Professional Help and Crime Victims

Social Service Review

Volumn 71, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 89-109

  Johnson, Knowlton W ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LOUISVILLE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0345863774     PISSN: 00377961     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/604232     Document Type: Article

References (65)

1. Martha R. Burt and Bonnie L. Katz, "Rape, Robbery and Burglary: Responses to Actual and Feared Criminal Victimization with Special Focus on Women and the Elderly," Victimology 10, nos. 1-4 (1985): 325-58: Elizabeth M. Ellis, A Review of Empirical Rape Research: Victim Reactions and Response to Treatment (New York: Pergamon, 1983); Irene H. Frieze, Sharon Hymer, and Martin S. Greenberg, "Describing the Crime Victim: Psychological Reactions to Victimization," Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 18, no. 4 (1987): 299-315; and Knowlton W. Johnson and Gregory A. Bucholtz, "Criminal Victimization and Its Psychological and Behavioral Consequences: A Research Synthesis" (Louisville, Ky.: Community Systems, Research Institute, Inc., 1996).
2. Martha R. Burt and Bonnie L. Katz, "Rape, Robbery and Burglary: Responses to Actual and Feared Criminal Victimization with Special Focus on Women and the Elderly," Victimology 10, nos. 1-4 (1985): 325-58: Elizabeth M. Ellis, A Review of Empirical Rape Research: Victim Reactions and Response to Treatment (New York: Pergamon, 1983); Irene H. Frieze, Sharon Hymer, and Martin S. Greenberg, "Describing the Crime Victim: Psychological Reactions to Victimization," Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 18, no. 4 (1987): 299-315; and Knowlton W. Johnson and Gregory A. Bucholtz, "Criminal Victimization and Its Psychological and Behavioral Consequences: A Research Synthesis" (Louisville, Ky.: Community Systems, Research Institute, Inc., 1996).
3. Martha R. Burt and Bonnie L. Katz, "Rape, Robbery and Burglary: Responses to Actual and Feared Criminal Victimization with Special Focus on Women and the Elderly," Victimology 10, nos. 1-4 (1985): 325-58: Elizabeth M. Ellis, A Review of Empirical Rape Research: Victim Reactions and Response to Treatment (New York: Pergamon, 1983); Irene H. Frieze, Sharon Hymer, and Martin S. Greenberg, "Describing the Crime Victim: Psychological Reactions to Victimization," Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 18, no. 4 (1987): 299-315; and Knowlton W. Johnson and Gregory A. Bucholtz, "Criminal Victimization and Its Psychological and Behavioral Consequences: A Research Synthesis" (Louisville, Ky.: Community Systems, Research Institute, Inc., 1996).
4. Martha R. Burt and Bonnie L. Katz, "Rape, Robbery and Burglary: Responses to Actual and Feared Criminal Victimization with Special Focus on Women and the Elderly," Victimology 10, nos. 1-4 (1985): 325-58: Elizabeth M. Ellis, A Review of Empirical Rape Research: Victim Reactions and Response to Treatment (New York: Pergamon, 1983); Irene H. Frieze, Sharon Hymer, and Martin S. Greenberg, "Describing the Crime Victim: Psychological Reactions to Victimization," Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 18, no. 4 (1987): 299-315; and Knowlton W. Johnson and Gregory A. Bucholtz, "Criminal Victimization and Its Psychological and Behavioral Consequences: A Research Synthesis" (Louisville, Ky.: Community Systems, Research Institute, Inc., 1996).
5. Frieze, Hymer, and Greenberg (n. 1 above).
6. Dan Coates and Tina Winston, "Counteracting the Deviance of Depression: Peer Support Groups for Victims, "Journal of Social Issues 39 (1983): 169-94; Dan Coates, Camille B. Wortman, and Antonia Abbey, "Reactions to Victims," in New Approaches to Social Problems, ed. Irene H. Frieze, Daniel Bar-Tal, and John S. Carroll (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1979), pp. 21-52; Knowlton W. Johnson and Stephen Merker, "Crime Prevention," in What Works in Policing, ed. Gary Cordner and Donna Hale (Cincinnati: Anderson Publishing Co., 1992); pp. 63-84; Fran Norris and Knowlton W. Johnson, "The Effects of Self-Help Precautionary Measures on Criminal Victimization and Fear: Implications for Crime Prevention Policy," Journal of Urban Affairs 10, no. 2 (1988): 161-81.
