The Southern African post-colonial state

Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics

Volumn 36, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 20-47

  Lodge, Tom ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND   (South Africa)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0344793629     PISSN: 03063631     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/14662049808447759     Document Type: Article

References (119)

1. See Pierre Landell-Mills, 'Governance, Cultural Change and Empowerment', Journal of Modern African Studies, 30, 4 (1992), 543-67; Martin Doombos, 'The African State in Academic Debate: Retrospect and Prospect', Journal of Modern African Studies, 28, 2 (1990), 179-98; Joshua B. Forrest, 'The Quest for State "Hardness" in Africa', Comparative Politics (July 1988), 423-41; Larry Diamond, 'Class Formation in the Modem African State', Journal of Modern African Studies, 25, 4 (1987), 25-47.
2. See Pierre Landell-Mills, 'Governance, Cultural Change and Empowerment', Journal of Modern African Studies, 30, 4 (1992), 543-67; Martin Doombos, 'The African State in Academic Debate: Retrospect and Prospect', Journal of Modern African Studies, 28, 2 (1990), 179-98; Joshua B. Forrest, 'The Quest for State "Hardness" in Africa', Comparative Politics (July 1988), 423-41; Larry Diamond, 'Class Formation in the Modem African State', Journal of Modern African Studies, 25, 4 (1987), 25-47.
3. See Pierre Landell-Mills, 'Governance, Cultural Change and Empowerment', Journal of Modern African Studies, 30, 4 (1992), 543-67; Martin Doombos, 'The African State in Academic Debate: Retrospect and Prospect', Journal of Modern African Studies, 28, 2 (1990), 179-98; Joshua B. Forrest, 'The Quest for State "Hardness" in Africa', Comparative Politics (July 1988), 423-41; Larry Diamond, 'Class Formation in the Modem African State', Journal of Modern African Studies, 25, 4 (1987), 25-47.
4. See Pierre Landell-Mills, 'Governance, Cultural Change and Empowerment', Journal of Modern African Studies, 30, 4 (1992), 543-67; Martin Doombos, 'The African State in Academic Debate: Retrospect and Prospect', Journal of Modern African Studies, 28, 2 (1990), 179-98; Joshua B. Forrest, 'The Quest for State "Hardness" in Africa', Comparative Politics (July 1988), 423-41; Larry Diamond, 'Class Formation in the Modem African State', Journal of Modern African Studies, 25, 4 (1987), 25-47.
5. Jean-Francois Bayart, The State in Africa: The Politics of the Belly (London: Longman, 1993).
6. Michael Bratton, 'Neo-Patrimonialism and Political Transition in Africa', World Politics, 46, 4 (1994), 453-89.
7. Goran Hyden, 'Governance and the Study of Politics', in Goran Hyden and Michael Bratton, Governance and Politics in Africa (Boulder, CO: Lynne Reinner, 1992), 17.
8. Robert Fatton, Predatory Rule: State and Civil Society in Africa (Boulder, CO: Lynne Reinner, 1992).
9. Patrick Chabal, Power in Africa (London: Macmillan, 1992).
10. Craig Charney, 'Political Power and Social Class in the Neo-Colonial African State', Review of African Political Economy, 58; Thomas M. Callaghy, 'Absolutism, Bonapartism, and the Formation of Ruling Classes', in Irving Leonard Markowitz (ed.), Studies in Power and Class in Africa (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 95-117.
11. Craig Charney, 'Political Power and Social Class in the Neo-Colonial African State', Review of African Political Economy, 58; Thomas M. Callaghy, 'Absolutism, Bonapartism, and the Formation of Ruling Classes', in Irving Leonard Markowitz (ed.), Studies in Power and Class in Africa (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 95-117.
12. Christopher Clapham, Africa and the International System: The Politics of Slate Survival (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
13. David Yudelman, The Emergence of Modern South Africa (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1983).
14. Stanley Trapido, 'Political Institutions and Afrikaner Social Structures in the Republic of South Africa', American Political Science Review, 57 (1963), 75-87.
15. Deborah Posel has argued that contending interests within the social base of Afrikaner nationalism at the beginning of the 1950s predisposed policy makers to proceed quite tentatively and flexibly with the implementation of apartheid labour controls. By the 1960s, though, both the state and certain domains of civil society had become pervasively infiltrated by members of the Afrikaner Broederbond and decision making circles were less inclined to pay much attention to particular economic interests: in this sense the South Africa state developed a greater degree of social autonomy during the first decade of apartheid. See Deborah Posel, The Making of Apartheid, 1948-1961 (Oxford and Cape Town: Clarendon Press, 1997), 227-55.
