Clearer than Truth: Public Affairs Television and the State Department's Domestic Information Campaigns, 1947-1952

Diplomatic History

Volumn 21, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 545-567

  Bernhard, Nancy E ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0345878837     PISSN: 01452096     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1467-7709.00088     Document Type: Article

References (83)

1. See Brett J. Gary, Nervous Liberals: Scholars, Lawyers, and the War on Propaganda, 1919-1948 (forthcoming); and Allan M. Winkler, The Politics of Propaganda: The Office of War Information, 1942-45 (New Haven, 1978). See also "C. D. Jackson: Psychological Warriors Never Die," in H. W. Brands, Jr., Cold Warriors: Eisenhower's Generation and American Foreign Policy (New York, 1988), 117-37; and Blanche Wiesen Cook, "First Comes the Lie: C. D. Jackson and Political Warfare," Radical History Review 31 (1984): 42-70; John Lewis Gaddis, "Morality and the American Experience of the Cold War," in The United States and the End of the Cold War: Implications, Reconsiderations, Provocations (New York, 1992), 47-58; and Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., "National Interests and Moral Absolutes," in The Cycles of American History (Boston, 1986), 69-86.
2. See Brett J. Gary, Nervous Liberals: Scholars, Lawyers, and the War on Propaganda, 1919-1948 (forthcoming); and Allan M. Winkler, The Politics of Propaganda: The Office of War Information, 1942-45 (New Haven, 1978). See also "C. D. Jackson: Psychological Warriors Never Die," in H. W. Brands, Jr., Cold Warriors: Eisenhower's Generation and American Foreign Policy (New York, 1988), 117-37; and Blanche Wiesen Cook, "First Comes the Lie: C. D. Jackson and Political Warfare," Radical History Review 31 (1984): 42-70; John Lewis Gaddis, "Morality and the American Experience of the Cold War," in The United States and the End of the Cold War: Implications, Reconsiderations, Provocations (New York, 1992), 47-58; and Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., "National Interests and Moral Absolutes," in The Cycles of American History (Boston, 1986), 69-86.
3. See Brett J. Gary, Nervous Liberals: Scholars, Lawyers, and the War on Propaganda, 1919-1948 (forthcoming); and Allan M. Winkler, The Politics of Propaganda: The Office of War Information, 1942-45 (New Haven, 1978). See also "C. D. Jackson: Psychological Warriors Never Die," in H. W. Brands, Jr., Cold Warriors: Eisenhower's Generation and American Foreign Policy (New York, 1988), 117-37; and Blanche Wiesen Cook, "First Comes the Lie: C. D. Jackson and Political Warfare," Radical History Review 31 (1984): 42-70; John Lewis Gaddis, "Morality and the American Experience of the Cold War," in The United States and the End of the Cold War: Implications, Reconsiderations, Provocations (New York, 1992), 47-58; and Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., "National Interests and Moral Absolutes," in The Cycles of American History (Boston, 1986), 69-86.
4. See Brett J. Gary, Nervous Liberals: Scholars, Lawyers, and the War on Propaganda, 1919-1948 (forthcoming); and Allan M. Winkler, The Politics of Propaganda: The Office of War Information, 1942-45 (New Haven, 1978). See also "C. D. Jackson: Psychological Warriors Never Die," in H. W. Brands, Jr., Cold Warriors: Eisenhower's Generation and American Foreign Policy (New York, 1988), 117-37; and Blanche Wiesen Cook, "First Comes the Lie: C. D. Jackson and Political Warfare," Radical History Review 31 (1984): 42-70; John Lewis Gaddis, "Morality and the American Experience of the Cold War," in The United States and the End of the Cold War: Implications, Reconsiderations, Provocations (New York, 1992), 47-58; and Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., "National Interests and Moral Absolutes," in The Cycles of American History (Boston, 1986), 69-86.
5. See Brett J. Gary, Nervous Liberals: Scholars, Lawyers, and the War on Propaganda, 1919-1948 (forthcoming); and Allan M. Winkler, The Politics of Propaganda: The Office of War Information, 1942-45 (New Haven, 1978). See also "C. D. Jackson: Psychological Warriors Never Die," in H. W. Brands, Jr., Cold Warriors: Eisenhower's Generation and American Foreign Policy (New York, 1988), 117-37; and Blanche Wiesen Cook, "First Comes the Lie: C. D. Jackson and Political Warfare," Radical History Review 31 (1984): 42-70; John Lewis Gaddis, "Morality and the American Experience of the Cold War," in The United States and the End of the Cold War: Implications, Reconsiderations, Provocations (New York, 1992), 47-58; and Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., "National Interests and Moral Absolutes," in The Cycles of American History (Boston, 1986), 69-86.
