Délire

History of Psychiatry

Volumn 10, Issue 40, 1999, Pages 525-536

  Berrios, German E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

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EID: 0345913474     PISSN: 0957154X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0957154X9901004006     Document Type: Article

References (128)

1. Oxford English Dictionary (2nd edition) (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
2. Delirium does not fully translate 'délire' as discussed in the classic text that follows. In 1754 the term behaved like a 'proto-concept' referring both to delirium (as an 'organic syndrome') and delusion (as an abnormal 'idea' generated by putative pathological changes in brain fibres).
3. The two meanings separated during the nineteenth century. In countries where there were terms available for both (e.g., England) the separation was easier. When not (France, Spain) délire and delirio respectively continued to be used until at the end of the nineteenth century. To avoid confusion, specific phrases (e.g., idée délirante) had to be created.
4. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edn (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994), 124.
5. Sakai, A. 'Phrenitis: inflammation of the mind and body', History of Psychiatry, ii (1991), 193-206.
6. Vesanic delirium was also called: cold, apyretic, or chronic; the non-vesanic hot, febrile or acute. The distinction was first made by Achilles Foville in 1869 (see p. 357, Ball, B. and Ritti, A. 'Délire'. In T. Dechambre (ed.), Dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences médicales, Vol. 26, (Paris: Asselin & Masson, 1882), 315-434).
7. For example, Kraepelin wrote in 1899: 'Most probably, though, we have to attribute to each pathogenic toxin effects of its own, even if we are not yet able today clearly to separate the individual forms clinically and anatomically. Nevertheless, first attempts to make such a separation already exist.' (Kraepelin, E., Psychiatrie. Ein Lehrbuch für Studirende und Aerzte. Vol. 2, 6th edn (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1899), 8.)
8. See excellent: Neumärker, K. J., Karl Bonhoeffer. Leben und Werk (Berlin: Springer, 1990).
9. Bonhoeffer, K., Die symptomatischen Psychosen. Im Gefolge von akuten Infektionen und inneren Erkrankungen (Leipzig: Deuticke, 1910). The specific presentation view is still present in Redlich's famous monograph for the Aschaffenburg's series (Redlich, E., Die Psychosen bei Gehimerkrankungen (Leipzig: Frank Deuticke, 1912)). See also Bleuler, M., Willi, J. and Bühler, H. R., Akute psychische Begleiterscheinungen körperlicher Krankheiten (Stuttgart: Thieme, 1966).
10. Bonhoeffer, K., Die symptomatischen Psychosen. Im Gefolge von akuten Infektionen und inneren Erkrankungen (Leipzig: Deuticke, 1910). The specific presentation view is still present in Redlich's famous monograph for the Aschaffenburg's series (Redlich, E., Die Psychosen bei Gehimerkrankungen (Leipzig: Frank Deuticke, 1912)). See also Bleuler, M., Willi, J. and Bühler, H. R., Akute psychische Begleiterscheinungen körperlicher Krankheiten (Stuttgart: Thieme, 1966).
11. Bonhoeffer, K., Die symptomatischen Psychosen. Im Gefolge von akuten Infektionen und inneren Erkrankungen (Leipzig: Deuticke, 1910). The specific presentation view is still present in Redlich's famous monograph for the Aschaffenburg's series (Redlich, E., Die Psychosen bei Gehimerkrankungen (Leipzig: Frank Deuticke, 1912)). See also Bleuler, M., Willi, J. and Bühler, H. R., Akute psychische Begleiterscheinungen körperlicher Krankheiten (Stuttgart: Thieme, 1966).
12. Roccatagliata, G., Storia della Psichiatria Antica (Milan: Ulrico Hoepli, 1973); Simon, B., Mind and Madness in Ancient Greece (London: Cornell University Press, 1978).
13. Roccatagliata, G., Storia della Psichiatria Antica (Milan: Ulrico Hoepli, 1973); Simon, B., Mind and Madness in Ancient Greece (London: Cornell University Press, 1978).
