Levels of Alpha-Fetoprotein during Pregnancy and Early Infancy in Normal and Disease States

Obstetrical and Gynecological Survey

Volumn 58, Issue 12, 2003, Pages 804-826

  Mizejewski, Gerald J ^a  

^a WADSWORTH CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALPHA FETOPROTEIN; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; ERYTHROPOIETIN; FOLIC ACID; ONCOFETAL ANTIGEN; ORAL CONTRACEPTIVE AGENT; TUMOR MARKER;

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; AMNION FLUID; ANEMIA; ANENCEPHALUS; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; BIRTH DEFECT; BLOOD LEVEL; BODY FLUID; BODY WEIGHT; CONGENITAL HEART DISEASE; CONGENITAL MALFORMATION; CYSTIC FIBROSIS; DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDER; DISEASE MARKER; FEMALE; FETUS; FETUS BLOOD; FETUS DEATH; FETUS DEVELOPMENT; FETUS DISEASE; FETUS HEART; FOLIC ACID DEFICIENCY; GENDER; GESTATIONAL AGE; HEART DISEASE; HEMOLYTIC ANEMIA; HUMAN; HYDROCEPHALUS; HYPOTHYROIDISM; INFANCY; INFANT; INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; LOW BIRTH WEIGHT; MATERNAL HYPERTENSION; MATERNAL SERUM; NEURAL TUBE DEFECT; NEWBORN; PERINATAL DEVELOPMENT; POSTNATAL DEVELOPMENT; PREECLAMPSIA; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY COMPLICATION; PREGNANCY DIABETES MELLITUS; PREMATURITY; PROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; PROTEIN FUNCTION; REVIEW; SOLUTIO PLACENTAE; SPINA BIFIDA; SPONTANEOUS ABORTION; SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS; THROMBOCYTE AGGREGATION; TOXEMIA; UMBILICAL CORD BLOOD; URINE LEVEL;

ABNORMALITIES; ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ALPHA-FETOPROTEINS; AMNIOCENTESIS; AMNIOTIC FLUID; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES; CYSTIC FIBROSIS; DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 1; ERYTHROPOIESIS; FEMALE; FETAL BLOOD; FOLIC ACID DEFICIENCY; HEART DEFECTS, CONGENITAL; HUMANS; HYPOTHYROIDISM; MALE; MATERNAL-FETAL EXCHANGE; PLATELET AGGREGATION; PRE-ECLAMPSIA; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS; PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS;

EID: 0345690156     PISSN: 00297828     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/01.OGX.0000099770.97668.18     Document Type: Review

References (216)

1. Bergstrand CG, Czar B. Paper electrophoretic study of human fetal serum proteins with demonstration of a new protein fraction. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1957;9:277-281.
2. Abelev GI, Perova SD, Khramkova NI, et al. Production of embryonal alpha-globulin by transplantable mouse hepatoma Transplantation 1963;1:174-178.
3. Tatarinov YS. Content of embryo-specific alpha-globulin in the blood serum of the human fetus, newborn, and adult man in primary cancer of the liver. Voprosy Khim SSR 1965;11: 20-24.
4. Masopust J, Kotal L. Fetoprotein. Immunochemical behavior of a autonomous fetal component in sera from human fetuses. Ann Paediat 1965;204:138-140.
5. Gitlin D, Boesman M, Serum AFP, albumin, and γ-G-globulin in the human conceptus. J Clin Invest 1966;45:1826-1830.
6. Brock DJH, Sutcliffe RG. Alpha-fetoprotein in the antenatal diagnosis of anencephaly and spina bifida. Lancet 1972;2: 197-194.
7. Brock DJ, Bolton AE, Monaghan JM. Prenatal diagnosis through maternal serum AFP measurement. Lancet 1973;2: 293-294.
8. Leek AE, Ruoss CF, Kitau MJ, et al. Raised AFP in maternal serum with anencephalic pregnancy. Lancet 1973;2:385-386.
9. Alexander P. Fetal antigens in cancer. Nature 1972;235:137-140.
10. Crandall BF. Alpha-fetoprotein. A review. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 1981;15:127-185.
11. Mizejewski GJ. Alpha-fetoprotein as a biologic response modifier: Relevance to domain and subdomain structure. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1997;215:333-362.
12. Mizejewski GJ. Alpha-fetoprotein structure and function: relevance to isoforms, epitopes, and conformational variants. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2001;226:377-408.
13. Gabant P, Forrester L, Nichols J, et al. Alpha-fetoprotein, the major fetal serum protein, is not essential for embryonic development but is required for female fertility. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002;99:12865-12870.
14. Mizejewski GJ. New insights into AFP structure and function: Potential biomedical applications. In: Mizejewski GJ, Porter IH, eds. Alpha-Fetoprotein and Congenital Disorders. Orlando: Academic Press, 1985:5-34.
15. Mizejewski GJ. The phylogeny of alpha-fetoprotein in vertebrates. Survey of biochemical and physiological data. Crit Rev Eukaryot Gene Expr 1995;5:281-316.