6. See Brett J. Gary, Nervous Liberals: Scholars, Lawyers, and the War on Propaganda, 1919-1948 (forthcoming); and Allan M. Winkler, The Politics of Propaganda: The Office of War Information, 1942-45 (New Haven, 1978). See also "C. D. Jackson: Psychological Warriors Never Die," in H. W. Brands, Jr., Cold Warriors: Eisenhower's Generation and American Foreign Policy (New York, 1988), 117-37; and Blanche Wiesen Cook, "First Comes the Lie: C. D. Jackson and Political Warfare," Radical History Review 31 (1984): 42-70; John Lewis Gaddis, "Morality and the American Experience of the Cold War," in The United States and the End of the Cold War: Implications, Reconsiderations, Provocations (New York, 1992), 47-58; and Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., "National Interests and Moral Absolutes," in The Cycles of American History (Boston, 1986), 69-86.
7. The orthodox and revisionist labels, while tired, remain shorthand for, for example, Herbert Feis, Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., and Robert H. Ferrell on the one hand, and William Appleman Williams, Gabriel Kolko, Lloyd C. Gardner, Gar Alperovitz, and Barton Bernstein on the other. See also John Lewis Gaddis, "The Emerging Post-Revisionist Synthesis on the Origins of the Cold War," Diplomatic History 7 (Summer 1983): 173, 180. Thomas Paterson surveyed the records, minutes, and correspondence of the cabinet, the Committee of Three (secretaries of state, war, and navy), and the secretary of state's staff committee and found no reference to the need for popular consent. Nevertheless, he argues, the public and the Congress proved "malleable, compliant, and permissive." See Meeting the Communist Threat Truman to Reagan (New York, 1988), 77, 93-94.
8. The orthodox and revisionist labels, while tired, remain shorthand for, for example, Herbert Feis, Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., and Robert H. Ferrell on the one hand, and William Appleman Williams, Gabriel Kolko, Lloyd C. Gardner, Gar Alperovitz, and Barton Bernstein on the other. See also John Lewis Gaddis, "The Emerging Post-Revisionist Synthesis on the Origins of the Cold War," Diplomatic History 7 (Summer 1983): 173, 180. Thomas Paterson surveyed the records, minutes, and correspondence of the cabinet, the Committee of Three (secretaries of state, war, and navy), and the secretary of state's staff committee and found no reference to the need for popular consent. Nevertheless, he argues, the public and the Congress proved "malleable, compliant, and permissive." See Meeting the Communist Threat Truman to Reagan (New York, 1988), 77, 93-94.
9. See "Culture, Gender, and Foreign Policy: A Symposium," Diplomatic History 18 (Winter 1994): 47-125; Bruce Cumings, "'Revising Postrevisionism': or, The Poverty of Theory in Diplomatic History," Diplomatic History 17 (Fall 1993): 539-69, and Walter L. Hixson, "'Red Storm Rising': Tom Clancy Novels and the Cult of National Security," Diplomatic History 17 (Fall 1993): 599-613. Robert Griffith's work on the Advertising Council and the Council for Economic Development is the exception. See "Forging America's Postwar Order: Domestic Politics and Political Economy in the Age of Truman," in The Truman Presidency, ed. Michael J. Lacey (Washington, 1989), 57-88; and "The Selling of America: The Advertising Council and American Politics, 1942-1960," Business History Review (Autumn 1983): 388-413. Notable works in the political culture literature include Lary May, ed., Recasting America: Culture and Politics in the Age of Cold War (Chicago, 1989); George Lipsitz, Time Passages: Collective Memory and American Popular Culture (Minneapolis, 1990); Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York, 1988); and Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War (Baltimore, 1991).
10. See "Culture, Gender, and Foreign Policy: A Symposium," Diplomatic History 18 (Winter 1994): 47-125; Bruce Cumings, "'Revising Postrevisionism': or, The Poverty of Theory in Diplomatic History," Diplomatic History 17 (Fall 1993): 539-69, and Walter L. Hixson, "'Red Storm Rising': Tom Clancy Novels and the Cult of National Security," Diplomatic History 17 (Fall 1993): 599-613. Robert Griffith's work on the Advertising Council and the Council for Economic Development is the exception. See "Forging America's Postwar Order: Domestic Politics and Political Economy in the Age of Truman," in The Truman Presidency, ed. Michael J. Lacey (Washington, 1989), 57-88; and "The Selling of America: The Advertising Council and American Politics, 1942-1960," Business History Review (Autumn 1983): 388-413. Notable works in the political culture literature include Lary May, ed., Recasting America: Culture and Politics in the Age of Cold War (Chicago, 1989); George Lipsitz, Time Passages: Collective Memory and American Popular Culture (Minneapolis, 1990); Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York, 1988); and Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War (Baltimore, 1991).
11. See "Culture, Gender, and Foreign Policy: A Symposium," Diplomatic History 18 (Winter 1994): 47-125; Bruce Cumings, "'Revising Postrevisionism': or, The Poverty of Theory in Diplomatic History," Diplomatic History 17 (Fall 1993): 539-69, and Walter L. Hixson, "'Red Storm Rising': Tom Clancy Novels and the Cult of National Security," Diplomatic History 17 (Fall 1993): 599-613. Robert Griffith's work on the Advertising Council and the Council for Economic Development is the exception. See "Forging America's Postwar Order: Domestic Politics and Political Economy in the Age of Truman," in The Truman Presidency, ed. Michael J. Lacey (Washington, 1989), 57-88; and "The Selling of America: The Advertising Council and American Politics, 1942-1960," Business History Review (Autumn 1983): 388-413. Notable works in the political culture literature include Lary May, ed., Recasting America: Culture and Politics in the Age of Cold War (Chicago, 1989); George Lipsitz, Time Passages: Collective Memory and American Popular Culture (Minneapolis, 1990); Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York, 1988); and Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War (Baltimore, 1991).