14. Hippocrates, Works, Vol. I (with an English translation by W. H. S. Jones), Loeb Classical Library (London: William Heinemann, 1972).
15. Mayne, R. G., An Expository Lexicon of the Terms, Ancient and Modern, in Medical and General Science (London: John Churchill, 1860), 261.
16. 1.4.42, Sydenham, T., Methodus Curandi Febres (London: Crook, 1666), 66.
17. Willis, T., Practice of Physick, translated by S. Pordage (London: T. Dring, 1684), 209-14.
18. The Works of William Cullen, Vol. 2 (Edinburgh: William Blackwood, 1818), 166.
19. Esquirol, J. E. D., 'Délire'. In Dictionnaire des sciences médicales (Paris: Panckoucke, 1814); Middleton, E. (ed.), Dictionary of Arts and Sciences; or A Universal System of Useful Knowledge (London: Hog, 1780); Sutton T., Tracts on Delirium Tremens, on Peritonitis and on the Gout (London: Thomas Underwood, 1813), 1-77.
20. Esquirol, J. E. D., 'Délire'. In Dictionnaire des sciences médicales (Paris: Panckoucke, 1814); Middleton, E. (ed.), Dictionary of Arts and Sciences; or A Universal System of Useful Knowledge (London: Hog, 1780); Sutton T., Tracts on Delirium Tremens, on Peritonitis and on the Gout (London: Thomas Underwood, 1813), 1-77.
21. Esquirol, J. E. D., 'Délire'. In Dictionnaire des sciences médicales (Paris: Panckoucke, 1814); Middleton, E. (ed.), Dictionary of Arts and Sciences; or A Universal System of Useful Knowledge (London: Hog, 1780); Sutton T., Tracts on Delirium Tremens, on Peritonitis and on the Gout (London: Thomas Underwood, 1813), 1-77.
22. Hankoff, L. D. S., 'Ancient descriptions of organic brain syndrome: the 'Kordiakos' of the Talmud', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxxix (1972), 233-6. For a detailed account see: Preuss, J. (1993), Biblical and Talmudic Medicine, translated and edited by F. Rosner (London: Aronson) (first edition in German in 1911), 320.
23. Hankoff, L. D. S., 'Ancient descriptions of organic brain syndrome: the 'Kordiakos' of the Talmud', American Journal of Psychiatry, cxxix (1972), 233-6. For a detailed account see: Preuss, J. (1993), Biblical and Talmudic Medicine, translated and edited by F. Rosner (London: Aronson) (first edition in German in 1911), 320.
24. Siegel, R. E., Galen on Psychology, Psychopathology and Function and Diseases of the Nervous System (Basel: Karger, 1973).
25. For example, see P. Fring's attack in: A Treatise on Phrensy wherein the cause of the disorder as assigned by the Galenists is refuted (London: T. Gardner, 1746).
26. Ball and Ritti, 1882, op. cit. (Note 5).
27. Arnulfe d'Aumont was a graduate from Montpellier and professor at a minor University in Valence (Coleman, W., 'Health and hygiene in the Encyclopédie', Journal of the History of Medicine, xxix (1974), 399-421). He also wrote the entry on Démence (Astruc, P., 'Les Sciences médicales et leurs représentants dans L'Encyclopédie', Revue d'histoire des sciences, iii (1950), 359-68.
28. Arnulfe d'Aumont was a graduate from Montpellier and professor at a minor University in Valence (Coleman, W., 'Health and hygiene in the Encyclopédie', Journal of the History of Medicine, xxix (1974), 399-421). He also wrote the entry on Démence (Astruc, P., 'Les Sciences médicales et leurs représentants dans L'Encyclopédie', Revue d'histoire des sciences, iii (1950), 359-68.
29. Arnolphe d'Aumont. In Diderot and d'Alembert (eds), Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, Vol. 4 (Paris: Briasson, David, Le Breton, Duran, 1754), 785-9, 785.
30. For an account of eighteenth-century neurophysiology see Brazier, M. A. B., A History of Neurophysiology in the 17th and 18th Centuries (New York: Raven Press, 1984).