16. Deutsch HF. Chemistry and biology of α-fetoprotein. Adv Cancer Res 1991;56:253-312.
17. Nunez EA. Biological role of alpha-fetoprotein in the endocrinological field: data and hypotheses. Tumour Biol 1994; 15:63-72.
18. Uriel J. The physiological role of alpha-fetoprotein in cell growth and differentiation. J Nucl Med 1989;33:12-17.
19. Chen H, Egan JO, Chiu JF. Regulation and activities of alpha-fetoprotein. Crit Rev Eukaryot Gene Expr 1997;7:11-41.
20. Lazarevich NL. Molecular mechanisms of alpha-fetoprotein gene expression. Biochemistry (Mosc) 2000;65:117-133.
21. Gillespie JR, Uversky VN. Structure and function of alpha-fetoprotein: a biophysical review. Biochim Biophys Acta 2000;1480:41-56.
22. Haddow JE, Palomaki GE, Knight GJ, et al. Prenatal screening for Down's syndrome with use of maternal serum markers. N Engl J Med 1992;327:588-593.
23. Cuckle HS, Holding S, Jones R, et al. Combining inhibin-A with existing second trimester markers in maternal serum screening for Down's syndrome. Prenat Diagn 1996;16: 1095-1100.
24. Thomas RL, Blakemore KJ. Evaluation of elevations in maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein: a review. Obstet Gynecol Surv 1990;45:269-283.
25. Krause TG, Christens P, Wohlfahrt J, et al. Second-trimester maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein and risk of adverse pregnancy outcome. Obstet Gynecol 2001;97:277-282.
26. Lamerz R. AFP isoforms and then clinical significance. Anticancer Res 1997;17:2927-2930.
27. Johnson PJ, Poon TCW, Hjelm NM, et al. Structures of disease-specific serum alpha-fetoprotein isoforms. Br J Cancer 2000;83:1330-1337.
28. Breborowicz J. Microheterogeneity of human alpha-fetoprotein. Tumour Biol 1988;9:3-14.
29. Taketa K. Multimodal application of lectin affinity electrophoresis of alpha-fetoprotein. Electrophoresis 1998;19: 1774-1779.
30. Taketa K. Characterization of sugar chain structures of human AFP by lectin affinity electrophoresis. Electrophoresis 1998;19:2595-2602.
31. Gitlin D. Normal biology of alpha-fetoprotein. Ann NY Acad Sci 1975;259:7-16.
32. Gitlin D, Perricelli A, Gitlin GM. Synthesis of alpha-fetoprotein by liver, yolk sac, and gastrointestinal tract of the human conceptus. Cancer Res 1972;32:979-982.
33. Jones EA, Clement-Jones M, Oliver FWJ, et al. Differences between human and mouse alpha-fetoprotein expression during early development. J Anat 2001;198:555-559.
34. Mollgard K, Jacobsen M, Jacobsen GK, et al. Immunohistochemical evidence for an intracellular localization of plasma proteins in human foetal choroids plexus and brain. Neurosci Lett 1979;14:85-90.
35. Jacobsen M, Lassen LC, Mollgard K. Immunohistochemical evidence for intracellular localization of plasma proteins in CNS and some neural crest derivatives inhuman embryos. Tumour Biol 1984;5:53-60.
36. Furth RV, Adinolfi M. In vitro synthesis of fetal alpha-fetoprotein in man. Nature 1969;222:1296-1299.
37. Lau HL, Linkins SE. Alpha-fetoprotein. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1976;124:533-538.
38. Lardinois R, Anagnostakis D, Ortiz MA. Human alpha-fetoprotein during the last trimester of gestation. Clin Chim Acta 1972;37:81-86.
39. Gitlin D, Kumate J, Morales C. The turnover of amniotic fluid protein in the human conceptus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1972; 113:632-636.
40. Mizejewski GJ. Alpha-fetoprotein. Use in predicting perinatal distress. In: Mizejewski GJ, Porter I, eds. Alpha-Fetoprotein and Congenital Disorders. New York: Academic Press, 1985: 157-177.
41. Haddow JE, Macri JN, Munson M. The amnion regulates movement of fetal derived alpha-fetoprotein into maternal blood. J Lab Clin Med 1979;94:344-347.
42. Brownhill P, Edward D, Jones C, et al. Mechanisms of alpha-fetoprotein transfer in the perfused human placental cotyledon from uncomplicated pregnancy. J Clin Invest 1995;96: 2220-2226.
43. Milunsky A, Jick SS, Bruell CL, et al. Predictive values, relative risks, and overall benefits of high and low maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein screening in singleton pregnancies. New epidemiologic data. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989;161: 291-297.
44. Baschet AA, Marmon CR, Farid G, et al. Very low second-trimester MSAFP: association with high birth weight. Obstet Gynecol 2002;99:531-536.
45. Burton B. Outcome of pregnancy in patients with unexplained or low levels of maternal sera alpha-fetoprotein. Obstet Gynecol 1988;72:709-914.
46. Everman DB, Shuman C, Dzolganovski B, et al. Serum AFP levels in Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome. J Pediatr 2000; 137:123-127.
47. Simpson JL, Baum LD, Depp R, et al. Low maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein and perinatal outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987;156:852-862.
