), I, pp. 14-22; Sirāj-ud-Dīn Alī Khān Ārzū, Muthmir, ed. Rehana Khatoon (Karachi, 1991), pp. 6, 7 and 14-17.
73. Ibid., pp. 4 and 10.
74. Hujjat-ul-Hind, British Museum, Add. 5602, ff. 11.
75. Mirzā Muhammad Bakhsh 'Āshūb', Tarikh-i Shahādat-i Farrukh Siyar wa Julūs-i Muhammad Shah, Br. M. Or. 1832, ff. 726.
76. For Persian's position in the East India Company territories in the late eight-eenth century, see Bernard Cohn, 'The Command of Language and the Language of Command' in Ranajit Guha (ed.), Subaltern Studies IV: Writings on South Asian History and Society (Delhi, 1985), pp. 284-95.
77. Mirzā Asadullāh Khan Ghālib, Kulliyāt-i Ghālib, ed. Syed Murtaza Husain (Lahore, 1967), vol. 1, p. 161.
78. S. M. Kamal, Hyderabad men Urdū kā Irtiqā (Hyderabad, 1990), p. 102.
79. Compare Amīr Khusrau, Nuh Siphr, ed. Wahid Mirza (Oxford, 1950), Preface and p. 173.
80. Sirāj-ud-Dīn 'Alī Khān Ārzū, Nawādir-ul-Alfāz, Preface cited in Syed Muhammad Abdullah, Mabāhis (Delhi, 1968), pt I, p. 75.
81. Sirāj-ud-Dīn 'Alī Khān Ārzū, Nawādir-ul-Alfāz, Preface cited in Syed Muhammad Abdullah, Mabāhis (Delhi, 1968), pt I, p. 75.
82. Mirza Khan bin Fakhr-ud-Dīn Muhammad, Tuhfat-ul-Hind, ed. Nurul Hasan Ansari (Tehran, 1356), vol. I, pp. 51-2.
83. Jalāl-ud-Dīn Rūmī, Masnawī-ye Maulāna Rūm, ed. Qazi Sajjad Husain, II (Delhi, 1976), p. 173. For Akbar's administration and fondness for the Masnawī, Abul Fazl, Akbar-nāma, I, p. 271.
84. Jalāl-ud-Dīn Rūmī, Masnawī-ye Maulāna Rūm, ed. Qazi Sajjad Husain, II (Delhi, 1976), p. 173. For Akbar's administration and fondness for the Masnawī, Abul Fazl, Akbar-nāma, I, p. 271.
85. Abul Faiz Faizī Faiyāzī, Dīwān, ed. A. D. Arshad (Lahore, 1362), p. 470.
86. Muhammad Jamāl-ud-Dīn 'Urfī Shīrāzī, Kulliyāt, ed. Jawahiri Vajdi (Tehran, 3rd reprint, 1369), p. 152.
87. Faizī, Dīwān, p. 53.
88. 'Urfī Shīrāzī, Dīwān (Kanpur, 1915), p. 44.
89. Nāsir 'Alī Sirhindi, Diwan (Lucknow, 1872), p. 15.
90. Tālib Āmulī, Kulliyāt-Ash'är-i Malik-ush-Shu'rā Tālib Āmulī, ed. Tahiri Shihab (Tehran, 1967), p. 668.
91. 'Urfī Shīrāzī, Dīwān, p. 3.
92. H. Blockmann's Preface to his translation of the Ā'īn-i Akbarī, I (reprint, Delhi, 1965).
93. S. A. A. Rizvi, Religious and Intellectual History of the Muslims in Akbar's Reign (Delhi, 1975), pp. 203-22; F. Mujtabai, Aspects of Hindu-Muslim Cultural Relations (Delhi, 1978), pp. 60-91, for a brief description of Persian translations of religious texts.
94. S. A. A. Rizvi, Religious and Intellectual History of the Muslims in Akbar's Reign (Delhi, 1975), pp. 203-22; F. Mujtabai, Aspects of Hindu-Muslim Cultural Relations (Delhi, 1978), pp. 60-91, for a brief description of Persian translations of religious texts.
