Capitalism and counter-insurgency? Business and government in the Malayan emergency, 1948-57

Modern Asian Studies

Volumn 32, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 149-177

  White, Nicholas J ^a  

^a LIVERPOOL JOHN MOORES UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0344694142     PISSN: 0026749X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0026749X98002996     Document Type: Article

References (133)

1. Not surprisingly, this was the line taken by the Communist Party of Great Britain. [See Daily Worker, 26 April 1950, 'Death and Profits in Malaya. Sacrifice on the Altar of Mincing Lane'.] It was, however, a view shared by the 'Keep Left' group of the Labour Party led by Minister of Health, Aneurin Bevan. [Leong Yee Fong, 'The Impact of the Cold War on the Development of Trade Unionism in Malaya (1948-57)', Journal of South-East Asian Studies, XXIII, 1 (Mar. 1992), pp. 61-2.]
2. Not surprisingly, this was the line taken by the Communist Party of Great Britain. [See Daily Worker, 26 April 1950, 'Death and Profits in Malaya. Sacrifice on the Altar of Mincing Lane'.] It was, however, a view shared by the 'Keep Left' group of the Labour Party led by Minister of Health, Aneurin Bevan. [Leong Yee Fong, 'The Impact of the Cold War on the Development of Trade Unionism in Malaya (1948-57)', Journal of South-East Asian Studies, XXIII, 1 (Mar. 1992), pp. 61-2.]
3. Frank Furedi, 'Decolonization and the Role of Britain's Emergencies', Institute of Commonwealth Studies, Commonwealth History/Decolonization Seminar, unpublished paper, 16 Nov. 1989.
4. Malcolm Caldwell, 'From "Emergency" to "Independence", 1948-57', in Mohamed Amin and Malcolm Caldwell (eds), Malaya: The Making of a Neo-Colony (Nottingham, 1977).
5. P. J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins, British Imperialism. II. Crisis and Deconstruction, 1914-7990 (Harlow, 1993), p. 280.
6. Richard Clutterbuck, Conflict and Violence in Singapore and Malaysia, 1945-83 (Boulder, CO, 1985); Anthony Short, The Communist Insurrection in Malaya, 1948-60 (London, 1975); A. J. Stockwell, 'Insurgency and Decolonisation During the Malayan Emergency',Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, XXV, 1 (Mar. 1987), pp. 71-81; idem, 'Policing During the Malayan Emergency, 1948-60: Communism, Communalism and Decolonisation', in D. M. Anderson and David Killingray (eds), Policing and Decolonisation: Politics, Nationalism and the Police, 1917-65 (Manchester, 1992); idem, ' "A widespread and long-concocted plot to overthrow government in Malaya"? The Origins of the Malayan Emergency',Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, XXI, 3 (Sept. 1993), pp. 66-88; Richard Stubbs, Hearts and Minds in Guerilla Warfare. The Malayan Emergency, 1948-60 (Singapore, 1989).
7. Richard Clutterbuck, Conflict and Violence in Singapore and Malaysia, 1945-83 (Boulder, CO, 1985); Anthony Short, The Communist Insurrection in Malaya, 1948-60 (London, 1975); A. J. Stockwell, 'Insurgency and Decolonisation During the Malayan Emergency',Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, XXV, 1 (Mar. 1987), pp. 71-81; idem, 'Policing During the Malayan Emergency, 1948-60: Communism, Communalism and Decolonisation', in D. M. Anderson and David Killingray (eds), Policing and Decolonisation: Politics, Nationalism and the Police, 1917-65 (Manchester, 1992); idem, ' "A widespread and long-concocted plot to overthrow government in Malaya"? The Origins of the Malayan Emergency',Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, XXI, 3 (Sept. 1993), pp. 66-88; Richard Stubbs, Hearts and Minds in Guerilla Warfare. The Malayan Emergency, 1948-60 (Singapore, 1989).
8. Richard Clutterbuck, Conflict and Violence in Singapore and Malaysia, 1945-83 (Boulder, CO, 1985); Anthony Short, The Communist Insurrection in Malaya, 1948-60 (London, 1975); A. J. Stockwell, 'Insurgency and Decolonisation During the Malayan Emergency',Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, XXV, 1 (Mar. 1987), pp. 71-81; idem, 'Policing During the Malayan Emergency, 1948-60: Communism, Communalism and Decolonisation', in D. M. Anderson and David Killingray (eds), Policing and Decolonisation: Politics, Nationalism and the Police, 1917-65 (Manchester, 1992); idem, ' "A widespread and long-concocted plot to overthrow government in Malaya"? The Origins of the Malayan Emergency'.Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, XXI, 3 (Sept. 1993), pp. 66-88; Richard Stubbs, Hearts and Minds in Guerilla Warfare. The Malayan Emergency, 1948-60 (Singapore, 1989).
9. Richard Clutterbuck, Conflict and Violence in Singapore and Malaysia, 1945-83 (Boulder, CO, 1985); Anthony Short, The Communist Insurrection in Malaya, 1948-60 (London, 1975); A. J. Stockwell, 'Insurgency and Decolonisation During the Malayan Emergency',Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, XXV, 1 (Mar. 1987), pp. 71-81; idem, 'Policing During the Malayan Emergency, 1948-60: Communism, Communalism and Decolonisation', in D. M. Anderson and David Killingray (eds), Policing and Decolonisation: Politics, Nationalism and the Police, 1917-65 (Manchester, 1992); idem, ' "A widespread and long-concocted plot to overthrow government in Malaya"? The Origins of the Malayan Emergency',Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, XXI, 3 (Sept. 1993), pp. 66-88; Richard Stubbs, Hearts and Minds in Guerilla Warfare. The Malayan Emergency, 1948-60 (Singapore, 1989).