48. Waller DK, Lustig LS, Cunningham GC, et al. The association between maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein and preterm birth, small for gestational age infants, preeclampsia, and placental complications. Obstet Gynecol 1996;88:816-822.
49. Kronquist K, Dreazen E, Keener S, et al. Reduced fetal hepatic AFP levels in Down syndrome. Prenat Diagn 1990;10: 739-751.
50. Mizejewski GJ, Dias JA, Hauer CR, et al. Alpha-fetoprotein derived peptides: Assay of an estrogen-modifying regulatory segment. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1996;118:15-23.
51. Liautard JP. A thermo-kinetic model for protein folding. CR Acad Sci 1990;311:385-389.
52. Dudich IV, Semenkova LN, Dudich EI. Reversible conformational changes in the tertiary structure of the human AFP molecule induced by ligand-protein and protein-protein interactions. Tumour Biol 1998;19:34.
53. Uversky VN, Narizhneva NV, Ivanova TV, et al. Rigidity of human alpha-fetoprotein tertiary structure is under ligand control. Biochem J 1997;36:13638-13645.
54. Bennett JA, Mizejewski GJ, Allen SHG, et al. Transformation of alpha-fetoprotein to a negative regulator of estrogen-dependent growth by ligands of the steroid/thyroid hormone receptor superfamily. 18th International Congress. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 1993;34:244.
55. Peck JD, Hulka BS, Poole C, et al. Steroid hormone levels during pregnancy and incidence of maternal breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2002;11:361-368.
56. Vakharia D, Mizejewski GJ. Human alpha-fetoprotein peptides bind estrogen receptor and estradiol and suppress breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2000;63:41-52.
57. Bennett MJ, Solymar M, Turnbull AC, et al. Pregnancies associated with low maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1979;135:545-547.
58. Mariona FG, Hassan MM, Syner FN, et al. Maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein and fetal growth. J Perinat Med 1984;12: 179-181.
59. 2, and alpha-fetoprotein concentrations at the human feto-maternal interface. J Lipid Res 1997;38:276-286.
60. Hsourigui M, Thabie N, Martin ME, et al. In vivo transient rise in plasma free fatty acids alters the functional properties of alpha-fetoprotein. Biochim Biophys Acta 1992;1125:157-165.
61. Czokalo M. Human alpha-fetoprotein/AFP/I. Isolation of homogenous AFP from cord blood serum. Mol Cell Biochem 1979;25:179-185.
62. Bewley S, Chard T, Grudzinskas G, et al. The relationship of uterine and umbilical Doppler resistance to fetal and placental protein synthesis in the second trimester. Placenta 1993; 14:663-670.
63. Chen RJ, Lin YH, Wang CW, et al. Alpha-fetoprotein in women during pregnancy and in the neonate during intrapartum. Am J Perinatol 1994;11:279-281.
64. Walters BNJ, Lao T, Smith V, et al. α-fetoprotein elevation and proteinuric pre-eclampsia. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1985; 92:341-344.
65. Kelkar SS, Talib VH. Alpha-fetoprotein in paired cord-blood and maternal sera. Indian J Med Res 1975;63:961-964.
66. Hsieh TT, Hsu JJ, Lo LM, et al. Maternal urine alpha-fetoprotein concentrations between 14 and 21 weeks of gestation. Chang Gung Med J 1999;22:234-239.
67. Bahado-Singth R, Utke O, Rinne K, et al. Elevated maternal urine level of β-core fragment of hCG versus triple test in Down syndrome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999;181:929-933.
68. Katsumata Y. Identification of fetal blood stains by RIA of alpha-fetoprotein. Z Rechtsmed 1979;82:323-326.
69. Mizejewski GJ, Bellisano R, et al. Commercial RIA kit for AFP measurement in newborn dried blood spots. Clin Chem 1982;28:1207-1210.
70. Dallaire L, Grenier A, et al. Maternal sera AFP measured on dried blood spots. Prenat Diagn 1982;2:265-271.
71. Wong PY, Mee AV, et al. Studies of AFP measurement in dried blood spots for prenatal diagnosis. Clin Biochem 1982; 15:170-172.
72. Tsao D, et al. ELISA for AFP on dried blood specimens. Clin Chem 1986;32:2079-2082.
73. Gonzalez C, Guerrero JM, et al. Evaluation of MSAFP using dried blood samples. J Clin Chem Clin Biochem 1988;26:79-84.
74. Mizejewski GJ, Bellisario R, Beblowski DW, et al. Adaptation of a commercial radioimmunoassay kit for measurement of alpha-fetoprotein in dried blood specimens from newborns. Clin Chem 1982;28:1207-1210.
75. Obiekwe BC, Malek N, Kitau MJ, et al. Maternal and fetal alphafetoprotein (AFP) levels at term. Relation to sex, weight and gestation of the infant. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1985;64:252-253.
76. Szabo M, Veress L, Munnich A, et al. Maternal age-dependent and sex related changes of gestational serum AFP. Fetal Diagn Ther 1995;10:368-372.
77. Chen RJ, Lin YH, Huang SC. Fetal sex and maternal serum AFP concentration at late and normal singleton pregnancies. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1994;73:192-194.