31. Berrios, G. E. 'Historical aspects of psychoses: 19th-century issues', British Medical Bulletin, xliii (1987), 484-98.
32. Berrios, G. E., The History of Mental Symptoms. Descriptive Psychopathology since the 19th century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
33. Pinel, P., Traité médico-philosophique sur l'aliénation mentale, 2nd edn (Paris: Brosson, 1809).
34. This can be illustrated by the confusion caused by the translator of Pinel who rendered délire as delirium even when the context makes it clear that Pinel meant delusion (see: Pinel, Ph., A Treatise on Insanity. Translated by D. D. Davis (Sheffield: W. Todd, 1806)).
35. Georget, E. J., 'Délire'. In Dictionnaire de médecine ou répertoire général des sciences médicales, 2nd edn, Vol. 10 (Paris: Bechet, 1835).
36. Georget composed a table showing the differential diagnosis between délire aigu and folie noticing the intermittent and reversible nature of the former; see Georget, E. J., De la folie (Paris: Crevot, 1820). On the history délire aigu see Briand, M., Du délire aigu (Paris: A. Delahaye, 1881).
37. Georget composed a table showing the differential diagnosis between délire aigu and folie noticing the intermittent and reversible nature of the former; see Georget, E. J., De la folie (Paris: Crevot, 1820). On the history délire aigu see Briand, M., Du délire aigu (Paris: A. Delahaye, 1881).
38. Esquirol, 1814, op. cit.
39. Laségue, C., 'Du délire de persécution', Archives Générales de Médecine, xxviii (1852), 129-50.
40. Falret, J. P., 'Délire'. In Des maladies mentales et des asiles d'aliénés (Paris: Asselin, 1864), 354.
41. Littré, E., Dictionnaire de la langue française, Vol. 2 (Paris: Librairie Hachette, 1877).
42. Feuchtersleben, E. von., Lehrbuch der ärzlichen Seelenkunde (Vienna: Gerold, 1845), 228-9 (English translation by H. E. Lloyd, The Principles of Medical Psychology (London: New Sydenham Society, 1847)).
43. Feuchtersleben, E. von., Lehrbuch der ärzlichen Seelenkunde (Vienna: Gerold, 1845), 228-9 (English translation by H. E. Lloyd, The Principles of Medical Psychology (London: New Sydenham Society, 1847)).
44. Brierre de Boismont, A., 'Du délire aigu', Mémoires de l'Académie de Médecine, xi (1845), 477-595.
45. Twenty years later, Brierre's views were picked up in the USA, see: Leader, 'Acute delirium in 1845 and 1860', American Journal of Insanity, xxi (1864), 181-200. Griesinger also quoted Brierre in the second edition of his textbook (see Griesinger, W., Die Pathologie und Therapie der psychischen Krankheiten für Aerzte und Studirende, 2nd edn (Stuttgart: Krabbe, 1861)).
46. Twenty years later, Brierre's views were picked up in the USA, see: Leader, 'Acute delirium in 1845 and 1860', American Journal of Insanity, xxi (1864), 181-200. Griesinger also quoted Brierre in the second edition of his textbook (see Griesinger, W., Die Pathologie und Therapie der psychischen Krankheiten für Aerzte und Studirende, 2nd edn (Stuttgart: Krabbe, 1861)).
47. Calmeil, L. F., Traité des maladies inflammatoires du cerveau, 2 Vols (Paris: Baillière, 1859).
48. Worcester, W. L., 'Delirium'. American Journal of Psychiatry, xlvi (1889), 22-7.
49. Ball and Ritti, 1882, op. cit. (Note 5); Gowers, W., A Manual of Diseases of the Nervous System, Vol. 2 (London: J. & A. Churchill, 1888), 97.
50. Ball and Ritti, 1882, op. cit. (Note 5); Gowers, W., A Manual of Diseases of the Nervous System, Vol. 2 (London: J. & A. Churchill, 1888), 97.
51. Siegel, R. E., Galen on Psychology, Psychopathology and Function and Diseases of the Nervous System (Basel: Karger, 1973).