12. See "Culture, Gender, and Foreign Policy: A Symposium," Diplomatic History 18 (Winter 1994): 47-125; Bruce Cumings, "'Revising Postrevisionism': or, The Poverty of Theory in Diplomatic History," Diplomatic History 17 (Fall 1993): 539-69, and Walter L. Hixson, "'Red Storm Rising': Tom Clancy Novels and the Cult of National Security," Diplomatic History 17 (Fall 1993): 599-613. Robert Griffith's work on the Advertising Council and the Council for Economic Development is the exception. See "Forging America's Postwar Order: Domestic Politics and Political Economy in the Age of Truman," in The Truman Presidency, ed. Michael J. Lacey (Washington, 1989), 57-88; and "The Selling of America: The Advertising Council and American Politics, 1942-1960," Business History Review (Autumn 1983): 388-413. Notable works in the political culture literature include Lary May, ed., Recasting America: Culture and Politics in the Age of Cold War (Chicago, 1989); George Lipsitz, Time Passages: Collective Memory and American Popular Culture (Minneapolis, 1990); Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York, 1988); and Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War (Baltimore, 1991).
13. See "Culture, Gender, and Foreign Policy: A Symposium," Diplomatic History 18 (Winter 1994): 47-125; Bruce Cumings, "'Revising Postrevisionism': or, The Poverty of Theory in Diplomatic History," Diplomatic History 17 (Fall 1993): 539-69, and Walter L. Hixson, "'Red Storm Rising': Tom Clancy Novels and the Cult of National Security," Diplomatic History 17 (Fall 1993): 599-613. Robert Griffith's work on the Advertising Council and the Council for Economic Development is the exception. See "Forging America's Postwar Order: Domestic Politics and Political Economy in the Age of Truman," in The Truman Presidency, ed. Michael J. Lacey (Washington, 1989), 57-88; and "The Selling of America: The Advertising Council and American Politics, 1942-1960," Business History Review (Autumn 1983): 388-413. Notable works in the political culture literature include Lary May, ed., Recasting America: Culture and Politics in the Age of Cold War (Chicago, 1989); George Lipsitz, Time Passages: Collective Memory and American Popular Culture (Minneapolis, 1990); Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York, 1988); and Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War (Baltimore, 1991).
14. See "Culture, Gender, and Foreign Policy: A Symposium," Diplomatic History 18 (Winter 1994): 47-125; Bruce Cumings, "'Revising Postrevisionism': or, The Poverty of Theory in Diplomatic History," Diplomatic History 17 (Fall 1993): 539-69, and Walter L. Hixson, "'Red Storm Rising': Tom Clancy Novels and the Cult of National Security," Diplomatic History 17 (Fall 1993): 599-613. Robert Griffith's work on the Advertising Council and the Council for Economic Development is the exception. See "Forging America's Postwar Order: Domestic Politics and Political Economy in the Age of Truman," in The Truman Presidency, ed. Michael J. Lacey (Washington, 1989), 57-88; and "The Selling of America: The Advertising Council and American Politics, 1942-1960," Business History Review (Autumn 1983): 388-413. Notable works in the political culture literature include Lary May, ed., Recasting America: Culture and Politics in the Age of Cold War (Chicago, 1989); George Lipsitz, Time Passages: Collective Memory and American Popular Culture (Minneapolis, 1990); Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York, 1988); and Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War (Baltimore, 1991).
15. See "Culture, Gender, and Foreign Policy: A Symposium," Diplomatic History 18 (Winter 1994): 47-125; Bruce Cumings, "'Revising Postrevisionism': or, The Poverty of Theory in Diplomatic History," Diplomatic History 17 (Fall 1993): 539-69, and Walter L. Hixson, "'Red Storm Rising': Tom Clancy Novels and the Cult of National Security," Diplomatic History 17 (Fall 1993): 599-613. Robert Griffith's work on the Advertising Council and the Council for Economic Development is the exception. See "Forging America's Postwar Order: Domestic Politics and Political Economy in the Age of Truman," in The Truman Presidency, ed. Michael J. Lacey (Washington, 1989), 57-88; and "The Selling of America: The Advertising Council and American Politics, 1942-1960," Business History Review (Autumn 1983): 388-413. Notable works in the political culture literature include Lary May, ed., Recasting America: Culture and Politics in the Age of Cold War (Chicago, 1989); George Lipsitz, Time Passages: Collective Memory and American Popular Culture (Minneapolis, 1990); Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York, 1988); and Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War (Baltimore, 1991).