95. Amīr Khusrau, Dibācha-i Dīwān Ghurrat al-Kamāl, ed. S. Ali Haider (Patna, 1988), p. 92; Wahid Mirza, The Life and Works of Amīr Khusrau (Calcutta, 1935), p. 160.
96. Amīr Khusrau, Dibācha-i Dīwān Ghurrat al-Kamāl, ed. S. Ali Haider (Patna, 1988), p. 92; Wahid Mirza, The Life and Works of Amīr Khusrau (Calcutta, 1935), p. 160.
97. Mohiuddin, Chancellery, p. 23. Later, however, Watwat's Hadāiq-us-Sihr inspired Warasta's Matla'-us-Sa'dain. Cf. Abdullah, Adabīyāt, p. 144.
98. Mohiuddin, Chancellery, p. 23. Later, however, Watwat's Hadāiq-us-Sihr inspired Warasta's Matla'-us-Sa'dain. Cf. Abdullah, Adabīyāt, p. 144.
99. Mohiuddin, Chancellery, p. 23. Later, however, Watwat's Hadāiq-us-Sihr inspired Warasta's Matla'-us-Sa'dain. Cf. Abdullah, Adabīyāt, p. 144.
100. Husaini, Indo-Persian Literature, pp. 201-26.
101. Injū Shīrāzī, Farhang-i Jahāngīrī, Preface, p. 4.
102. Zahuruddin Ahmad, Pakistān men Fārsī Adab kī Tārīkh (Jahāngīr to Aurangzeb) (Lahore, 1974), p. 542.
103. Cf. a selection (intikhāb) of the work, India Office Library, London, MS., I.O. 4015.
104. Cf. Suhuf-i Ibrāhīm (portion dealing with the accounts of the twelfth century AH), ed. A. R. Bedar (Patna, 1981).
105. S. Abdullah, Adabīyāt, pp. 169-84.
106. Abdul Ghani, 'Tanqīdī Shu'ūr kā Irtiqā' in Maqbul Beg Badakhshani (ed.), Tārīkh-i Adabīyāt-i Musalmānān-i Hind-o-Pāk (Lahore, 1976), pp. 455-61.
107. Abul Fazl, Akbar-nāma, II (Calcutta, 1879), p. 381.
108. Faizi, Dīwān, p. 405.
109. Muhammad Tāhir Ghanī Kashmīrī, Diwan (Lucknow, 1931), p. 101.
110. Nihāwandi, Ma'āsir-i Rahīmī, p. 848; Shibli Numani, Shi'r-ul-'Ajam, IV, p. 21; Abdullah, 'Tāza-gū'ī: Ek Adabī Tahrīk' in idem, Fārsī Zuban-o-Adab (Lahore, 1977), pp. 114-26.
111. Nihāwandi, Ma'āsir-i Rahīmī, p. 848; Shibli Numani, Shi'r-ul-'Ajam, IV, p. 21; Abdullah, 'Tāza-gū'ī: Ek Adabī Tahrīk' in idem, Fārsī Zuban-o-Adab (Lahore, 1977), pp. 114-26.
112. Nihāwandi, Ma'āsir-i Rahīmī, p. 848; Shibli Numani, Shi'r-ul-'Ajam, IV, p. 21; Abdullah, 'Tāza-gū'ī: Ek Adabī Tahrīk' in idem, Fārsī Zuban-o-Adab (Lahore, 1977), pp. 114-26.
113. Nihāwandi, Ma'āsir-i Rahīmī, p. 848; Shibli Numani, Shi'r-ul-'Ajam, IV, p. 21; Abdullah, 'Tāza-gū'ī: Ek Adabī Tahrīk' in idem, Fārsī Zuban-o-Adab (Lahore, 1977), pp. 114-26.
114. Cited in Safa, Tārīkh, V, p. 852.
115. Cited in Nabi Hadi, Mughalon ke Malik-ush-Shu'arā (Allahabad, 1978), p. 150.
116. Ibid., p. 90.
117. Badakhshani (ed.), Tārīkh-i Adabīyāt, p. 467.
118. Muhammad Husain Nazīrī Nīshāpūrī, Dîuiân, ed. Mazahir Musafla (Tehran, 1340) p. 101.
119. For a discussion around this view, see Razia Akbar, Sharh-i Ahwāl-o-Asār-i Bābā Fughānī Shīrāzī (Hyderabad, 1974), pp. 133-49; see also Abdullah, 'Tāza-gū'ī ...'.