52. Quincy, J., Lexicon Physico-Medicum: or, a new Physical Dictionary (London: Taylor, Taylor & Osborne, 1719), 103.
53. Following Arbuthnot, Johnson considered delirium tantamount to 'alienation of mind': 'Too great alacrity and promptness in answering, specially in persons naturally of another temper, is a sign of an approaching delirium. In a feverish delirium there is a small inflammation of the brain.' (Johnson, S., A Dictionary of the English Language (London: J. & P. Knopton, T. Longman, 1755).
54. Sutton, T., Tracts on Delirium Tremens, on Peritonitis and on the Gout (London: Thomas Underwood, 1813).
55. Garrabé, J., Dictionnaire taxinomique de psychiatrie (Paris: Masson, 1989), 35-8.
56. Hamilton, M. (ed.), Fish's Clinical Psychopathology (Bristol: Wright, 1974), 83: 'unfortunately, this word is used in everyday speech to mean "muddled", "bewildered", or "perplexed" and some English speaking psychiatrists use the word in this sense. . . .' This observation is correct, and the usage in question reflects (as it is explained below) the different conceptual pedigree of 'confusion' which during the nineteenth century was not conceptualized as a disorder of consciousness but of association of ideas!
57. Peters, U. H., Wörterbuch der Psychiatrie und medizinischen Psychologie (München: Urban u. Schwarzenberg, 1990).
58. Confusion. In Enciclopedia Universal Illustrada Europeo-Americana, Vol. 14 (Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, 1921), 1198-2000.
59. Defined 'negatively', as an aberration of the logical doctrine of clarity and distinctness of thought (see Abbagnano, N., Dizionario di Filosofia (Turin: Unione Tipografico-Editrice Torinese, 1961)).
60. Eisler (ed.), Wörterbuch der Philosophischen Begriffe, Vol. 2 (Berlin: Miller u. Sohn, 1904); Grimm, J. and Grimm, W., Deutsches Wörterbuch, Vol. 12 (Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1956).
61. Eisler (ed.), Wörterbuch der Philosophischen Begriffe, Vol. 2 (Berlin: Miller u. Sohn, 1904); Grimm, J. and Grimm, W., Deutsches Wörterbuch, Vol. 12 (Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1956).
62. Thesauri Lingu Latinæ, edited by S. Patrick, 2nd edn, 1745.
63. Mill, J. S., A System of Logic (London: Longmans, 1898. 1st edn, 1845).
64. Jourdan, 'Confusion'. In Dictionnaire des sciences médicales (Paris: Panckouke, 1813).
65. The terms confusion des idées and obtusion were used by Delasiauve in 1851 in his analysis of stuporous states associated with severe lypemania (depression). See Delasiauve, M., 'Du diagnostic différentiel de la lypémanie', Annales Médico-Psychologiques, iii (1851), 380-442.
66. Tuke, D. H., Dictionary of Psychological Medicine (London: Churchill, 1892).
67. Power, H. and Sedwick, L. W., The New Sydenham Society's Lexicon of Medicine and the Allied Sciences (London: New Sydenham Society, 1892).
68. Therein confusion is defined both as symptom ('a condition of embarrassment, distraction, or lack of clearness of thought and appropriateness of action') and as a disease (a variety of 'amentia', called also 'confusional amentia'. Another variety is stupidity or amentia stupida. A third variety is hallucinatory acute insanity . . .') The subtypes were taken from Wille, L., 'Die Lehre von der Verwirrtheit', Archives für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten, xix (1888), 328-51. (See Morselli, E., 'Confusion'. In Baldwin, J. M. (ed.), Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology (London: Macmillan, 1901), 212.)
69. Therein confusion is defined both as symptom ('a condition of embarrassment, distraction, or lack of clearness of thought and appropriateness of action') and as a disease (a variety of 'amentia', called also 'confusional amentia'. Another variety is stupidity or amentia stupida. A third variety is hallucinatory acute insanity . . .') The subtypes were taken from Wille, L., 'Die Lehre von der Verwirrtheit', Archives für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten, xix (1888), 328-51. (See Morselli, E., 'Confusion'. In Baldwin, J. M. (ed.), Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology (London: Macmillan, 1901), 212.)