16. See "Culture, Gender, and Foreign Policy: A Symposium," Diplomatic History 18 (Winter 1994): 47-125; Bruce Cumings, "'Revising Postrevisionism': or, The Poverty of Theory in Diplomatic History," Diplomatic History 17 (Fall 1993): 539-69, and Walter L. Hixson, "'Red Storm Rising': Tom Clancy Novels and the Cult of National Security," Diplomatic History 17 (Fall 1993): 599-613. Robert Griffith's work on the Advertising Council and the Council for Economic Development is the exception. See "Forging America's Postwar Order: Domestic Politics and Political Economy in the Age of Truman," in The Truman Presidency, ed. Michael J. Lacey (Washington, 1989), 57-88; and "The Selling of America: The Advertising Council and American Politics, 1942-1960," Business History Review (Autumn 1983): 388-413. Notable works in the political culture literature include Lary May, ed., Recasting America: Culture and Politics in the Age of Cold War (Chicago, 1989); George Lipsitz, Time Passages: Collective Memory and American Popular Culture (Minneapolis, 1990); Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York, 1988); and Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War (Baltimore, 1991).
17. See "Culture, Gender, and Foreign Policy: A Symposium," Diplomatic History 18 (Winter 1994): 47-125; Bruce Cumings, "'Revising Postrevisionism': or, The Poverty of Theory in Diplomatic History," Diplomatic History 17 (Fall 1993): 539-69, and Walter L. Hixson, "'Red Storm Rising': Tom Clancy Novels and the Cult of National Security," Diplomatic History 17 (Fall 1993): 599-613. Robert Griffith's work on the Advertising Council and the Council for Economic Development is the exception. See "Forging America's Postwar Order: Domestic Politics and Political Economy in the Age of Truman," in The Truman Presidency, ed. Michael J. Lacey (Washington, 1989), 57-88; and "The Selling of America: The Advertising Council and American Politics, 1942-1960," Business History Review (Autumn 1983): 388-413. Notable works in the political culture literature include Lary May, ed., Recasting America: Culture and Politics in the Age of Cold War (Chicago, 1989); George Lipsitz, Time Passages: Collective Memory and American Popular Culture (Minneapolis, 1990); Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York, 1988); and Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War (Baltimore, 1991).
18. "Nailing jelly to the wall" is one "crusty" political historian's assessment of intellectual history. Quoted in Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The "Objectivity Question" and the American Historical Profession (New York, 1988), 7. In his work on the Council on Foreign Relations in this period, Michael Wala suggests abandoning the unanswerable question of the council's influence on elite or public opinion for the more documentable question of its function in the decision-making process. Michael Wala, "Getting the Right Slant to Opinion: The Council on Foreign Relations and U.S. Foreign Policy after World War II" (paper presented at the Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations Conference, 25 June, 1994, Waltham, Massachusetts). See also idem, The Council on Foreign Relations and American Foreign Policy in the Early Cold War (Providence, 1994). Christopher Simpson, Science of Coercion: Communication Research and Psychological Warfare, 1945-60 (New York, 1994), 4, chap. 4, and passim.
19. "Nailing jelly to the wall" is one "crusty" political historian's assessment of intellectual history. Quoted in Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The "Objectivity Question" and the American Historical Profession (New York, 1988), 7. In his work on the Council on Foreign Relations in this period, Michael Wala suggests abandoning the unanswerable question of the council's influence on elite or public opinion for the more documentable question of its function in the decision-making process. Michael Wala, "Getting the Right Slant to Opinion: The Council on Foreign Relations and U.S. Foreign Policy after World War II" (paper presented at the Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations Conference, 25 June, 1994, Waltham, Massachusetts). See also idem, The Council on Foreign Relations and American Foreign Policy in the Early Cold War (Providence, 1994). Christopher Simpson, Science of Coercion: Communication Research and Psychological Warfare, 1945-60 (New York, 1994), 4, chap. 4, and passim.
20. "Nailing jelly to the wall" is one "crusty" political historian's assessment of intellectual history. Quoted in Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The "Objectivity Question" and the American Historical Profession (New York, 1988), 7. In his work on the Council on Foreign Relations in this period, Michael Wala suggests abandoning the unanswerable question of the council's influence on elite or public opinion for the more documentable question of its function in the decision-making process. Michael Wala, "Getting the Right Slant to Opinion: The Council on Foreign Relations and U.S. Foreign Policy after World War II" (paper presented at the Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations Conference, 25 June, 1994, Waltham, Massachusetts). See also idem, The Council on Foreign Relations and American Foreign Policy in the Early Cold War (Providence, 1994). Christopher Simpson, Science of Coercion: Communication Research and Psychological Warfare, 1945-60 (New York, 1994), 4, chap. 4, and passim.