120. For a discussion around this view, see Razia Akbar, Sharh-i Ahwāl-o-Asār-i Bābā Fughānī Shīrāzī (Hyderabad, 1974), pp. 133-49; see also Abdullah, 'Tāza-gū'ī ...'.
121. Urfi Shīrāzī, Dīwān, p. 4.
122. Nazīrī Nishāpūrī, Dīwān, p. 294.
123. 'Urfī Shīrāzī, Dīwān, p. 87.
124. Mirzā 'Abd-ul-Qad̄ir Bīdil, Kulliyāt (Kabul, 1341), p. 81.
125. Badakhshani (ed.), Tārīkh-i Adabīyāt, p. 465.
126. H. Blochmann, 'Contributions to Persian Lexicography', Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal (JRASB), vol. 37, pt 1 (1868-69), pp. 1-72.
127. Sirāj-ud-Dīn 'Ali Khan Ārzū, Muthmir, ed. Rehana Khatoon (Karachi, 1991), P. 221; see also Abdullah, Mabāhis, I, pp. 70-1. Interestingly, Ārzū's theory of tawāfuq similar to, perhaps an earlier Indigenous of, William Jones's declaration of the relationship between the classical languages in 1785, which in turn laid the ground for the development of comparative philology.
128. Sirāj-ud-Dīn 'Ali Khan Ārzū, Muthmir, ed. Rehana Khatoon (Karachi, 1991), P. 221; see also Abdullah, Mabāhis, I, pp. 70-1. Interestingly, Ārzū's theory of tawāfuq similar to, perhaps an earlier Indigenous of, William Jones's declaration of the relationship between the classical languages in 1785, which in turn laid the ground for the development of comparative philology.
129. I.O. 4015, f. 44b.
130. Mohiuddin, Chancellery, pp. 23 and 26.
131. Compare, for some evidence, Khwushal Chand, Nādir-uz-Zamānī, British Museum Ms. Or. 1654, ff. 950-963 and 1113-133; see also M. Alam, 'Eastern India in Early 18th Century Crisis', Indian Economic and Social History Review, vol. 28, no. 1 (January-March 1991), pp. 69-71.
132. Compare, for some evidence, Khwushal Chand, Nādir-uz-Zamānī, British Museum Ms. Or. 1654, ff. 950-963 and 1113-133; see also M. Alam, 'Eastern India in Early 18th Century Crisis', Indian Economic and Social History Review, vol. 28, no. 1 (January-March 1991), pp. 69-71.
133. Compare, Ārzū, Tanbīh-ul-Ghāfilīn, ed. S. M. Akram, 'Ikram' (Lahore, 1981).
134. Wārasta, for instance, wrote Rajm-ush-Shayātīn Āzād Bilgrāmī was also critical of Ārzū, cf. Ikram's Introduction to Tanbīh-ul-Ghāfilīn.
135. Denison Ross's edition of Divan-i Bäbur Padishah with comments and Introduction in JRASB, vol. 6, New Series (Extra number, 1910), pp. 1-43.
136. 97 Tuzak, pp. 44, 66, 141, 167 and 189.
137. Tuzak, p. 144.
138. Abdul Hamīd Lāhorī, Badshāh-nâma, ed. by Kabiruddin and Abdur Rahim, Bibl. Ind. (Calcutta, 1866) vol. I, p. 132; Muhammad Kāzim, 'Alamgir-nāma, ed. Khadim Husain and Abdul Hai (Calcutta, 1873), p. 1095; for Aurangzeb's and his son Muhammad Ā'zam's interest in Hindi, see also Suniti Kumar Chatterji, 'A Verse by Guru Nanak in the Adi Granth Quoted by Emperor Aurangzib Alamgir', Selected Papers, II, New Delhi, May 1978, pp. 185-93.