7. Dan Coates and Tina Winston, "Counteracting the Deviance of Depression: Peer Support Groups for Victims, "Journal of Social Issues 39 (1983): 169-94; Dan Coates, Camille B. Wortman, and Antonia Abbey, "Reactions to Victims," in New Approaches to Social Problems, ed. Irene H. Frieze, Daniel Bar-Tal, and John S. Carroll (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1979), pp. 21-52; Knowlton W. Johnson and Stephen Merker, "Crime Prevention," in What Works in Policing, ed. Gary Cordner and Donna Hale (Cincinnati: Anderson Publishing Co., 1992); pp. 63-84; Fran Norris and Knowlton W. Johnson, "The Effects of Self-Help Precautionary Measures on Criminal Victimization and Fear: Implications for Crime Prevention Policy," Journal of Urban Affairs 10, no. 2 (1988): 161-81.
8. Dan Coates and Tina Winston, "Counteracting the Deviance of Depression: Peer Support Groups for Victims, "Journal of Social Issues 39 (1983): 169-94; Dan Coates, Camille B. Wortman, and Antonia Abbey, "Reactions to Victims," in New Approaches to Social Problems, ed. Irene H. Frieze, Daniel Bar-Tal, and John S. Carroll (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1979), pp. 21-52; Knowlton W. Johnson and Stephen Merker, "Crime Prevention," in What Works in Policing, ed. Gary Cordner and Donna Hale (Cincinnati: Anderson Publishing Co., 1992); pp. 63-84; Fran Norris and Knowlton W. Johnson, "The Effects of Self-Help Precautionary Measures on Criminal Victimization and Fear: Implications for Crime Prevention Policy," Journal of Urban Affairs 10, no. 2 (1988): 161-81.
9. Dan Coates and Tina Winston, "Counteracting the Deviance of Depression: Peer Support Groups for Victims, "Journal of Social Issues 39 (1983): 169-94; Dan Coates, Camille B. Wortman, and Antonia Abbey, "Reactions to Victims," in New Approaches to Social Problems, ed. Irene H. Frieze, Daniel Bar-Tal, and John S. Carroll (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1979), pp. 21-52; Knowlton W. Johnson and Stephen Merker, "Crime Prevention," in What Works in Policing, ed. Gary Cordner and Donna Hale (Cincinnati: Anderson Publishing Co., 1992); pp. 63-84; Fran Norris and Knowlton W. Johnson, "The Effects of Self-Help Precautionary Measures on Criminal Victimization and Fear: Implications for Crime Prevention Policy," Journal of Urban Affairs 10, no. 2 (1988): 161-81.
10. Dennis P. Rosenbaum, "Coping with Victimization: The Effects of Police Intervention on Victims' Psychological Readjustment," Crime and Delinquency 33 (1987): 502-19; Esther Sales, Martha Baum, and Barbara Shore, "Victim Readjustment Following Assault," Journal of Social Issues 40 (1984): 117-36; Wesley G. Skogan, "The Impact of Police on Victims," in Crime and Its Victims, ed. Emillo Viano (New York: Hemisphere, 1989), pp. 71-77.
11. Dennis P. Rosenbaum, "Coping with Victimization: The Effects of Police Intervention on Victims' Psychological Readjustment," Crime and Delinquency 33 (1987): 502-19; Esther Sales, Martha Baum, and Barbara Shore, "Victim Readjustment Following Assault," Journal of Social Issues 40 (1984): 117-36; Wesley G. Skogan, "The Impact of Police on Victims," in Crime and Its Victims, ed. Emillo Viano (New York: Hemisphere, 1989), pp. 71-77.
12. Dennis P. Rosenbaum, "Coping with Victimization: The Effects of Police Intervention on Victims' Psychological Readjustment," Crime and Delinquency 33 (1987): 502-19; Esther Sales, Martha Baum, and Barbara Shore, "Victim Readjustment Following Assault," Journal of Social Issues 40 (1984): 117-36; Wesley G. Skogan, "The Impact of Police on Victims," in Crime and Its Victims, ed. Emillo Viano (New York: Hemisphere, 1989), pp. 71-77.
13. Marlene A. Young, "Victim Assistance in the United States: The End of the Beginning," International Review of Victimology 1 (1990): 181-99.
14. Kenneth Friedman, Helen Bischoff, Robert Davis, and Andresa Person, Victims and Helpers: Reactions to Crime (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 1982); Knowlton Johnson, Fran Norris, and L. Burgess, "Criminal Victimization in Kentucky: A Longitudinal Study" (Research Report Series, no. 9, University of Louisville, Urban Studies Center, Louisville, Ky., 1986); Richard Knudten, Anthony Mead, Mary Knudten, and William Doermer, Victims and Witnesses: The Impact of Their Crime and Their Experience with the Criminal Justice System (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 1977).