70. Norman, C., 'Acute confusional insanity', Dublin Journal of Medical Science, lxxxix (1890), 506-18.
71. Bolton, L. C., 'Amentia and dementia: a clinico-pathological study', Journal of Mental Science, lii (1906), 427-90; Bruce, L. C., 'Physical symptoms of acute confusional insanity', Lancet, i (1935), 550-1.
72. Bolton, L. C., 'Amentia and dementia: a clinico-pathological study', Journal of Mental Science, lii (1906), 427-90; Bruce, L. C., 'Physical symptoms of acute confusional insanity', Lancet, i (1935), 550-1.
73. Wille, L., 1888, op. cit. (Note 5).
74. p.345, where Griesinger calls Dementia 'Die Verwirrtheit' (Griesinger, 1861, op. cit., Note 356).
75. Fritsch, J., 'Die Verwirrtheit', Jahrbücher für Psychiatrie, ii (1879), 27-89.
76. See for example, his paper at the Vienna Medical Meeting in 1881 (Meynert, Th., 'Die akuten (halluzinatorischen) Formen des Wahnsinns und ihr Verlauf, Jahrbücher für Psychiatrie, ii (1881), 181-6). In 1890, Meynert proposed a separation of Verwirrtheit from the rest of the psychosis; indentifying its central symptom as the experience of bewilderment (Ratlosigkeit) (see: Meynert, Th., 'Amentia, die Verwirrtheit', Jahrbücher für Psychiatrie und Neurologie, ix (1890), 1-112). For an excellent study of these changes see: Pappenheim, E., 'On Meynert's Amentia', International Journal of Neurology, ix (1975), 310-26 and Lévy-Friesacher, Ch. Meynert-Freud: L'Amentia (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1983), 37-59. Years later, Meynert's student Wernicke attacked the view that hallucinations alone can produce disorientation and suggested instead that some other change such as Bennomenheit (mental numbness) was required (see discussion on Wernicke's ideas later).
77. See for example, his paper at the Vienna Medical Meeting in 1881 (Meynert, Th., 'Die akuten (halluzinatorischen) Formen des Wahnsinns und ihr Verlauf, Jahrbücher für Psychiatrie, ii (1881), 181-6). In 1890, Meynert proposed a separation of Verwirrtheit from the rest of the psychosis; indentifying its central symptom as the experience of bewilderment (Ratlosigkeit) (see: Meynert, Th., 'Amentia, die Verwirrtheit', Jahrbücher für Psychiatrie und Neurologie, ix (1890), 1-112). For an excellent study of these changes see: Pappenheim, E., 'On Meynert's Amentia', International Journal of Neurology, ix (1975), 310-26 and Lévy-Friesacher, Ch. Meynert-Freud: L'Amentia (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1983), 37-59. Years later, Meynert's student Wernicke attacked the view that hallucinations alone can produce disorientation and suggested instead that some other change such as Bennomenheit (mental numbness) was required (see discussion on Wernicke's ideas later).
78. See for example, his paper at the Vienna Medical Meeting in 1881 (Meynert, Th., 'Die akuten (halluzinatorischen) Formen des Wahnsinns und ihr Verlauf, Jahrbücher für Psychiatrie, ii (1881), 181-6). In 1890, Meynert proposed a separation of Verwirrtheit from the rest of the psychosis; indentifying its central symptom as the experience of bewilderment (Ratlosigkeit) (see: Meynert, Th., 'Amentia, die Verwirrtheit', Jahrbücher für Psychiatrie und Neurologie, ix (1890), 1-112). For an excellent study of these changes see: Pappenheim, E., 'On Meynert's Amentia', International Journal of Neurology, ix (1975), 310-26 and Lévy-Friesacher, Ch. Meynert-Freud: L'Amentia (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1983), 37-59. Years later, Meynert's student Wernicke attacked the view that hallucinations alone can produce disorientation and suggested instead that some other change such as Bennomenheit (mental numbness) was required (see discussion on Wernicke's ideas later).