139. Abdul Hamīd Lāhorī, Badshāh-nâma, ed. by Kabiruddin and Abdur Rahim, Bibl. Ind. (Calcutta, 1866) vol. I, p. 132; Muhammad Kāzim, 'Alamgir-nāma, ed. Khadim Husain and Abdul Hai (Calcutta, 1873), p. 1095; for Aurangzeb's and his son Muhammad Ā'zam's interest in Hindi, see also Suniti Kumar Chatterji, 'A Verse by Guru Nanak in the Adi Granth Quoted by Emperor Aurangzib Alamgir', Selected Papers, II, New Delhi, May 1978, pp. 185-93.
140. Abdul Hamīd Lāhorī, Badshāh-nâma, ed. by Kabiruddin and Abdur Rahim, Bibl. Ind. (Calcutta, 1866) vol. I, p. 132; Muhammad Kāzim, 'Alamgir-nāma, ed. Khadim Husain and Abdul Hai (Calcutta, 1873), p. 1095; for Aurangzeb's and his son Muhammad Ā'zam's interest in Hindi, see also Suniti Kumar Chatterji, 'A Verse by Guru Nanak in the Adi Granth Quoted by Emperor Aurangzib Alamgir', Selected Papers, II, New Delhi, May 1978, pp. 185-93.
141. Compare, for instance, Keshavdās's Jahāngīr Jas Chandrika in Keshavdās Granthāvalī, ed. V. P. Misra (V. Samvat 2026), and a Sanskrit-Persian dictionary by Karnpur prepared on Jahāngīr's order. The dictionary has been edited by Narharinath Yogi and published in 2009 Vikram Samvat from Gorakshpith, Nepal.
142. Dhrupad and Khayāl compositions, for instance, from Shāhjahan's time.
143. Some historians of Urdū language, however, claim that in Shāhjahān's time familiarity with Urdū (Hindavl) was an essential requirement for state service. Cf. Jamil jalibi, Tārikh-i Adab-i Urdū, reprint (Delhi, 1989), I, pp. 69-70.
144. Muhammad Ibr̄ahīm Farishta, Tārīkh-i Farishta (Lucknow, 1281/1864), II, p. 49; see also Muhammad Hāshim Khāfī Khan, Muntakhab-ul-Lubāb, ed. K. D. Ahmad and Woseley Haig (Calcutta, 1925), III, pp. 206-7 .
145. Muhammad Ibr̄ahīm Farishta, Tārīkh-i Farishta (Lucknow, 1281/1864), II, p. 49; see also Muhammad Hāshim Khāfī Khan, Muntakhab-ul-Lubāb, ed. K. D. Ahmad and Woseley Haig (Calcutta, 1925), III, pp. 206-7 .
146. G. Yazdani, Bidar: Its History and Monuments, pp. 140-203, cited in P. M. Joshi and H. K. Sherwani (eds), History of Medieval Deccan (Hyderabad, 1973), I, pp. 395-6.
147. G. Yazdani, Bidar: Its History and Monuments, pp. 140-203, cited in P. M. Joshi and H. K. Sherwani (eds), History of Medieval Deccan (Hyderabad, 1973), I, pp. 395-6.
148. H. K. Sherwani, Muhammad Qulī Qutb Shah: Founder of Haiderabad (Bombay, 1967), pp. 44-55
149. Mirza Nizām-ud-Dīn Ahmad al-Sā'idī al-Shīrāzī, Hadīqat-us-Salātīn, ed. S. Asghar Ali Bilgrami (Hyderabad, 1931), pp. 36 and 41; see also Joshi and Sherwani (eds), History of Medieval Deccan, I, pp. 40 and 48.
150. Mirza Nizām-ud-Dīn Ahmad al-Sā'idī al-Shīrāzī, Hadīqat-us-Salātīn, ed. S. Asghar Ali Bilgrami (Hyderabad, 1931), pp. 36 and 41; see also Joshi and Sherwani (eds), History of Medieval Deccan, I, pp. 40 and 48.
151. Andhra Pradesh State Archives, farmāns dated (a) 1088/1677 about a land grant (b) 1090/1679 pertaining to the weekly marts of Wanepur, Ibrahimpattan (c) 1093/1682 about a land grant; and (d) 1087/1676 about the construction of a temple at Wanipur, Ibrahimpattan.