15. Kenneth Friedman, Helen Bischoff, Robert Davis, and Andresa Person, Victims and Helpers: Reactions to Crime (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 1982); Knowlton Johnson, Fran Norris, and L. Burgess, "Criminal Victimization in Kentucky: A Longitudinal Study" (Research Report Series, no. 9, University of Louisville, Urban Studies Center, Louisville, Ky., 1986); Richard Knudten, Anthony Mead, Mary Knudten, and William Doermer, Victims and Witnesses: The Impact of Their Crime and Their Experience with the Criminal Justice System (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 1977).
16. Kenneth Friedman, Helen Bischoff, Robert Davis, and Andresa Person, Victims and Helpers: Reactions to Crime (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 1982); Knowlton Johnson, Fran Norris, and L. Burgess, "Criminal Victimization in Kentucky: A Longitudinal Study" (Research Report Series, no. 9, University of Louisville, Urban Studies Center, Louisville, Ky., 1986); Richard Knudten, Anthony Mead, Mary Knudten, and William Doermer, Victims and Witnesses: The Impact of Their Crime and Their Experience with the Criminal Justice System (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 1977).
17. Jacqueline M. Golding, Judith A. Stein, Judith M. Siegel, M. Audrey Burman, and Susan B. Sorenson, "Sexual Assault History and Use of Health and Mental Health Services," American Journal of Community Psychology 16 (1988): 625-44; Dean G. Kilpatrick and Lois J. Veronen, Assessing Victims of Rape: Methodological Issues (Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Mental Health, 1984); Fran H. Norris, Krzysztof Z. Kaniasty, and Deborah A. Scheer, "Use of Mental Health Services among Victims of Crime: Frequency, Correlates, and Subsequent Recovery," Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 58, no. 5 (1990): 538-47; Susan Salasin, "Services to Victims: Need Assessment," in Evaluating Victim Services, ed. Susan Salasin (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1980), pp. 21-38.
18. Jacqueline M. Golding, Judith A. Stein, Judith M. Siegel, M. Audrey Burman, and Susan B. Sorenson, "Sexual Assault History and Use of Health and Mental Health Services," American Journal of Community Psychology 16 (1988): 625-44; Dean G. Kilpatrick and Lois J. Veronen, Assessing Victims of Rape: Methodological Issues (Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Mental Health, 1984); Fran H. Norris, Krzysztof Z. Kaniasty, and Deborah A. Scheer, "Use of Mental Health Services among Victims of Crime: Frequency, Correlates, and Subsequent Recovery," Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 58, no. 5 (1990): 538-47; Susan Salasin, "Services to Victims: Need Assessment," in Evaluating Victim Services, ed. Susan Salasin (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1980), pp. 21-38.
19. Jacqueline M. Golding, Judith A. Stein, Judith M. Siegel, M. Audrey Burman, and Susan B. Sorenson, "Sexual Assault History and Use of Health and Mental Health Services," American Journal of Community Psychology 16 (1988): 625-44; Dean G. Kilpatrick and Lois J. Veronen, Assessing Victims of Rape: Methodological Issues (Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Mental Health, 1984); Fran H. Norris, Krzysztof Z. Kaniasty, and Deborah A. Scheer, "Use of Mental Health Services among Victims of Crime: Frequency, Correlates, and Subsequent Recovery," Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 58, no. 5 (1990): 538-47; Susan Salasin, "Services to Victims: Need Assessment," in Evaluating Victim Services, ed. Susan Salasin (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1980), pp. 21-38.
20. Jacqueline M. Golding, Judith A. Stein, Judith M. Siegel, M. Audrey Burman, and Susan B. Sorenson, "Sexual Assault History and Use of Health and Mental Health Services," American Journal of Community Psychology 16 (1988): 625-44; Dean G. Kilpatrick and Lois J. Veronen, Assessing Victims of Rape: Methodological Issues (Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Mental Health, 1984); Fran H. Norris, Krzysztof Z. Kaniasty, and Deborah A. Scheer, "Use of Mental Health Services among Victims of Crime: Frequency, Correlates, and Subsequent Recovery," Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 58, no. 5 (1990): 538-47; Susan Salasin, "Services to Victims: Need Assessment," in Evaluating Victim Services, ed. Susan Salasin (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1980), pp. 21-38.