78. Kisida T, Yamada H, Furuta I, et al. Persistent detection of AFP in the vagina without overt preterm premature rupture of the membranes. Fetal Diagn Ther 2001;16:259-264.
79. Theodoridix GG, Bourloyiannes C, Papagregoruou M, et al. Serum alpha-fetoprotein levels in congenital hypothyroidism [Abstract]. Pediatr Res 1978;12:1085.
80. Larsson A, Hagenfeldt L, Blom L, et al. Serum alpha-fetoprotein: a biochemical indicator of prenatal hypothyroidism. Acta Paediatr Scand 1983;72:481-484.
81. Pass KA, Mizejewski GJ. Alpha-fetoprotein. A possible factor in pituitary-thyroid development, In: Mizejewski GJ, Porter IH, eds. Alpha-Fetoprotein and Congenital Disorders. Orlando: Academic Press, 1985:339-341.
82. Mizejewski GJ, Pass KA. Alpha-fetoprotein and hypothyroidism in infants. Pediatrics 1992;90:1008-1009.
83. Mizejewski GJ, Hedden MB, Koener-Rabatoy SA, et al. Correlation of serum alpha-fetoprotein levels with neonatal hypothyroid status. Presented at 8th National Neonatal Screening Symposium and 21st Birth Defects Symposium; Saratoga Springs, NY; January 29-February 2, 1991.
84. Bellisario R, Koerner Brown S, Beblowski D, et al. Newborn screening for hypothyroidism in New York State. In: Therrell BL Jr, ed. Advances in Neonatal Screening. New York: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. (Biomedical Division), 1987: 35-40.
85. Koerner Brown S, Bellisario R. Measurement of thyroxine binding globulin (TBG) levels from dried bloodspot specimens: detection of TBG deficiency and TBG excess in infants. In: Willey A, ed. Genetic Disease: Screening and Management. New York: Alan R. Liss, Inc, 1986:373-384.
86. Mengreli C, Sarafidou E, Petmezaki S, et al. Alpha-fetoprotein in congenital hypothyroidism. Biol Neonate 1990; 58:326-333.
87. Belanger L, Hamel D, Lachance L, et al. Hormonal regulation of α-fetoprotein. Nature 1975;256:657-659.
88. Ben-Neriah Z, Yagel S, Zelikoviz B, et al. Increased maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein in congenital hypothyroidism. Lancet 1991;337:437.
89. Haddow JE, Knight GJ, Palomaki GE, et al. Maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein in congenital hypothyroidism. Lancet 1991;337:922.
90. Cuckle H, Jones N, Kay J, et al. Maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein in congenital hypothyroidism. Lancet 1991;337: 922.
91. Johnson AM, Salter KE. High serum level of α-fetoprotein in an infant with iatrogenic hypothyroidism [Abstract]. Clin Res 1972;20:56.
92. Bartha JL, Comino-Delgado R, Arce F, et al. Relationship between alpha-fetoprotein and fetal erythropoiesis. J Reprod Med 1999;44:689-697.
93. Carrington D, Gilmore DH, Whittle MJ, et al. Maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein: A marker of fetal aplastic crisis during intrauterine human parvovirus infection. Lancet 1982;1:433-434.
94. Seppälä M, Ruoshlati E. Alpha-fetoprotein in Rh-immunized pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol 1973;42:701-705.
95. Extermann P, Nicolini U, Rodeck CH. Acid-base and hematological values at blood sampling in the evaluation of trisomic fetuses. A case-control study. Obstet Gynecol 1993; 81:958-962.
96. Wald NJ, Cuckle HS, Densem JW, et al. Maternal serum screening for Down syndrome in early pregnancy. BMJ 1988; 297:883-887.
97. Henriques CU, Damm P, Tabor A, et al. Decreased alpha-fetoprotein in amniotic fluid and maternal serum in diabetic pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1993;82:960-964.
98. Saivesen DR, Brudenell JM, Snijders RJM, et al. Fetal plasma erythropoietin in pregnancies complicated by maternal diabetes mellitus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993;168:88-94.
99. Boyd PA. Why might maternal serum AFP be high in pregnancies in which the fetus is normally formed? Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1992;99:93-95.
100. Katz VL, Chescheir NC, Cefalo RC. Unexplained elevations of maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein. Obstet Gynecol Surv 1990;45:719-726.
101. Bartha JL, Romero-Carmona R, Comino-Delgado R, et al. AFP and hematopoietic growth factors in amniotic fluids. Obstet Gynecol 2000;96:588-592.
102. Cassinat B, Darsin D, Guardiola P, et al. Intermethod discordance for AFP measurements in Fanconi anemia. Clin Chem 2001;47:1405-1409.
103. 12 deficiency in pregnancy and in the neonatal period. Clin Perinatol 1984;11: 433-459.
104. Davis RE. Clinical chemistry of folic acid. Adv Clin Chem 1986;25:233-294.
105. Hall MH, Pirani BBK, Campbell D. The cause of the fall of serum folate in normal pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1976;83:132-136.