16. Newell Stultz, Who goes to Parliament?, Occasional paper no. 19 (Grahamstown: Institute of Social and Economic Research, Rhodes University, 1975); Sheila Gastrow, Who's Who in South African Politics (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1985).
17. Newell Stultz, Who goes to Parliament?, Occasional paper no. 19 (Grahamstown: Institute of Social and Economic Research, Rhodes University, 1975); Sheila Gastrow, Who's Who in South African Politics (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1985).
18. Craig Charney, 'Class Conflict and the National Party Split', Journal of Southern African Studies, 10, 2 (1984).
19. During the early 1970s annual government subsidies and loans to white farmers were worth $8,000 per capita (Colin Stoneman (ed.), Zimbabwe's Prospects (London: Macmillan Publishers, 1988), 8.
20. Jeffrey Herbst, Stale Politics in Zimbabwe (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, Berkeley, 1990), 19.
21. Jeffrey Herbst, State Politics in Zimbabwe, 82; Tor Skalnes, 'Group Interests and the State: An Explanation of Zimbabwe's Agricultural Policies', Journal of Modern African Studies, 27, 1 (1989), 90-91.
22. Jeffrey Herbst, State Politics in Zimbabwe, 82; Tor Skalnes, 'Group Interests and the State: An Explanation of Zimbabwe's Agricultural Policies', Journal of Modern African Studies, 27, 1 (1989), 90-91.
23. Howard Lehman, 'The Paradox of State Power in Africa: Debt Management Policies in Kenya and Zimbabwe', African Studies Review, 35, 2 (Sept. 1992), 19.
24. Jonathan Moyo, 'State Politics and Social Domination in Zimbabwe', Journal of Modern African Studies, 30, 2 (1992), 329.
25. A.B. Emmett, The Rise of African Nationalism in South West Africa/Namibia, 1915-1966 (Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Political Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, 1987), 153-7.
26. Chris Tapscott, 'War, Peace and Social Classes', in Colin Leys and John Saul (eds.), Namibia's Liberation Struggle (London: James Currey, 1995), 157. See also reports in Guardian (London), 9 Dec. 1994, Citizen (Johannesburg), 22 June 1995; and Finance Week (Johannesburg), 11 May 1995.
27. Chris Tapscott, 'War, Peace and Social Classes', in Colin Leys and John Saul (eds.), Namibia's Liberation Struggle (London: James Currey, 1995), 157. See also reports in Guardian (London), 9 Dec. 1994, Citizen (Johannesburg), 22 June 1995; and Finance Week (Johannesburg), 11 May 1995.
28. Chris Tapscott, 'War, Peace and Social Classes', in Colin Leys and John Saul (eds.), Namibia's Liberation Struggle (London: James Currey, 1995), 157. See also reports in Guardian (London), 9 Dec. 1994, Citizen (Johannesburg), 22 June 1995; and Finance Week (Johannesburg), 11 May 1995.
29. Chris Tapscott, 'War, Peace and Social Classes', in Colin Leys and John Saul (eds.), Namibia's Liberation Struggle (London: James Currey, 1995), 157. See also reports in Guardian (London), 9 Dec. 1994, Citizen (Johannesburg), 22 June 1995; and Finance Week (Johannesburg), 11 May 1995.
30. Kenneth Good, 'Interpreting the Exceptionality of Botswana', Journal of Modern African Studies, 30, 1 (1992), 72.
31. Mpho Molomo and Brian Mokopakgosi (eds.), Multiparty Democracy in Botswana (Harare: Southern African Political Economy Series, 1991), 30-37.
32. Adrian Leftwich, 'Bringing Politics Back In: Towards a Model of the Developmental State', Journal of Development Studies, 31, 3 (1995), 414.
33. Guy C. Mhone (ed.), Malawi at the Crossroads: The Post Colonial Political Economy (Harare: Southern African Political Economy Series, 1992).
34. Ibid.
35. Christian Potholm, Swaziland: The Dynamics of Political Modernisation (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1972), 34.
36. Robert Davies, Dan O'Meara and Sipho Dlamini, The Kingdom of Swaziland: A Profile (London: Zed Books, 1985), 17-21.
37. Richard Levine, When the Sleeping Grass Awakens: Land and Power in Swaziland (Johannesburg, University of Witwatersrand Press, 1997), 85-6.
38. For a list see L.B.B.J. Machobane, 'Perceptions on the Constitutional Future of Lesotho', Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 26, 2 (July 1988), 200.