21. "Nailing jelly to the wall" is one "crusty" political historian's assessment of intellectual history. Quoted in Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The "Objectivity Question" and the American Historical Profession (New York, 1988), 7. In his work on the Council on Foreign Relations in this period, Michael Wala suggests abandoning the unanswerable question of the council's influence on elite or public opinion for the more documentable question of its function in the decision-making process. Michael Wala, "Getting the Right Slant to Opinion: The Council on Foreign Relations and U.S. Foreign Policy after World War II" (paper presented at the Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations Conference, 25 June, 1994, Waltham, Massachusetts). See also idem, The Council on Foreign Relations and American Foreign Policy in the Early Cold War (Providence, 1994). Christopher Simpson, Science of Coercion: Communication Research and Psychological Warfare, 1945-60 (New York, 1994), 4, chap. 4, and passim.
22. C. D. Jackson, "The U.S. Public - A Matter of Orchestration," confidential source paper for "Psychological Aspects of U.S. Strategy," Dwight D. Eisenhower Records as President, White House Central Files, Confidential Files, box 61, folder: Nelson Rockefeller (5), November 1955, Eisenhower Library, Abilene, Kansas.
23. See Michael Wala, "Selling the Marshall Plan at Home: The Committee for the Marshall Plan to Aid European Recovery," Diplomatic History 10 (Summer 1986): 247-65; Jerry Sanders, Peddlers of Crisis: The Committee on the Present Danger and the Politics of Containment (Boston, 1983); and Sig Mickelson, America's Other Voice: The Story of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty (New York, 1983).
24. See Michael Wala, "Selling the Marshall Plan at Home: The Committee for the Marshall Plan to Aid European Recovery," Diplomatic History 10 (Summer 1986): 247-65; Jerry Sanders, Peddlers of Crisis: The Committee on the Present Danger and the Politics of Containment (Boston, 1983); and Sig Mickelson, America's Other Voice: The Story of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty (New York, 1983).
25. See Michael Wala, "Selling the Marshall Plan at Home: The Committee for the Marshall Plan to Aid European Recovery," Diplomatic History 10 (Summer 1986): 247-65; Jerry Sanders, Peddlers of Crisis: The Committee on the Present Danger and the Politics of Containment (Boston, 1983); and Sig Mickelson, America's Other Voice: The Story of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty (New York, 1983).
26. MacLeish to Eisenhower, 5 December 1942, quoted in Winkler, The Politics of Propaganda, 42.
27. Winkler, The Politics of Propaganda, 62; statement for the press, quoted in ibid., 65; ibid., 71.
28. Winkler, The Politics of Propaganda, 62; statement for the press, quoted in ibid., 65; ibid., 71.
29. Winkler, The Politics of Propaganda, 62; statement for the press, quoted in ibid., 65; ibid., 71.
30. Benton to Marshall, 3 September 1947, Papers of Howland H. Sargeant, Benton File, box 20, folder: September 1947-January 1953, Truman Library, Independence, Missouri.
31. William Benton oral history interview, 12 July 1968, Columbia University. Jackson to Barrett, 8 February 1951, C. D. Jackson Papers, Time, Inc. File, box 26, Eisenhower Library.
32. Department's Information Program on the Marshall Plan, 1 August 1947, General Records of the Department of State, Record Group 59, Files of Francis H. Russell, 1945-1953, subject box 8, folder: Publicity/Propaganda 1945-51, National Archives, Washington, DC.
33. Wala, "Selling the Marshall Plan," 248.
34. Russell to Schwinn, 4 January 1950, Russell Files, subject box 7, folder: Planning Operations, Domestic and Overseas Information Programs, 1949-50.
35. Russell to Sargeant, 7 June 1949, and 6 June 1950, Russell Files, subject box 7, folder: Planning Operations, Domestic and Overseas Information Programs, 1949-50.
36. George F. Kennan, "The Sources of Soviet Conduct," reprinted in American Diplomacy (Chicago, 1984), 115; postscript, Russell to Sargeant, 7 June 1949, Russell Files, subject box 7, folder: Planning Operations, Domestic and Overseas Information Programs, 1949-50; Francis H. Russell oral history interview, 13 July 1973, Truman Library; Edward W. Barrett oral history interview, 9 July 1974, Truman Library.
37. Russell to Sargeant, 7 June 1949, Russell Files, subject box 7, folder: Planning Operations, Domestic and Overseas Information Programs, 1949-50; "How U.S. Tries to Influence You: Government Spends Millions to Tell Its Story," U.S. News and World Report, 15 June 1951, 18.
38. This count comes from historian Robert L. Beisner, who is presently working on a biography of Dean Acheson. Television historians argue that since broadcasters targeted the widest possible audience, and were entirely supported by sponsor dollars in the era of the blacklist, they were more politically cautious than even the most prestigious papers claiming objectivity. See Erik Barnouw, The Sponsor: Notes on a Modern Potentate (New York, 1979); Karen Sue Foley, The Political Blacklist in the Broadcasting Industry: The Decade of the 1950s (New York, 1979); and John Cogley, Report on Blacklisting II: Radio and Television (New York, 1956).