106. Abramsky O, Brenner T, Lisak RP, et al. Significance in neonatal myasthenia gravis of inhibitory effect of amniotic fluid on binding of antibodies to acetylcholine receptor. Lancet 1979;11:1333-1335.
107. Ogata A, Yamashita T, Koyama Y, et al. Suppression of experimental antigen-induced arthritis in transgenic mice producing human alpha-fetoprotein. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1995;213:362-366.
108. Abramsky O, Brenner T, Mizrachi R, et al. AFP suppresses experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. J Neuroimmunol 1982;2:1-7.
109. Gershwin ME, Costles JJ, Makishima R. Alpha-fetoprotein-associated alterations of New Zealand mouse. Immunopharmacology 1979;1:331-341.
110. Brenner T, Abramsky O. Immunosuppression of experimental auto-immune myasthenia gravis by AFP-rich formation. Immunol Lett 1981;3:163-167.
111. Brenner T, Beyth Y, Abramsky O. Inhibitory effect of AFP on the binding of myasthenia gravis antibody to acetylcholine receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1980;77:3635-3639.
112. Buschman E, Van Oers N, Katz M, et al. Experimental myasthenia gravis induced in mice by passive transfer of human myasthenic immunoglobulin. Evidence for ameliorating effect by AFP. J Neuroimmunol 1987;13:315-330.
113. Abramsky O, Brenner T, Mizarachi R, et al. AFP suppresses experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. J Neuroimmunol 1982;2:1-7.
114. Brenner T, Evron S, Soffer D, et al. Treatment of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis in rabbits with AFP. Isr J Med Sci 1985;21:945-949.
115. Petd M, Ho AC, Patel J, et al. Elevation of maternal AFP in systemic lupus erythematosus: a controlled study. J Rheumatol 1995;22:1365-1368.
116. Kupfermine MJ, Tamura RK, Wigton TR, et al. Placenta accreta is associated with elevated maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein. Obstet Gynecol 1993;82:266-269.
117. Petri M, Howard D, Reple J, et al. The Hopkins Lupus Pregnancy Center 1987-1991; a review update. Am J Reprod Immunol 1992;28:188-191.
118. Guay LA. From research to implementation: challenges in the prevention of mother to child HIV transmission in the developing world. Trends Mol Med 2001;7:277-279.
119. Casalini C, Signorini L, Beltrame A, et al. Vertical transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and other sexually transmitted infections. Minerva Ginecol 2001;53:177-920.
120. Doherty RR. Preventing transmission of HIV from mothers to babies in Australia. Med J Aust 2001;174:433-434.
121. Pancharoen C, Thisyakorn U. Pediatric acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in Asia: mother-to-child transmission. Clin Infect Dis 2002;34(suppl 2):S65-S69.
122. Mandelbrot L, Paytavin G, Pharm D, et al. Maternal-fetal transfer and amniotic fluid accumulation of lamivudine in HIV-infected pregnant women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001; 184:153-158.
123. Pascual A, Brina I, Cerrolaza J, et al. Absence of maternal-fetal transmission of HIV-type-1 to second trimester fetuses. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000;183:638-642.
124. Gross S, Catillo W, Crane M, et al. Maternal serum α-fetoprotein and human chorionic gonadotrophin levels in women with human immunodeficiency virus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003;188:1052-1056.
125. Atemezem A, Mbemba E, Marfaing R, et al. Human AFP binds to primary macrophages. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2002;296:507-514.
126. 1 immunogenic peptide: computer stimulation of the principal CD4 binding domain of gp120. J Med Chem 2002;45:1019-1025.
127. Ramaley PA, French N, Kaleebu P, et al. Chemokine-receptor genes and AIDS risk. Nature 2002;417:140-141.
128. Faber JM, Berger EA. HIV's response to CCR5 inhibitor: I'd rather heighten than switch. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002;99:1749-1751.
129. Seddiki N, Bouhlal H, Rabehi L, et al. Involvement of the HIV-1 external envelope glycoprotein-120 (gp120) C2 region in gp120 oligomerization. Biochem Biophys Acta 1997;1340: 277-282.
130. Legge M, Duff GB, Pike L, et al. Second trimester maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein as an indicator of fetal risk. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1985;25:266-268.
131. Albar H, MacDonald KM, Harman CR, et al. Elevated MSAFP levels and congential heart defects. Lack of an association. Am J Med Genet 1995;58:292.
132. Fialova L, Malbohan I, Mikulikova L, et al. Biochemical screening of congenital development abnormalities using determination of fetoplacental antigens. Acta Univ Carol Med Monogr 1993;39:3-8.
133. Tanski S, Rosengren SS, Benn PA. Predictive value of the triple screening test for the phenotype of Down syndrome. Am J Med Genet 1999;82:123-126.
134. Christiaens GC, Hagenaars AM, Akkerman C, et al. Are Down syndrome fetuses detected through maternal serum screening similar to those remaining undetected? Prenat Diagn 1996;16:437-442.
135. Paulyson KJ, Sherer DM, Christian SL, et al. Prenatal diagnosis of an infant with mosaic trisomy 16 of paternal origin. Prenat Diagn 1996;16:1021-1026.