21. Nancy Gourash, "Help-Seeking: A Review of the Literature," American Journal of Community Psychology 6 (1978): 413-24.
22. Mike Maguire and Claire Corbett, eds., The Effects of Crime and the Work of Victim Support Services (Aldershop: Gower, 1987).
23. Ibid.
24. Gourash (n. 8 above).
25. Robert C. Davis, "Crime Victims: Learning How to Help them," Research in Action (Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice, 1987), pp. 1-6.
26. Norris, Kaniasty, and Scheer (n. 7 above).
27. This larger study was funded by the Violence and Antisocial Research program of the National Institute of Mental Health (Fran H. Norris, principal investigator, and Knowlton W. Johnson, coprincipal investigator, grant R01 MH41579).
28. The five screening questions pertained to crimes affecting the informant's household in the past 6 months, for example, "Did anyone damage, steal, or try to steal something that belonged to you?" If the informant answered no, the question was repeated, this time referencing "any adult living with you," to emphasize that the study was seeking information on the entire household. Of the five questions, two assessed property crimes, one assessed robbery (violent and property), and two assessed violent crime.
29. The study relied on both informants and respondents. The informant was the person who answered the phone. Given that the calls were placed at different times of day and night and on different days of the week, there seemed to be little reason to expect the randomly selected household member to be better informed about crimes than any other member. The advantages of random selection of informants had to be weighed against the disadvantages of calling a different person to the phone (higher nonresponse) and having to enumerate all households, including those not subsequently selected for the interview (higher cost, thus fewer households could be screened) (Leslie Kish, "A Procedure for Objective Respondent Selection within the Household," American Statistical Association Journal 44 [1949]: 80-87).
30. The National Crime Survey battery has been criticized for underestimating the incidence of rape (Mary Koss, Christine Gidycz, and Nadine Wisniewski, "The Scope of Rape: Incidence and Prevalence of Sexual Aggression and Victimization in a National Sample of Higher Education Students," Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 55 [1987]: 162-70). Some of the changes were designed to increase the instrument's sensitivity to this crime. The present survey may be used to estimate crime rates when weights (inverse of the probability of selection) are applied to the data. Of our weighted female sample, 0.8 percent experienced a threatened, attempted, or actual rape within the 6 months preceding wave 1. An additional and independent 0.8 percent reported such incidents for the 6-month interval between waves 1 and 2. These estimates are far greater than those provided by the U.S. Department of Justice (Robert Lehnen and Wesley Skogan, "The National Crime Survey: Working Papers, Volume 2," Methodological Studies [Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1984]), but are similar to those expected in surveys specially designed to study sexual aggression and victimization (David Kilpatrick, conversation with the principal investigator of the NIMH Study, December 5, 1989).
31. The National Crime Survey battery has been criticized for underestimating the incidence of rape (Mary Koss, Christine Gidycz, and Nadine Wisniewski, "The Scope of Rape: Incidence and Prevalence of Sexual Aggression and Victimization in a National Sample of Higher Education Students," Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 55 [1987]: 162-70). Some of the changes were designed to increase the instrument's sensitivity to this crime. The present survey may be used to estimate crime rates when weights (inverse of the probability of selection) are applied to the data. Of our weighted female sample, 0.8 percent experienced a threatened, attempted, or actual rape within the 6 months preceding wave 1. An additional and independent 0.8 percent reported such incidents for the 6-month interval between waves 1 and 2. These estimates are far greater than those provided by the U.S. Department of Justice (Robert Lehnen and Wesley Skogan, "The National Crime Survey: Working Papers, Volume 2," Methodological Studies [Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1984]), but are similar to those expected in surveys specially designed to study sexual aggression and victimization (David Kilpatrick, conversation with the principal investigator of the NIMH Study, December 5, 1989).
32. The crime incidence battery was designed to prompt memories of any incident occurring in the past 6 months. Unavoidably, features that increase the probability of detecting victimization also elicit reports of trivial incidents that respondents may not have perceived as crimes. In the pretests by Kaniasty (Krzysztof Kaniasty, "Pretest of Candidate Measures: Results of Two Studies" [Working Paper no. 1, "Violence: Psychological Reactions and Consequences," Louisville, Ky., University of Louisville, Urban Studies Center, 1988]), it was found that these "victims" were not willing to or simply could not answer additional questions pertaining to these inconsequential experiences. Therefore, the questionnaire, which was used to collect subsequent waves of data, was designed to identify these people before the follow-up questions were asked. Interviewers were instructed to skip these questions if the respondent did not report the incident to the police and if the reason given for not reporting the incident was because it was not important enough (e.g., "kid stuff").