39. This count comes from historian Robert L. Beisner, who is presently working on a biography of Dean Acheson. Television historians argue that since broadcasters targeted the widest possible audience, and were entirely supported by sponsor dollars in the era of the blacklist, they were more politically cautious than even the most prestigious papers claiming objectivity. See Erik Barnouw, The Sponsor: Notes on a Modern Potentate (New York, 1979); Karen Sue Foley, The Political Blacklist in the Broadcasting Industry: The Decade of the 1950s (New York, 1979); and John Cogley, Report on Blacklisting II: Radio and Television (New York, 1956).
40. This count comes from historian Robert L. Beisner, who is presently working on a biography of Dean Acheson. Television historians argue that since broadcasters targeted the widest possible audience, and were entirely supported by sponsor dollars in the era of the blacklist, they were more politically cautious than even the most prestigious papers claiming objectivity. See Erik Barnouw, The Sponsor: Notes on a Modern Potentate (New York, 1979); Karen Sue Foley, The Political Blacklist in the Broadcasting Industry: The Decade of the 1950s (New York, 1979); and John Cogley, Report on Blacklisting II: Radio and Television (New York, 1956).
41. MacDonald to McMahon, 10 March 1947, RG 59, Records of the Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, 1945-50 (hereafter ASSPA 45-50 Records), box 8, folder: Radio Foundation.
42. See, for instance, Griffith, "Forging America's Postwar Order"; and the introduction in May, ed., Recasting America, 1-11. Louis Galambos and Joseph Pratt, The Rise of the Corporate Commonwealth: U.S. Business and Public Policy in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1988), 128.
43. See, for instance, Griffith, "Forging America's Postwar Order"; and the introduction in May, ed., Recasting America, 1-11. Louis Galambos and Joseph Pratt, The Rise of the Corporate Commonwealth: U.S. Business and Public Policy in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1988), 128.
44. Benton oral history; Kim McQuaid, Big Business and Presidential Power: From FDR to Reagan (New York 1982), 117-21. On the CED see also Griffith, "Forging America's Postwar Order," 57-88. Kim McQuaid, Uneasy Partners: Big Business in American Politics (Baltimore, 1994), 45.
45. Benton oral history; Kim McQuaid, Big Business and Presidential Power: From FDR to Reagan (New York 1982), 117-21. On the CED see also Griffith, "Forging America's Postwar Order," 57-88. Kim McQuaid, Uneasy Partners: Big Business in American Politics (Baltimore, 1994), 45.
46. Benton oral history; Kim McQuaid, Big Business and Presidential Power: From FDR to Reagan (New York 1982), 117-21. On the CED see also Griffith, "Forging America's Postwar Order," 57-88. Kim McQuaid, Uneasy Partners: Big Business in American Politics (Baltimore, 1994), 45.
47. Precise percentages are difficult to document, but among senior public affairs staff in the second Truman administration, I would estimate that 50-60 percent followed a revolving door pattern with the news industry, another 20 percent with legal or foreign trade concerns, and the remainder with the foreign service. Edward Barrett's career is the preeminent example. He wrote and edited for Newsweek for ten years, became executive director of the Overseas Branch of the OWI, returned to Newsweek as editorial director, became ASSPA in 1990, became a partner in the public relations firm of Hill & Knowlton, and served as dean of the Columbia School of Journalism. The five-member USAIC, set up by the Smith-Mundt Act, was by far the most powerful of these groups. Mark Ethridge of the Louisville Courier-Journal and Erwin D. Canham of the Christian Science Monitor chaired it in the late 1940s. Other members were GE chairman Philip Reed, Mark May of Yale, and Justin Miller of the National Association of Broadcasters. Five people were members of both the State Department and NAB groups in 1948: Walter Lemmon of World Wide Broadcasting, Frank Stanton and Edmund Chester of CBS, Charles Denney of RCA, and James Lawrence Fly of Associated Broadcasters, Inc.
48. William Benton to Mike Mansfield, 9 February 1948, ASSPA 45-50 Records, box 7, folder: Congressional Miscellaneous; Barrett oral history.
49. Cobbett Steinberg, TV Facts (New York, 1985), 398, 406.
50. "An Evaluation of Televising of the San Francisco Meetings" (Wood to Russell), 19 September [1951], Russell Files, subject box 11, folder: Television. Russell to Barrett, 21 January 1950, RG 59 Records of the Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, 1947-50 (hereafter ASSPA 47-50 Records), box 5, folder: Public Relations Working Group.
51. One obvious omission in this essay is the department's response to the growing unpopularity of the Korean War. I cover Korea in two chapters in my book, U.S. Television News and Cold War Propaganda, 1947-1960 (Cambridge University Press, forthcoming).
52. "Past and Present Services to Radio and Television by Radio Branch" (Russell to Barrett, 14 April 1950), Russell Files, subject box 11, folder: Radio; memorandum of conversation, Hubell, Kempton, Wood, and Warwick, 23 September 1948, Russell Files, subject box 11, folder: Television.
53. Russell to Wood, 6 May 1949, Russell Files, subject box 11, folder: Television; memorandum of conversation, Kelly, Hubble, Wood, 3 February 1949, Russell Files, subject box 11, folder: Television.
54. Steinberg, TV Facts, 126. During August and September 1954, ABC aired various government-produced documentary programs on subjects such as communism and democracy under the title "This World - 1954."