39. John Bardill and James Cobbe, Lesotho: Dilemmas of Dependence in Southern Africa (Boulder: Westview, 1985), 49.
40. For definition see Goran Hyden, Beyond Ujamaa in Tanzania (London: Heinemann, 1980), 18-19.
41. Robert Molteno, 'Cleavage and Conflict in Zambian Politics' in William Tordoff (ed.), Politics in Zambia (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1974), 69.
42. William Tordoff, 'Introduction', in Tordoff (ed.), Politics in Zambia, 8.
43. Ben Turok, 'Zambia's System of State Capitalism', Development and Change, 11 (1980).
44. William Tordoff and Robert Molteno, 'Government and Administration', Tordoff (ed.), Politics in Zambia, 273.
45. William Tordoff and Ian Scott, 'Political Parties', in Tordoff (ed.), Politics in Zambia, 126.
46. South African Institute of Race Relations, Survey of Race Relations in South Africa (Johannesburg, 1980), 301-2.
47. Infospec (Pretoria), 4 Aug. 1995, 9.
48. Duncan Reekie, 'The Parastatals', in Charles Simkins and Merle Lipton (eds.), State and Market in Post-Apartheid South Africa (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, Johannesburg, 1993), 130.
49. For example, telecommunications. For details see David Kaplan, 'State Policy and Technological Change - The Development of the South African Telecommunications Industry', Journal of Southern African Studies, 15, 3 (1989), 565-80.
50. Reginald Green, Marja-Liisa Kiljunen and Kimmo Kiljunen (eds.), Namibia: The Last Colony (Harlow: Longman, 1981), 107-8.
51. Chris Tapscott, 'War, Peace and Social Classes', in Colin Leys and John Saul (eds.), Namibia's Liberation Struggle (London: James Currey, 1995).
52. 'Small but Determined', Financial Mail, 28 Sept. 1994.
53. Economist Intelligence Unit, Namibia Country Profile, 1992/1993 (London, 1993), 10;
54. Simon Shikangalah, 'The Development Brigade: The Namibian Experience', in Jakkie Cilliers, Dismissed: Demobilization and Reintegration of Former Combatants in Africa (Midrand: Institute for Defence Policy, 1995), 70-71.
55. Finance Week, 11 May 1995.
56. Chris Tapscott, 'National Reconciliation, Social Equity and Class Formation in Independent Namibia', Journal of Southern African Studies, 19, 1 (March 1993), 33.
57. Michael Bratton, 'The Public Service in Zimbabwe', Political Science Quarterly, 95, 3 (1980), 450-47.
58. Herbst, State Politics in Zimbabwe. Primary school enrolment increased from 719,000 in 1979 to 2.2 million in 1985 while the secondary school population rose from 79,000 to 500,000 (Jonathan Moyo, 'State Politics and Social Domination in Zimbabwe', 316). In 1990 Zimbabwe took more children, proportionately, through ten years of non-vocational schooling than any other country in the world (Norman Reynolds, 'Lessons for South Africa from the first decade of Zimbabwe's Independence', Centre for Policy Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, 1990, 14).
59. Herbst, State Politics in Zimbabwe. Primary school enrolment increased from 719,000 in 1979 to 2.2 million in 1985 while the secondary school population rose from 79,000 to 500,000 (Jonathan Moyo, 'State Politics and Social Domination in Zimbabwe', 316). In 1990 Zimbabwe took more children, proportionately, through ten years of non-vocational schooling than any other country in the world (Norman Reynolds, 'Lessons for South Africa from the first decade of Zimbabwe's Independence', Centre for Policy Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, 1990, 14).
60. Herbst, State Politics in Zimbabwe. Primary school enrolment increased from 719,000 in 1979 to 2.2 million in 1985 while the secondary school population rose from 79,000 to 500,000 (Jonathan Moyo, 'State Politics and Social Domination in Zimbabwe', 316). In 1990 Zimbabwe took more children, proportionately, through ten years of non-vocational schooling than any other country in the world (Norman Reynolds, 'Lessons for South Africa from the first decade of Zimbabwe's Independence', Centre for Policy Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, 1990, 14).
61. Christine Sylvester, Zimbabwe: The Terrain of Contradictory Development (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991), 128.
62. Richard Vengroff, Botswana: Rural Development in the Shadow of Apartheid (Cranbury, NJ: Associated Universities Press, 1966), 15.
63. Louis A. Picard, The Politics of Development in Botswana (Boulder, CO: Lynne Reinner, 1987), 235.
64. Good, 'Interpreting the Exceptionality of Botswana', 77; Roger Charlton, 'The Politics of Elections in Botswana', Africa, 63, 3 (1993), 342.