33. We treated the original sample as a population and then tested whether respondents in later waves were adequate samples of that population. Differences between mean scores of 18 variables were tested using the formula t = (mean of sample - mean of population)/sample SE. The variables were female, urban, nonwhite, professional, never married, formerly married, education, age, external locus of control, received social support, perceived support, precaution, fear, depression, anxiety, phobic anxiety, hostility, and somatization (Willis Goudy, "Effects of Sample Attrition and Data Analysis in the Retirement History Study," Experimental Aging Research 11 [1985]: 616-17; Fran Norris, "Violence: Psychological Reactions and Consequences" [Working Paper no. 4, University of Louisville, Urban Research Institute, Louisville, Ky., 1989]).
34. We treated the original sample as a population and then tested whether respondents in later waves were adequate samples of that population. Differences between mean scores of 18 variables were tested using the formula t = (mean of sample - mean of population)/sample SE. The variables were female, urban, nonwhite, professional, never married, formerly married, education, age, external locus of control, received social support, perceived support, precaution, fear, depression, anxiety, phobic anxiety, hostility, and somatization (Willis Goudy, "Effects of Sample Attrition and Data Analysis in the Retirement History Study," Experimental Aging Research 11 [1985]: 616-17; Fran Norris, "Violence: Psychological Reactions and Consequences" [Working Paper no. 4, University of Louisville, Urban Research Institute, Louisville, Ky., 1989]).
35. Kaniasty (n. 18 above).
36. An abbreviated version of the BSI, which included items for five subscales, was used with special permission from Leonard Derogatis. The Phobic Anxiety subscale, which was not used in this study, had a marginal alpha of 0.64 and test-retest reliability coefficient of 0.60. Further, the distribution of this subscale was highly kurtotic and skewed. Finally, in a confirmatory factor analysis using the five original subscales, the hypothesis that these measures were indicators of a latent variable was rejected. In a respecification analysis, it was found that four subscales, excluding Phobic Anxiety, represented a latent variable with an acceptable fit to the data. Leonard Derogatis and Phillip Spencer, The Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI): Administration, Scoring and Procedures Manual-1. (Baltimore: Leonard Derogatis and Phillip Spencer, 1982).
37. Norris, Kaniasty, and Scheer (n. 7 above).
38. Charles Rubio and Bernard Lubin, "College Student Mental Health: A Person-Environment Interactional Analysis," Journal of Clinical Psychology 42 (1986): 205-12.
39. Clifford L. Broman, "Race Differences in Professional Help Seeking," American Journal of Community Psychology 15 (1987): 473-90; Arie Nadler, Jeffrey D. Fisher, and Bella M. DePaulo, "Applied Perspectives on Help-Seeking and Receiving," New Directions in Helping, vol. 3 (New York: Academic Press, 1983).
40. Clifford L. Broman, "Race Differences in Professional Help Seeking," American Journal of Community Psychology 15 (1987): 473-90; Arie Nadler, Jeffrey D. Fisher, and Bella M. DePaulo, "Applied Perspectives on Help-Seeking and Receiving," New Directions in Helping, vol. 3 (New York: Academic Press, 1983).
41. Lehnen and Skogan (n. 17 above).
42. U.S. Department of Justice, Uniform Crime Reporting Handbook (Washington, D.C.: Federal Bureau of Investigation, 1984).
43. Knowlton Johnson and Gregory Bucholtz, "Longitudinal Effects of Criminal Victimization and Vulnerability Status on Fear of Crime: Comparison of Quantitative Methods" (paper presented at the Council on Social Work Education meeting, New York, February 1993); Wesley Skogan and Michael Maxfield, Coping with Crime, Sage Library of Social Research, vol. 124 (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1981).
44. Knowlton Johnson and Gregory Bucholtz, "Longitudinal Effects of Criminal Victimization and Vulnerability Status on Fear of Crime: Comparison of Quantitative Methods" (paper presented at the Council on Social Work Education meeting, New York, February 1993); Wesley Skogan and Michael Maxfield, Coping with Crime, Sage Library of Social Research, vol. 124 (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1981).
45. August Hollingshead and Frederick Redlich, Social Chaos and Mental Illness: A Community Study (New York: Wiley, 1958).
46. Karl Jöreskog and Dag Sörbom, LISREL 8: Structural Equation Modeling with the SIMPLIS Command Language (Hillsdale, N.J.: Scientific Software International, 1993).