79. See for example, his paper at the Vienna Medical Meeting in 1881 (Meynert, Th., 'Die akuten (halluzinatorischen) Formen des Wahnsinns und ihr Verlauf, Jahrbücher für Psychiatrie, ii (1881), 181-6). In 1890, Meynert proposed a separation of Verwirrtheit from the rest of the psychosis; indentifying its central symptom as the experience of bewilderment (Ratlosigkeit) (see: Meynert, Th., 'Amentia, die Verwirrtheit', Jahrbücher für Psychiatrie und Neurologie, ix (1890), 1-112). For an excellent study of these changes see: Pappenheim, E., 'On Meynert's Amentia', International Journal of Neurology, ix (1975), 310-26 and Lévy-Friesacher, Ch. Meynert-Freud: L'Amentia (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1983), 37-59. Years later, Meynert's student Wernicke attacked the view that hallucinations alone can produce disorientation and suggested instead that some other change such as Bennomenheit (mental numbness) was required (see discussion on Wernicke's ideas later).
80. Wille, 1888, op. cit.
81. Zeh, W., 'Über Verwirrtheit', Fortschritte der Neurologie und Psychiatrie, xxviii (1960), 187-205.
82. Berrios, G. E. 'Melancholia and depression during the 19th century. A conceptual history', British Journal of Psychiatry, cliii (1988), 298-304.
83. Chaslin, Ph., 'La Confusion mentale primitive', Annales Médico-Psychologiques, xvi (1892), 225-73; Chaslin, Ph., La Confusion mentale primitive (Paris: Asselin et Houzeau, 1895).
84. Chaslin, Ph., 'La Confusion mentale primitive', Annales Médico-Psychologiques, xvi (1892), 225-73; Chaslin, Ph., La Confusion mentale primitive (Paris: Asselin et Houzeau, 1895).
85. On Chaslin and confusion mentale see: Berrios, G. E., 'Delirium and confusion in the 19th century', British Journal of Psychiatry, cxxxix (1981) 439-49.
86. p. 184, Bleuler, E., Dementia Praecox oder die Gruppe der Schizophrenien. In G. Aschaffenburg (ed.), Handbuch der Psychiatrie (Leipzig: Deuticke, 1911). English translation by J. Zinkin, Dementia Praecox or the Group of Schizophrenias (New York: International Universities Press, 1951).
87. Klein, E., A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the English Language, Vol. 2 (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1967). In French, the term orienter was already in use by the sixteenth century to mean: 'to place an object in relation to the cardinal points or to a specific direction or aim' (Rey, A., Dictionnaire historique de la langue française, Vol. 2 (Paris: Dictionnaires Le Robert, 1995), 1383.
88. Klein, E., A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the English Language, Vol. 2 (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1967). In French, the term orienter was already in use by the sixteenth century to mean: 'to place an object in relation to the cardinal points or to a specific direction or aim' (Rey, A., Dictionnaire historique de la langue française, Vol. 2 (Paris: Dictionnaires Le Robert, 1995), 1383.
89. Oxford English Dictionary Oxford, 2nd edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
90. Ryle, G., The Concept of Mind (London: Hutchinson, 1949).
91. The role of this function would consist in the periodic updating of time and space information. Metzger, W., Psychologie, 2nd edn (Darmstadt: Steinkopff, 1954), 140-2.
92. See particularly the latter's great book: Grasset, J., Les Maladies de l'orientation et de l'équilibrium (Paris: Alcan, 1901).
93. For example, Sommer asked: What is your name? Your job? Where are you? Where do you live? What year is it? What month? What date? What day? How long are you here? What town is this? etc. (Sommer, Lehrbuch der psychopathologischen Untersuchungs-Methoden (Stuttgart, 1899).
94. Finzi, J., 'Sul Sintoma Disorientamiento', Rivista di Palologia Nervosa e Mentale, iv (1899), 347-62.
95. Bouchard, R., Sur l'évaluation du temps dans certains troubles mentaux (Thèse de Paris, Vigot frères Editeurs, 1926).