136. Souter VL, Nyberg DA, El-Bastawissi A, et al. Correlation of ultrasound findings and biochemical markers in the second trimester of pregnancy in fetuses with trisomy 21. Prenat Diagn 2002;22:175-182.
137. Constantine G, McCormack J. Birmingham Maternity Hospital, Queen Elizabeth Medical Centre, Edgbaston, UK, comparative audit of booking and mid-trimester ultrasound scans in the prenatal diagnosis of congenital anomalies. Prenat Diagn 1991;11:905-914.
138. Chandra RK. Alpha-fetoprotein in serum and amniotic fluid in the diagnosis of neonatal hepatitis syndrome, Indian childhood cirrhosis, cystic fibrosis, ataxia telangiectasia and spina bifida. Indian Pediatr 1975;12:545-548.
139. Chandra RK, Madhovankutty K, Way RC. Serum AFP levels in patients with cystic fibrosis and their parents and siblings. BMJ 1975;1:714-716.
140. Wallwork JC, McFarlane H, Hingley S, et al. Serum AFP in cystic fibrosis. BMJ 1975;2:392.
141. Brock DJH, Manson JC, Raeburn JA, et al. Serum AFP in cystic fibrosis. BMJ 1975;2:392.
142. Smith JA. Serum AFP in cystic fibrosis. BMJ 1975;2:392.
143. Belanger L, Aubin G, Hamel D, et al. Serum α-fetoprotein in cystic fibrosis. BMJ 1975;4:759.
144. Fitzsimmons JS, Smith N, Hiller EJ, et al. Serum alpha-fetoprotein in cystic fibrosis [Letter]. BMJ 1975;3:544.
145. Biswas S, Norman AP, Baffoe G, et al. Prolactin, growth hormone and alpha-fetoprotein in children with cystic fibrosis. Clin Chim Acta 1976;69:541-542.
146. Norgaard-Pedersen B, Axelsen NH. Alpha-fetoprotein-like activity in sera from patients with malignant and non-malignant disease and healthy individuals. Clin Chim Acta 1976;71:343-347.
147. Ramirez P, Baugarten A, Dolan TF. Cystic fibrosis: thyroid function and AFP. N Engl J Med 1976;295:1381-1382.
148. Beaudry PH, Bergsteinsson H, Dupont C, et al. Alpha-fetoprotein and cystic fibrosis. Clin Invest Med 1982;5:45-47.
149. Knopfle G, Rottauwe HW, Lehmann FG. Serum alpha-fetoprotein in cystic fibrosis. Eur J Pediatr 1976;122:241-248.
150. Lucking T, Mariss P. Alpha-fetoprotein and cystic fibroses. Klinische Wochenschrift 1976;54:391-392.
151. Scheele PM, Bendon RW, Ray MB. Carcinoembryonic antigen, alpha a-antitrypsin, and alpha-fetoprotein in the pancreas of patients with cystic fibrosis. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1989;113:1142-1146.
152. Marrink J. Alpha-fetoprotein determination: a warning. Scand J Immunol 1978;8:309-313.
153. Nishi S, Fugiyuma Y, Hirai HA. A sensitive and simple determination of human AFP by enzyme-electroimmunodiffusion. Scand J Immunol 1978;8:305-308.
154. Mizejewski GJ, Hammond KB. Low AFP associated with cystic fibrosis in newborns [Abstract]. Presented at BDI Symposium XVI, Genetic Disease: Screening and Management; Albany, NY; September 30-October 1, 1985.
155. Mizejewski GJ, Brown-Buddle M. Release of alpha-fetoprotein from serine protease inhibitors in serum and tissue cytosols. In: Mizejewski GJ, Jacobson HI, eds. Biological Activities of Alpha-Fetoprotein, vol II. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1989:161-180.
156. Pavlov GV. The diagnostic potentialities of determining AFP in the blood of patients with mucoviscidosis. Lab Delo 1990; 4:47-48.
157. Macek M Jr, Macek M, Stuhrmann M, et al. The direct early diagnosis of cystic fibrosis by the detection of the delta F508 CFTR gene mutation in a prematurely delivered boy. Clin Genet 1991;39:219-222.
158. Mizejewski GJ, Pass KA. Fatty acids, alpha-fetoprotein and cystic fibrosis. Pediatrics 2001;108:1370-1374.
159. Garoff L. Prediction of fetal outcome by urinary estriol, maternal serum placental lactogen, and AFP in diabetes and hepatoses of pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1976;48:659-666.
160. Wald NJ, Cuckle H, Boreham J, et al. Maternal serum AFP and diabetes mellitus. Br J Obstet Gynecol 1979;86:101-105.
161. Milunsky A, Alpert E, Kitzmiller JL, et al. Prenatal diagnosis of neural tube defects: VII. Importance of serum AFP screening in diabetes pregnant women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1982; 142:1030-1032.
162. Reece EA, Davis N, Mahoney MJ, et al. Maternal serum AFP in diabetic pregnancy correlation with blood glucose control. Lancet 1987;2:276-276.
163. Henriques CV, Damm P, Tabor A, et al. Decreased AFP in amniotic fluid and maternal serum in diabetic pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1993;82:960-964.