47. This analysis strategy allows the error terms in the four dependent measures to be correlated; therefore, each of the two models is saturated and fits the data perfectly (ibid). 31. The various analyses were conducted using an IBM mainframe version of SPSSX (SPSS, Inc., SPSS-X, computer program manual [Chicago: SPSS, Inc., 1991]), PC versions of PRELIS, a preprocessor of data for LISREL (Linear Structural Relations) (Karl J̈oreskog and Dag Sörbom, LISREL 7, 1st ed., computer program manual [Mooresville, Ind.: Scientific Software, Inc., 1989]) and LISREL 7.14 (ibid.). The LISREL analyses were performed on an IBM compatible PC.
48. This analysis strategy allows the error terms in the four dependent measures to be correlated; therefore, each of the two models is saturated and fits the data perfectly (ibid). 31. The various analyses were conducted using an IBM mainframe version of SPSSX (SPSS, Inc., SPSS-X, computer program manual [Chicago: SPSS, Inc., 1991]), PC versions of PRELIS, a preprocessor of data for LISREL (Linear Structural Relations) (Karl J̈oreskog and Dag Sörbom, LISREL 7, 1st ed., computer program manual [Mooresville, Ind.: Scientific Software, Inc., 1989]) and LISREL 7.14 (ibid.). The LISREL analyses were performed on an IBM compatible PC.
49. Measures of these effects consisted of the product of wave 1 and wave 2 service use measures. Centering, which is a recommended procedure in creating interaction terms, is unnecessary because the service use measures were created as dummy variables.
50. Ted Miller, Mark A. Cohen, and Brian Wiersema, Victim Costs and Consequences: A New Look, research report (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, February 1995).
51. American Psychological Association, Task Force on the Victims of Crime and Violence Final Report (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1984); Nancy Downing, "A Conceptual Model for Victim Services: Challenges and Opportunities for Counseling Psychologists," The Counseling Psychologist 16 (1988): 595-629; Marlene Young, "Victim Assistance in the United States: The End of the Beginning," International Review of Victomology 1 (1990): 181-99.
52. American Psychological Association, Task Force on the Victims of Crime and Violence Final Report (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1984); Nancy Downing, "A Conceptual Model for Victim Services: Challenges and Opportunities for Counseling Psychologists," The Counseling Psychologist 16 (1988): 595-629; Marlene Young, "Victim Assistance in the United States: The End of the Beginning," International Review of Victomology 1 (1990): 181-99.
53. American Psychological Association, Task Force on the Victims of Crime and Violence Final Report (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1984); Nancy Downing, "A Conceptual Model for Victim Services: Challenges and Opportunities for Counseling Psychologists," The Counseling Psychologist 16 (1988): 595-629; Marlene Young, "Victim Assistance in the United States: The End of the Beginning," International Review of Victomology 1 (1990): 181-99.
54. U.S. Department of Justice, Criminal Victimization (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1990).
55. Golding et al. (n. 7 above).
56. Broman (n. 24 above); Philip Leaf, Martha Livingston, Gary Tischler, Myrna Weissman, Charles Holzer, and Jerome Myers, "Contact with Health Professionals for the Treatment of Psychiatric and Emotional Problems," Medical Care 23 (1985): 1322-37.
57. Gourash (n. 8 above).
58. Michael Maxfield, "The London Metropolitan Police and Their Clients: Victim and Suspect Attitudes," Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 25 (1988): 188-206.
59. Kilpatrick and Veronen (n. 7 above).
60. Personal communication with Professor Sam Neal, associate director, Kent School of Social Work, University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky., July 8, 1994.
61. Norris and Johnson (n. 3 above).
62. Kenneth Friedman, Helen Bischoff, Robert Davis, and Andresa Person, Victims and Helpers: Reactions to Crime (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 1982).
63. Norman Ostbloom and Sedahlia Crase, "A Model for Conceptualizing Child Abuse Causation and Intervention," Social Casework: The Journal of Contemporary Social Work 61, no. 3 (March 1980): 164-72.
64. John Fox, "Sex, Marital Status, and Age as Social Selection Factors in Recent Psychiatric Treatment," Journal of Health and Social Behavior 25 (1984): 394-405; Golding et al. (n. 7 above); Leaf et al. (n. 37 above); Norris, Kaniasty, and Scheer (n. 7 above).
65. Thomas Cook and Donald Campbell, Quasi-experimentation Design and Analysis Issues for Field Settings (Skokie, Ill.: Rand-McNally, 1979).