96. The relevance of this technique to time orientation has been since called into question (see Benton, A. L., Allen, M. W. van and Fogel, M. L., 'Temporal orientation in cerebral disease', Journal of Nervous Mental Disease, cxxxix (1964), 110-19; McFie, J., 'Psychological testing in clinical neurology', Journal of Nervous Mental Disease, cxxxi (1960), 383-93.)
97. The relevance of this technique to time orientation has been since called into question (see Benton, A. L., Allen, M. W. van and Fogel, M. L., 'Temporal orientation in cerebral disease', Journal of Nervous Mental Disease, cxxxix (1964), 110-19; McFie, J., 'Psychological testing in clinical neurology', Journal of Nervous Mental Disease, cxxxi (1960), 383-93.)
98. Dupuytren, Baron de., 'On nervous delirium', Lancet, i (1834), 919-23; Sutton, T., Tracts on Delirium Tremens, on Peritonitis and on the Gout (London: Thomas Underwood, 1813).
99. Dupuytren, Baron de., 'On nervous delirium', Lancet, i (1834), 919-23; Sutton, T., Tracts on Delirium Tremens, on Peritonitis and on the Gout (London: Thomas Underwood, 1813).
100. Falret, J., 'Amnésie'. In A. Dechambre (ed.), Dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences médicales, Vol. 3 (Paris: Asselin and Masson, 1865), 725-42; Winslow, F., On Obscure Diseases of the Brain and Disorders of the Mind (London: John W. Davies, 1861), 343.
101. Falret, J., 'Amnésie'. In A. Dechambre (ed.), Dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences médicales, Vol. 3 (Paris: Asselin and Masson, 1865), 725-42; Winslow, F., On Obscure Diseases of the Brain and Disorders of the Mind (London: John W. Davies, 1861), 343.
102. Bercherie, P., Les Fondements de la clinique (Paris: La Biblioth̀eque d'Ornicar, 1980).
103. Mon, F. W., 'Arterial degenerations and diseases', in T. C. Allbutt (ed.), A System of Medicine, Vol. IV (London: Macmillan, 1899), 294-344.
104. König, H., 'Zur Psychopathologie der Paralysis Agitans', Archives für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten, l (1912), 285-305.
105. 'In der Desorientirung haben wir das eigentliche Wesen jeder Psychose zu erblicken'; 'Es giebt keinen Geisteskranken, der nicht in irgend einer Weise desorientirt wäre. Ist er es einmal nicht, so ist er auch nicht im engeren Sinne geisteskrank. In der Desorientierung besteht der eigentliche Schaden, den der uns grösstentheils noch unbekannte Krankheitsprocess bei den Geisteskranken anrichtet' (Wernicke, C., Grundriss der Psychiatrie, 2nd edn (Leipzig: Thieme, 1906), 218).
106. 'Alle krankhaften Veränderung des Bewusstseinsinhaltes, die vorübergehend oder dauernd bei den Geisteskranken auftreten, lassen sich unter diesen Begriff der Desorientirung bringen' (Wernicke, 1906, op. cit., 218).
107. 'The patient wondered about everything that he experienced and saw and considered everything as meaningful.' ('Patient wunderte sich damals über Alles, was er sah und erlebte, und hielt Alles für bedeutsam . . .' (Wernicke, 1906, op. cit., 221).
108. Jaspers, K., General Psychopalhology. Translated by M. Hamilton and J. Hoenig, 7th edn (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1963).
109. Bleuler, E., Textbook of Psychiatry (New York: Macmillan, 1924).
110. Régis, 1906, op. cit.
111. Jung, C. G., The Psychology of Dementia Praecox. In The Collected Works, Vol. 3 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1964).
112. Bleuler, 1950, op. cit.
113. Kraepelin, E., Dementia Praecox and Paraphrenia (Edinburgh: Livingstone, 1919).
114. Janet, P., Les Obsessions et la psychasthénie, Vol. 1 (Paris: Alcan, 1919).
115. Conrad, K., 'Die symptomatischen Psychosen', In H. W. Grühle and W. Mayer-Gross (eds), Psychiatrie der Gegenwart, Vol. 2 (Berlin: Springer, 1960); Schneider, K., Beiträge zur Psychiatrie (Stuttgart: Enke, 1948).