164. Albert TJ, Landon MB, Wheller JJ, et al. Perinatal detection of fetal anomalies in pregnancies complicated by insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996; 174:1424-1428.
165. Crossley JA, Berry E, Aitken DA, et al. Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and prenatal screening result: current experience from a regional screening programme. Prenat Diagn 1996;16:1039-1042.
166. Palomaki GE, Knight GJ, Haddow JE. Human chorionic gonadotrophin and unconjugated estriol measurements in insulin-dependent diabetic pregnant women being screened for fetal Down syndrome. Prenat Diagn 1994;14:65-68.
167. Evans MI, O'Brien JE, Dvorin E, et al. Similarity of insulin-dependent diabetes and now insulin-dependent of beta-hCG and unconjugated estriol with controls no need to adjust as with AFP. J Soc Gynecol Investig 1996;3:20-22.
168. Kramer RL, Yaron Y, O'Brien JE, et al. Effect of adjustment of maternal serum AFP levels in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Am J Med Genet 1998;75:176-178.
169. Wald N, Leek I. Down syndrome. In: Wald N, Leck I, eds. Antenatal and Neonatal Screening. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000:95-113.
170. Garoff L, Seppala M. Toxemia of pregnancy: assessment of fetal distress by urinary estriol and circulating human placental lactogen and alpha-fetoprotein levels. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1976;126:1027-1033.
171. Clayton-Hopkins JA, Olsen PN, Blake AP. Maternal serum AFP levels in the pregnancy complicated by hypertension. Prenat Diagn 1983;2:47-54.
172. Walters BNJ, Lao T, Smith V, et al. AFP elevation and proteinuric preeclampsia. Br J Obstet Gynecol 1985;92:341-344.
173. Khoo SK, Chang A, Mackay EV. A comparison of maternal serum levels of alpha-fetoprotein in normal and preeclamptic pregnancies. Br J Obstet Gyneacol 1978;85:914-920.
174. Berkely AS, Killackey MA, Cederqvist LL. Elevated maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein levels associated with breakdown in fetal-maternal-placental barrier. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1983; 146:859-861.
175. Gordon YB, Grudzinskas JG, Kitau MJ, et al. Fetal wastage as a result of an alpha-fetoprotein screening programme. Lancet 1978;1:677-678.
176. Gupta PP, Srivastava RK, Gupta S, et al. Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, S.N. Medical College, Agra. Radial immuno diffusion estimation of maternal serum alpha feto-protein in normal pregnancy and pregnancy-induced hypertension. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 1987;31: 273-278.
177. Leiberman JR, Shoham I, Chattach F, et al. Relatively reduced values of plasma alpha-fetoprotein at early second trimester of pregnancies with hypertensive disorders. Am J Perinatol 1992;9:319-321.
178. Schrocksnadel H, Daxenbichler G, Artner E, et al. Tumor markers in hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. Gynecol Obstet Invest 1993;35:204-208.
179. Jauniaux E, Gulbis B, Tunkel S, et al. Maternal serum testing for alpha-fetoprotein and human chorionic gonadotropin in high-risk pregnancies. Prenat Diagn 1996;16:1129-1135.
180. Pouta AM, Hartikainen AL, Vuolteenaho OJ, et al. Midtrimester N-terminal proatrial natriuretic peptide, free beta hCG, and alpha-fetoprotein in predicting preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol 1998;91:940-944.
181. Raty R, Koskinen P, Alanen A, et al. Prediction of pre-eclampsia with maternal mid-trimester total rennin, inhibin A, AFP and free beta-hCG levels. Prenat Diagn 1999;19:122-127.
182. Shipp TD, Wilkins-Haug L. The association of early-onset fetal growth restriction, elevated maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein, and the development of severe pre-eclampsia. Prenat Diagn 1997;17:305-309.
183. Leung TN, Chung TK, Madsen G, et al. Analysis of mid-trimester corticotrophin-releasing hormone and alpha-fetoprotein concentrations for predicting pre-eclampsia. Hum Reprod 2000;15:1813-1828.
184. Yaron Y, Cherry M, Kramer RL, et al. Second-trimester maternal serum marker screening: maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein beta-human chorionic gonadotropin, estriol, and their various combinations as predictors of pregnancy outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999;181:968-974.
185. Thompson WD, Jacobson HI, Negrini B, et al. Hypertension, pregnancy, and risk of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1989;81:1571-1574.
186. Konchak PS, Bernstein IM, Capeless EL. Uterine artery Doppler velocimetry in the detection of adverse obstetric outcomes in women with unexplained elevated maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein levels. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995; 173:1115-1119.
187. Richardson BE, Peck JD, Wormuth JK. Mean arterial pressure, pregnancy-induced hypertension, and preeclampsia: elevation as independent risk factors and as surrogates for high maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein in estimating breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2000;9: 1349-1355.
188. Cederqvist LL, Spigelman S, Litwin SD. The fetal serum alpha-fetoprotein and its relationship to immunoglobulins and birth weight at term. Obstet Gynecol 1983;61:233-237.
189. Vatten LJ, Romundstad PR, Odegard RA, et al. Alpha-fetoprotein in umbilical cord in relation to severe pre-eclampsia, birth weight and future breast cancer risk. Br J Cancer 2002;86:728-731.