152. Cf. Abdul Majid Siddiqi, Tārīkh-i Golconda(Hyderabad, 1964), p. 395.
153. Compare, for instance, the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris MS., Blochet I, 235. Nurul Hasan Ansari edited the Introduction first five chapters and published the book from Tehran, 1536. In this edition, however, the first part, Introduction (muqaddima) is not printed in full. The Hindi alphabets in Nāgrī character have invariably been omitted.
154. Compare Vrind, Vrind, Satsāi, ed. Bhagwandeen (Allahabad, 1908), editor's Introduction; see also R. C. Shukl, Hindī Sāhitya kā Itihās (Kashi, Samvat 2035), p. 225.
155. Compare Vrind, Vrind, Satsāi, ed. Bhagwandeen (Allahabad, 1908), editor's Introduction; see also R. C. Shukl, Hindī Sāhitya kā Itihās (Kashi, Samvat 2035), p. 225.
156. Compare Masud Husain Rizvi Adeeb, 'Urdū kī Qadlm Lughat', reprinted in the Journal of the Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library (Patna, 1993), Special No. Intikhāb az Risāla Hindustani (Allahabad, 1931-48), p. 18, for the Preface of 'Ajā'ib-ul-Lughāt, which Ajmerī Palwalī compiled, based on 'Abd-ul-Wāsi's Gharā'ib, sometime in the early eighteenth century.
157. Compare Masud Husain Rizvi Adeeb, 'Urdū kī Qadlm Lughat', reprinted in the Journal of the Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library (Patna, 1993), Special No. Intikhāb az Risāla Hindustani (Allahabad, 1931-48), p. 18, for the Preface of 'Ajā'ib-ul-Lughāt, which Ajmerī Palwalī compiled, based on 'Abd-ul-Wāsi's Gharā'ib, sometime in the early eighteenth century.
158. Muhammad Hādī Kāmwar Khān, Tazkirat-us-Salātin Chaghtā, ed. Muzaffar Alam (Bombay, 1980), p. 157.
159. 'Abd-ur-Rahmān Premī, Nakh-Sikh, ed. Iqbal Ahmad (Bombay, 1959), editor's Introduction. For an analysis of his poetry, see also Sandhya Sharma, 'Aspects of Society and Culture in Reeti Poetry', unpublished M.Phil. Dissertation, Jawaharlal Nehru University (New Delhi, 1991).
160. Nawaz Kabishwar, Shakuntala (Varanasi, 1924). See also an Urdu prose version of the same prepared by Kāzim Alī Jawan in 1801, reprinted with Introduction and notes by Muhammad Aslam Quraishi (Lahore, 1963); Masud Hasan Rizvi Adeeb, 'Nawāz aur Shakuntala Nātak', Nuqoosh (Lahore, June 1963).
161. Nawaz Kabishwar, Shakuntala (Varanasi, 1924). See also an Urdu prose version of the same prepared by Kāzim Alī Jawan in 1801, reprinted with Introduction and notes by Muhammad Aslam Quraishi (Lahore, 1963); Masud Hasan Rizvi Adeeb, 'Nawāz aur Shakuntala Nātak', Nuqoosh (Lahore, June 1963).
162. Compare Shah Alam II, Nādirāt-i Shāhī, ed. Imtiaz Ali Khan Arshi (Rampur, 1944).
163. Ārzū, Muthmir, p. 9; Abdullah, Mahāhis, pp. 59-82 and 76-7.
164. Ārzū, Muthmir, p. 9; Abdullah, Mahāhis, pp. 59-82 and 76-7.
165. For a discussion on Persianization of Hindavī, see Amrit Rai, A House Divided: The Origin and Development of Hindi/Hindavi (Delhi, 1984), pp. 226-84. Amrit Rai's argument is, however, centred on cultural (read religious) factors only.
166. Ibid., pp. 249-50.
167. S. Nasir Husain Khan, Mughal aur Urdū (Calcutta, 1933), pp. 50-61.
168. Ahmad All Sandīlavī, Makhzan-ul-Gharā'ib, ed. Muhammad Baqar (Lahore, 1968), I, p. 801.