55. Steinberg, TV Facts, 126. During August and September 1954, ABC aired various government-produced documentary programs on subjects such as communism and democracy under the title "This World - 1954."
56. See Lawrence H. Suid, ed., and David Culbert, ed.-in-chief, Film and Propaganda in America: A Documentary History, vol. 4, 1945 and After (New York, 1990), 61ff. Memorandum of conversation between Pommer, Simpson, Mann, and Carter, 15 July 1949, RG 59, 811.4061/7-1549.
57. Bennett to Leyva, 5 January 1954, RG 59, 911.44/11-2353.
58. Dulles to Barrett, 3 October 1951, and Barrett to Dulles, 16 October 1951, Records of the Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, Office Files of Edward W. Barrett, 1950-51, Records of the Bureau of Public Affairs, box 6, folder: Special Assistants: Battle, Jessup, Dulles.
59. Memorandum by the assistant secretary of state for public affairs (Barrett) to the undersecretary of state (Webb) and Annex, 6 March 1950, U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950 (Washington, 1966), 1:185. Player to Barrett, 9 March 1950, ASSPA 47-50 Records, box 5, folder: Public Relations Working Group.
60. Lehrbas to Webb, 21 April 1950, ASSPA 45-50 Records, box 1, folder: ARA 1950; author's transcript, "Meet the Press" broadcast, 19 July 1953, Motion Picture and Recorded Sound Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
61. Barrett to Crawford, 14 March 1950, ASSPA 45-50 Records, box 1, folder: Deputy Under Secretary for Administration and Component Parts. The findings were inconclusive. Several commentators seemed to devote more time to foreign affairs, "but of course this tendency may be attributable to other factors besides contact with the Department's 'information' circuit." Lehrbas to Russell, 14 March 1951, and Russell to Lehrbas, 30 March 1951, Russell Files, subject box 7, folder: Radio.
62. Russell to Barrett, 13 March 1950 and attached memorandums "Department Broadcast Relations" and "Draft of Memo to PIC on Department Broadcast Relations," Russell Files, subject box 8, folder: Radio; Russell to Barrett, 24 March 1950, Russell Files, subject box 11, folder: Television; Barrett to Carter, 16 March 1950, Russell Files, subject box 11, folder: Television.
63. Members of the PRWG in 1950 were: Lloyd Lehrbas (special assistant to the undersecretary), Francis Russell (director of public affairs), Roger Tubby (press secretary to President Truman), William O. Player, Jr. (public affairs specialist), Edward W. Barrett (ASSPA), Bromley Smith (special assistant to the secretary of state), Erasmus H. Kloman (foreign affairs analyst), Walter Wilgus (assistant to the director of the executive secretariat), and Jack McDermott (chief, International Press and Publications Division). ASSPA 47-90 Records, box 5, folder: Public Relations Working Group 1950; Terms of Reference for Departmental Working Group on Public Relations, [undated], ASSPA 45-50 Records, box 5, folder: Public Relations Working Group; Colcord to Barrett, Notes on Public Relations Working Group Meeting, 17 and 18 August 1950, Russell Files, PRWG 50-52, box 2, folder: Numbered Minutes, 1950-52.
64. Player to Barrett, 5 April 1950, Russell Files, subject box 11, folder: Radio.
65. He lists acceptable scripted shows as "Battle Report" (NBC) and "The Facts We Face" (CBS), and unacceptable "ad lib" television shows as "Meet the Press" (NBC), "People's Platform" (CBS), and "American Forum [of the Air]" (NBC). Russell to Barrett, 22 January 1951, Russell Files, Public Relations Working Group box 1, folder: Documents, 1950-1952. The number of appearances on "Meet the Press" is culled from New York Times television listings of the guests. Wood to Russell, An Evaluation of the Televising of the San Francisco Meeting, 19 September [1951], Russell Files, subject box 11, folder: Television; Spivak to Russell, 21 February 1950, Russell Files, subject box 11, folder: Radio.
66. Many historians contend that television contributed to McCarthy's downfall. They cite the live coverage of the Army-McCarthy hearings and Edward R. Murrow's March 1954 "See It Now" broadcast. Murrow himself said that the mass media made McCarthy by giving "nationwide circulation to his mouthings" but that prolonged exposure on the Army-McCarthy hearings also contributed to his defeat. He felt "See It Now" was "bringing up the rear" behind broadcasters Elmer Davis and Drew Pearson on ABC and Eric Sevareid on CBS who had steadily attacked McCarthy. Only when McCarthy "broke the rules of the club" by attacking members of the Senate was he finished. See A. M. Sperber, Murrow: His life and Times (New York, 1986), chap. 13; Daniel J. Leab, "See It Now: A Legend Reassessed," in American History/American Television, ed. John O'Connor (New York, 1983), 1-32; and James L. Baughman, "'See It Now' and Television's Golden Age, 1951-58," Journal of Popular Culture 15:2, 106-15.