65. Good, 'Interpreting the Exceptionality of Botswana', 77; Roger Charlton, 'The Politics of Elections in Botswana', Africa, 63, 3 (1993), 342.
66. Molomo and Mokapakgasi, Multiparty Democracy in Botswana, 8.
67. Picard, The Politics of Development in Botswana, 161.
68. Economist Intelligence Unit, Malawi Country Profile, 1992/1993 (London, 1993), 14; Mhone (ed.), Malawi at the Crossroads.
69. Economist Intelligence Unit, Malawi Country Profile, 1992/1993 (London, 1993), 14; Mhone (ed.), Malawi at the Crossroads.
70. Infant mortality was on the increase in the 1990s though this was probably the result of the spread of paedriatic AIDs and chloroquin resistant malaria rather than a reflection of the limitations of the government's facilities (Economist Intelligence Unit, Malawi Country Profile, 7).
71. Star, 24 Jan. 1996.
72. Mail and Guardian, 23 Feb. 1996.
73. Pieter Eysterhuizen and Madeline Lass, Africa at a Glance (Pretoria: Africa Institute, 1995), 24; The Global Coalition for Africa, African Economic and Social Trends 1994 (Washington, DC, 1995), 62-3.
74. Pieter Eysterhuizen and Madeline Lass, Africa at a Glance (Pretoria: Africa Institute, 1995), 24; The Global Coalition for Africa, African Economic and Social Trends 1994 (Washington, DC, 1995), 62-3.
75. Levine, When the Sleeping Grass Awakens, 126-8.
76. Basutoland, Bechuanaland Protectorate and Swaziland: Report of an Economic Survey Mission (London: HMSO, 1960), 251.
77. Report of the Secretary-General on Basutoland, Bechuanaland and Swaziland (New York: United Nations General Assembly, 25 Aug. 1965), 130.
78. John Bardill and James Cobbe, Lesotho: Dilemmas of Dependence in Southern Africa (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1985), 49.
79. Basutoland, Bechuanaland Protectorate and Swaziland, 218-19.
80. Gabrielle Strom, Migration and Development: A Study of Lesotho (Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, 1986), 87.
81. 1996 figures, cited in Business Day, 17 April 1996.
82. Strom, Migration and Development, 80-84.
83. Robert Molteno, 'Cleavage and Conflict in Zambian Politics', in Tordoff (ed.), Politics in Zambia, 69.
84. Ibid., 103.
85. William Tordoff and Robert Molteno, 'Government and Administration', in Tordoff (ed.), Politics in Zambia, 243.
86. Michael Bratton, 'The Social Context of Political Penetration: Village and Ward Committees in Kasama District', in Tordoff (ed.), Administration in Zambia (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1980), 237.
87. Wim van Binsbergen, 'Aspects of Democracy and Democratisation in Zambia and Botswana: Exploring African Political Culture at the Grassroots', Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 13, 1 (1995); Hans-Otto Sano, 'The IMF and Zambia', African Affairs, 87, 349 (Oct 1988), 574.
88. Wim van Binsbergen, 'Aspects of Democracy and Democratisation in Zambia and Botswana: Exploring African Political Culture at the Grassroots', Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 13, 1 (1995); Hans-Otto Sano, 'The IMF and Zambia', African Affairs, 87, 349 (Oct 1988), 574.
89. Kenneth Good, 'Debt and the One Party State in Zambia', Journal of Modern African Studies, 27, 2 (1989).
90. Peter Burnell, 'Poverty and Politics in Zambia's Third Republic', Third World Quarterly, 16, 4 (1995), 676.
91. Business Report, 25 March 1996.
92. Business Report, 6 Dec. 1996.
93. John Fleming, 'The Zimbabwe Election That Never Was', Star, 20 March 1996.
94. Though the dynamics of rural political affiliation were complex: see Norma Kriger, Zimbabwe's Guerilla War: Peasant Voices (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
95. On class structure and electoral choice: see Richard Saunders, 'Life in Space - The New Politics of Zimbabwe', Southern African Review of Books (Jan.-Feb. 1993), 20.
96. With regard to managerial style these may have strengthened. Norma Kriger in a critique of Jeffrey Herbst's book describes 'senior bureaucrats [who] often seek permission from superiors before granting interviews ... nobody is willing to make even minor decisions; hence minutiae get passed up the hierarchy to the politicians at the top' (Norma Kriger and Richard Saunders, 'Through a Glass Darkly', Southern African Review of Books (March-April 1963), 21).
97. Kenneth Good, 'The Ends of the Ladder; Radical Inequality in Botswana', Journal of Modern African Studies, 31, 2 (1993), 225-7.