116. Conrad, K., 'Die symptomatischen Psychosen', In H. W. Grühle and W. Mayer-Gross (eds), Psychiatrie der Gegenwart, Vol. 2 (Berlin: Springer, 1960); Schneider, K., Beiträge zur Psychiatrie (Stuttgart: Enke, 1948).
117. This symptom is a typical example of the ways in which the metaphor of perception has been applied to consciousness. The latter was said to have a focus and a periphery, and either could become disordered. Thus were born symptoms such as narrow, acute, oscillating, or clouded consciousness. The latter proved particularly difficult to define, and since the 1930s it was made tantamount to disorientation.
118. Wieck, H. H., 'Zur klinische Stellung des Durchgangs-syndrom', Schweizer Archiv für Neurologie und Psychiatrie, lxxxviii (1961), 409-19.
119. In Griesinger, 1861, op. cit., 115.
120. Lasègue, Gh., 'Le Délire alcoolique n'est pas un délire, mais un rêve', Archives générales de médicine, ii (1881), 573-9 (reprinted in Lasègue, C., Ecrits psychiatriques: Textes choisis et présentés par J. Corraze (Paris: Privat, 19/1), 85-105.
121. Lasègue, Gh., 'Le Délire alcoolique n'est pas un délire, mais un rêve', Archives générales de médicine, ii (1881), 573-9 (reprinted in Lasègue, C., Ecrits psychiatriques: Textes choisis et présentés par J. Corraze (Paris: Privat, 19/1), 85-105.
122. Maury, L. F. A., Le Sommeil et les rêves. Études psychologiques sur ces phénomènes et les divers états qui s'y rattachent, 4th edn (Paris: Didier, 1878). On Maury himself, see: Paz, M., 'Alfred Maury, Member del'Institute, Chroniqueur de Napoléon III et du Second Empire', Revue des Travaux de l'Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques, cxvii (1964), 248-64; Dowbiggin, I., 'Alfred Maury and the politics of the unconscious in nineteenth-century France', History of Psychiatry, i (1990), 255-88.
123. Maury, L. F. A., Le Sommeil et les rêves. Études psychologiques sur ces phénomènes et les divers états qui s'y rattachent, 4th edn (Paris: Didier, 1878). On Maury himself, see: Paz, M., 'Alfred Maury, Member del'Institute, Chroniqueur de Napoléon III et du Second Empire', Revue des Travaux de l'Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques, cxvii (1964), 248-64; Dowbiggin, I., 'Alfred Maury and the politics of the unconscious in nineteenth-century France', History of Psychiatry, i (1990), 255-88.
124. Maury, L. F. A., Le Sommeil et les rêves. Études psychologiques sur ces phénomènes et les divers états qui s'y rattachent, 4th edn (Paris: Didier, 1878). On Maury himself, see: Paz, M., 'Alfred Maury, Member del'Institute, Chroniqueur de Napoléon III et du Second Empire', Revue des Travaux de l'Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques, cxvii (1964), 248-64; Dowbiggin, I., 'Alfred Maury and the politics of the unconscious in nineteenth-century France', History of Psychiatry, i (1990), 255-88.
125. French name for a concept that deserves far more historical attention than it has hitherto received (see the useful but incomplete: Ey, H., 'Confusion et délire confuso-onirique. Étude 24', In Études psychiatriques, Vol. Ill (Paris: Desclée De Brouwer, 1954), 325-428.
126. Porot, A., Manuel alphabétique de psychiatrie (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1975), 461.
127. Régis, E., Précis de psychiatrie, 3rd edn (Paris: Doin, 1906), 293-7.
128. See p. 33 and p. 37 of The Nomenclature of Diseases drawn up by a Joint Committee of the Royal College of Physicians of London, 4th edn, Third Revision (His Majesty's Stationary Office, 1906).