67. Many historians contend that television contributed to McCarthy's downfall. They cite the live coverage of the Army-McCarthy hearings and Edward R. Murrow's March 1954 "See It Now" broadcast. Murrow himself said that the mass media made McCarthy by giving "nationwide circulation to his mouthings" but that prolonged exposure on the Army-McCarthy hearings also contributed to his defeat. He felt "See It Now" was "bringing up the rear" behind broadcasters Elmer Davis and Drew Pearson on ABC and Eric Sevareid on CBS who had steadily attacked McCarthy. Only when McCarthy "broke the rules of the club" by attacking members of the Senate was he finished. See A. M. Sperber, Murrow: His life and Times (New York, 1986), chap. 13; Daniel J. Leab, "See It Now: A Legend Reassessed," in American History/American Television, ed. John O'Connor (New York, 1983), 1-32; and James L. Baughman, "'See It Now' and Television's Golden Age, 1951-58," Journal of Popular Culture 15:2, 106-15.
68. Many historians contend that television contributed to McCarthy's downfall. They cite the live coverage of the Army-McCarthy hearings and Edward R. Murrow's March 1954 "See It Now" broadcast. Murrow himself said that the mass media made McCarthy by giving "nationwide circulation to his mouthings" but that prolonged exposure on the Army-McCarthy hearings also contributed to his defeat. He felt "See It Now" was "bringing up the rear" behind broadcasters Elmer Davis and Drew Pearson on ABC and Eric Sevareid on CBS who had steadily attacked McCarthy. Only when McCarthy "broke the rules of the club" by attacking members of the Senate was he finished. See A. M. Sperber, Murrow: His life and Times (New York, 1986), chap. 13; Daniel J. Leab, "See It Now: A Legend Reassessed," in American History/American Television, ed. John O'Connor (New York, 1983), 1-32; and James L. Baughman, "'See It Now' and Television's Golden Age, 1951-58," Journal of Popular Culture 15:2, 106-15.
69. Memorandum by the assistant secretary of state for public affairs (Barrett) to the secretary of state, 6 April 1950, FRUS, 1950 1:225-26.
70. Address on foreign policy at Luncheon of the American Society of Newspaper Editors, 22 April 1950 Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry S. Truman, 1950 (Washington, 1965), 263.
71. Walter H. Waggoner, "Acheson Declares U.S. is in Danger as Kremlin Target," New York Times, 23 April 1950; "Text of Address by Acheson to Society of Newspaper Editors," ibid.
72. Walter H. Waggoner, "Acheson Declares U.S. is in Danger as Kremlin Target," New York Times, 23 April 1950; "Text of Address by Acheson to Society of Newspaper Editors," ibid.
73. Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department (New York, 1969), 374-75.
74. Wood to Russell, 31 March 1950, Russell Files, subject box 11, folder: Television.
75. Swihart to Carter, 10 August 1950, Russell Files, subject box 11, folder: Television. The correspondent's name is Quincy Howe. Byroade to Hay, Prud'homme, and Kellerman, 14 August 1950, and Hall to Flynn, 22 October 1990, RG 59, 911.44/8-1490.
76. PA Staff Meeting Minutes, 29 August 1910, Russell Files, subject box 7, folder: PA Staff Meetings, 1948-50; Barrett to Webb, 50 August 1950, Russell Files, subject box 11, folder: Television.
77. Jay Walz, "Acheson Doubts Peiping War Entry," New York Times, 11 September 1950.
78. "This is background to Murrow 'kill order,'" [unsigned and undated, probably Jesse Zousmer or Larry LeSeur, August 1950], Edward R. Murrow Papers, CBS Files 343, Fletcher School of Diplomacy, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts. Author's transcript, "Battle Report," 10 September 1950, Motion Picture and Recorded Sound Division, National Archives.
79. Barrett to members of the Public Relations Working Group, 11 September 1950, ASSPA 47-50 Records, PRWG, box 5.
80. Sheatsley to Russell, 19 January 1952, Sargeant Papers, box 4, folder: Correspondence of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, 1952.
81. Jackson to Benton, 2 January 1952, Jackson Papers, Time Inc. File, box 26, folder: Edward W. Barrett; Benton to Louis Cowan, 24 January 1952, Barrett Papers, subject box 1, folder: C + CARE + D; Howland H. Sargeant oral history interview, 15 December 1970, Eisenhower Library.
82. Text of McCardle speech, Conference on U.S. Foreign Policy, 5 June 1953, Carl W. McCardle Papers, Series III, box 11, folder: McCardle speeches, Eisenhower Library; Jackson, "The U.S. Public: A Matter of Orchestration," 62; Deborah Welch Larson, Origins of Containment: A Psychological Explanation (Princeton, 1985), 21.
83. Text of McCardle speech, Conference on U.S. Foreign Policy, 5 June 1953, Carl W. McCardle Papers, Series III, box 11, folder: McCardle speeches, Eisenhower Library; Jackson, "The U.S. Public: A Matter of Orchestration," 62; Deborah Welch Larson, Origins of Containment: A Psychological Explanation (Princeton, 1985), 21.