98. T. David Williams, Malawi: The Politics of Despair (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978).
99. Stanley Trapido, 'Political Institutions and Afrikaner Social Structures in the Republic of South Africa', American Political Science Review, 57 (1963), 75-87.
100. Annette Seegers, 'Toward an Understanding of the Afrikanerisation of the South African State', Africa, 63, 4 (1993), 486.
101. Job Mokgoro, 'Reincorporation of the TBVC States', in Fanie Cloete and Job Mokgoro (eds.), Policies for Public Service Transformation (Cape Town: Juta, 1995), 66.
102. Danny Sing and Malcolm Wallis, 'Corruption and Nepotism', in Cloete and Mokgoro (eds.), Policies for Public Service Transformation, 142-3.
103. See reports in the Guardian, 9 Dec. 1994; Citizen, 22 June 1995; and Finance Week, 11 May 1995
104. See reports in the Guardian, 9 Dec. 1994; Citizen, 22 June 1995; and Finance Week, 11 May 1995
105. See reports in the Guardian, 9 Dec. 1994; Citizen, 22 June 1995; and Finance Week, 11 May 1995
106. For an impressionistic and favourable evaluation of the quality of senior echelons of government see John Saul and Colin Leys, 'The Legacy - An Afterword', in John Saul and Colin Leys (eds.), Namibia's Liberation Struggle (London: James Currey, 1995), 157.
107. For press reports on Zimbabwean official corruption: Michael Hartnack, 'Zimbabwe's Media is Silent Over Minister's Order to Commit Fraud', Sunday Times (Johannesburg), 11 June 1995. Christopher Clapham contends, though, that 'Corruption, given the wealth of the economy, has remained discernibly lower than in Kenya, let alone Nigeria' (quoted in 'Mugabe Captains Ship, Often in Stormy Winds', Star, 2 May 1995). Corruption and maladministration are considered to be especially rife in the parastatal sector which became in the 1980s the major field for political patronage (see Jeffrey Herbst, 'Political Impediments to Economic Rationality: Explaining Zimbabwe's Failure to Reform its Public Sector', Journal of Modern African Studies, 27, 1 (1989), 67-84).
108. For press reports on Zimbabwean official corruption: Michael Hartnack, 'Zimbabwe's Media is Silent Over Minister's Order to Commit Fraud', Sunday Times (Johannesburg), 11 June 1995. Christopher Clapham contends, though, that 'Corruption, given the wealth of the economy, has remained discernibly lower than in Kenya, let alone Nigeria' (quoted in 'Mugabe Captains Ship, Often in Stormy Winds', Star, 2 May 1995). Corruption and maladministration are considered to be especially rife in the parastatal sector which became in the 1980s the major field for political patronage (see Jeffrey Herbst, 'Political Impediments to Economic Rationality: Explaining Zimbabwe's Failure to Reform its Public Sector', Journal of Modern African Studies, 27, 1 (1989), 67-84).
109. Adrian Leftwich, 'Bringing Politics back in: Towards a Model of the Developmental State', Journal of Development Studies, 31, 3 (Feb. 1995), 400-427.
110. Pierre du Toit, State Building and Democracy in Southern Africa: Botswana, Zimbabwe and South Africa (Washington: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1995), 63-4.
111. Kenneth Good, 'Corruption and Mismanagement in Botswana: A Best-Case Example?, Journal of Modern African Studies, 32, 3 (1994), 499-521.
112. Denis Venter, Malawi towards Multi-Parly Democracy, Political Science Association of South Africa Research Colloquium, Broederstroom, 8-9 Oct. 1992, 2.
113. Kate Showers, 'Soil Erosion in the Kingdom of Lesotho', Journal of Southern African Studies, 15, 2 (Jan. 1989), 285.
114. Paul Wellings, 'Making a Fast Buck: Capital Leakage and Public Accounts in Lesotho', African Affairs, 82, 329 (Oct. 1983), 495-507.
115. Gabrielle Strom, Migration and Development, 89.
116. Ben Turok, 'Zambia's System of State Capitalism', Development and Change, 11 (1980), 470.
117. Goran Hyden, No Short Cuts to Progress (London: Heinemann, 1983), 100-102; Victor Levine, Political Corruption: The Ghana Case (Stanford: Hoover Institution, 1975), 79-98;
118. Goran Hyden, No Short Cuts to Progress (London: Heinemann, 1983), 100-102; Victor Levine, Political Corruption: The Ghana Case (Stanford: Hoover Institution, 1975), 79-98;
119. William Brownsberger, 'Development and Governmental Corruption - Materialism and Political Fragmentation in Nigeria', Journal of Modern African Studies, 21, 2 (1983), 215-33.