190. Konijnenberg A, Stokkeres EW, Joris AM, et al. Extensive platelet activation in preeclampsia compared with normal pregnancy: Enhanced expression of cell adhesion molecules. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997;176:461-469.
191. Harlow FH, Brown MA, Brighton TA, et al. Platelet activation in the hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002;187:688-695.
192. Czokalo M, Tomasiak M. Alpha-fetoprotein inhibits aggregation of human platelets. Haematologia 1989;22:11-18.
193. Foley ME, Clayton JK, McNicol GP. Hemostatic mechanisms in maternal, umbilical vein and artery blood at the time of delivery. Br J Obstet Gynecol 1977;84:81-87.
194. Hutton RA, Dandona P, Chow FP, et al. Inhibition of platelet aggregation by placental extracts. Thromb Res 1980;17: 465-471.
195. Hutton RA, Chow FP, Craft IL, et al. Inhibitors of platelet aggregation in the feto-placental unit and myometrium with particular reference to the ADP-degrading property of placenta. Placenta 1980;1:125-130.
196. Dembele-Duchesne MJ, Laghchim-Lahlow A, Thaler-Dao H, et al. Inhibition of platelet aggregation by human placenta. Thromb Hemost 1985;54:431-437.
197. Maki M, Murata M, Shidara Y. Inhibitors of platelet aggregation and blood coagulation isolated from human placenta. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1984;17:149-154.
198. Trelstad RL, Carvalho AC. Type IV collagens and type 'A-B' do not elicit platelet aggregation or the serotonin release reaction. J Lab Clin Med 1979;93:499-505.
199. Chiang TM, Mainardi CL, Seyer JM, et al. Collagen-platelet interaction. Type V (A&B) collagen induced platelet aggregation. J Lab Clin Med 1980;95:99-107.
200. Morton LF, Young RD, Barnes MJ. The platelet reactivity of collagen type VI. Collagen & Related Research 1985;5:493-503.
201. Legrand YF, Fauvel F, Arbielle B, et al. Activation of platelets by microfibrils and collagen. A comparative study. Lab Invest 1986;54:566-573.
202. Dembele-Duchesne MJ, Thaler-Dao H, Chavis C, et al. The human placental anti-aggregating factor is neither prostacyclin or a prostacyclin metabolite. Prostaglandins 1982;24: 701-714.
203. Wallenburg HC. Prostaglandins and the placental circulation: review and prospectives. Int J Biol Res Pregnancy 1981;2: 15-22.
204. Chiang TM, Cole F, Woo-Rosberry V, et al. Role of nitric acid synthase
205. Iioka H, Akada S, Yamada Y, et al. Platelet aggregation inhibiting activity of human chorioepithelial brush border membrane vesicles-role of alkaline phosphatase. Placenta 1994;15:291-298.
206. Iioka H, Akada S, Shimamoto T, et al. Studies on placental inhibition of platelet aggregation: a comparison of syncytiotrophoblast brush border and basal plasma membranes. Placenta 1993;14:519-528.
207. Lafuste P, Robert B, Mondon F, et al. Alpha-fetoprotein gene expression in early and full-term human trophoblast. Placenta 2002;23:600-612.
208. Moawad AH, Moldenberg RL, Mercer B. et al. The preterm prediction study: The value of serum alkaline phosphatase, alpha-fetoprotein, plasma corticotrophin-releasing hormone for the prediction of spontaneous preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002;186:990-996.
209. Bartha JL, Comino-Delgado R, Arce F. Maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein in placental abruption associated with preterm labor. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1997;56:231-236.
210. Purves LR, Brauch WR, Geddes EW, et al. Serum alpha-fetoprotein VII. The range of apparent serum values in normal people, pregnant women, and primary liver cancer high risk populations. Cancer 1973;31:578-587.
211. Ball D, Rose E, Alpert E. Alpha-fetoprotein levels in normal adults. Am J Med Sci 1992;303:157-159.
212. Wu JT, Roan Y, Knight JA. Serum levels of AFP in normal infants: their clinical and physiological significance. In: Mizejewski GJ, Porter I, eds. Alfa-Fetoprotein and Congenital Disorders. New York: Academic Press, 1985:111-122.
213. Christiansen M, Hogdall CK, Andersen JR, et al. Alpha-fetoprotein in plasma and serum of healthy adults: preanalytical, analytical, and biological sources of variation and construction of age-dependent reference intervals. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 2001;61:205-216.
214. Sizaret P, Tuyns AJ, Martel N. Alpha-fetoprotein levels in normal males from seven ethnic groups with different hepatocellular carcinoma risk. Ann NY Acad Sci 1975;259:136-155.
215. Purves LR, Purves M. Serum alpha-fetoprotein VI. The radioimmunoassay of AFP in the serum of normal people and during pregnancy. South African Medical Joumal 1972;46: 1290-1297.
216. Moore TR. Fetal growth in diabetic pregnancy. In: Piktin RM, Scott JR, eds. Clinical Obstetrics & Gynecology, vol 40. New York: Lippincott-Raven Publishers, 1997.