10. Richard Clutterbuck, Conflict and Violence in Singapore and Malaysia, 1945-83 (Boulder, CO, 1985); Anthony Short, The Communist Insurrection in Malaya, 1948-60 (London, 1975); A. J. Stockwell, 'Insurgency and Decolonisation During the Malayan Emergency',Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, XXV, 1 (Mar. 1987), pp. 71-81; idem, 'Policing During the Malayan Emergency, 1948-60: Communism, Communalism and Decolonisation', in D. M. Anderson and David Killingray (eds), Policing and Decolonisation: Politics, Nationalism and the Police, 1917-65 (Manchester, 1992); idem, ' "A widespread and long-concocted plot to overthrow government in Malaya"? The Origins of the Malayan Emergency',Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, XXI, 3 (Sept. 1993), pp. 66-88; Richard Stubbs, Hearts and Minds in Guerilla Warfare. The Malayan Emergency, 1948-60 (Singapore, 1989).
11. Richard Clutterbuck, Conflict and Violence in Singapore and Malaysia, 1945-83 (Boulder, CO, 1985); Anthony Short, The Communist Insurrection in Malaya, 1948-60 (London, 1975); A. J. Stockwell, 'Insurgency and Decolonisation During the Malayan Emergency',Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, XXV, 1 (Mar. 1987), pp. 71-81; idem, 'Policing During the Malayan Emergency, 1948-60: Communism, Communalism and Decolonisation', in D. M. Anderson and David Killingray (eds), Policing and Decolonisation: Politics, Nationalism and the Police, 1917-65 (Manchester, 1992); idem, ' "A widespread and long-concocted plot to overthrow government in Malaya"? The Origins of the Malayan Emergency',Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, XXI, 3 (Sept. 1993), pp. 66-88; Richard Stubbs, Hearts and Minds in Guerilla Warfare. The Malayan Emergency, 1948-60 (Singapore, 1989).
12. CO 1030/17, J. K. Swaine, Chairman, Perak Rubber Plantations to Alan Lennox-Boyd, Secretary of State, 5 Jan. 1956.
13. CO 1022/25, Letter from Rex Duncan, UPAM, 19 July 1954. John Gullick estimates that over the entire period of the Emergency 10% of the planter population were murdered. [Malaysia (London, 1969),p. 90.]
14. This chapter only covers the period, 1948-57, when the British government in London and the colonial government in Kuala Lumpur were responsible for the conduct of counter-insurgency.
15. Financial Times, 6 Jan. 1950.
16. CO 717/197, Letter to Sir Hilton Poynton, 5 June 1951.
17. CO 537/6090, 'Summary Notes of Official Interviews given by the Secretary of State at Penang on 31 May 1950'; 'Notes of a meeting, 18 May 1950'.
18. Bank of England Archive, Threadneedle St. (hereafter BoE), EC 5/216, Note by Deputy-Governor Cobbold, 3 January 1949 enclosing letter from Rothschild, 3 Jan. 1949 and 'Aide memoire on Hecht, Levis & Kahn'.
19. Text of Radio Newsreel and Overseas Circuits Broadcast, 22 June 1948 on Rubber Growers' Association Council Minutes (hereafter RGACM), 59, 19 July 1948.
20. CO 717/206/3, Savingram from Federation, 4 April 1950.
21. Ibid., Minute by j. B. Williams, 25 May 1950.
22. Short, Communist Insurrection, pp. 122-3, 239, 245, 273.
23. Arkib Negara Malaysia (hereafter ANM), Sel CA 112/45, 'Minutes of a Meeting of Representatives of Mining Companies Operating in Selangor held on 14 February 1946'.
24. The best account of the labour unrest and government-employer reactions to it in the period 1946-48 remains M. R. Stenson, Industrial Conflict in Malaya. Prelude to the Communist Revolt of 1948 (Kuala Lumpur, 1970).
25. BT 64/1878, RCC (46) 1 Amendment, 21 March 1946.
26. ANM, MU 1251/46, Letter to Chief Secretary, 14 May 1946.
27. Ibid., Ian Fraser, Chief Secretary to Palmer, 28 May 1946.
28. Stenson, Industrial Conflict, pp. 156-7.
29. RGACM, 58, 31 March 1947. Appendix 2. Copy of Letter from BASM to RGA, 12 March 1947.
30. Stenson, Industrial Conflict, pp. 156-7.
31. Ibid., p. 169.
32. Institute of South-East Asian Studies, Singapore, Tan Cheng Lock papers, TCL V/138, C. T. de B. Whitehouse to Tan Cheng Lock, 18 June 1951. Whitehouse was so disenchanted with the colonial regime that he now wished to join the Independence of Malaya Party!
33. CO 717/210/2, Telegram from Federation, 4 June 1948.
34. Ibid., Telegram from Commissioner-General's Office, 10 June 1948.
35. Short, Communist Insurrection, pp. 76-7.
36. Stenson, Industrial Conflict, pp. 224-5.
37. CO 717/210/2, Minute by O. H. Morris, 8 June 1948.
38. Ibid., Minute by Morris, 13 June 1948.
39. Hearts and Minds, p. 67.
40. Stenson, Industrial Conflict, p. 233.
41. RGACM, 60, 4 Oct. 1948, 'Report of General Purposes Committee'.
42. Anthony Short's 'Taylorian' approach sees the origins of the emergency in terms of a series of miscalculations, 'if not outright mistake[s]' on the part of the MCP and government. Communist Insurrection, especially p. 65. Tony Stockwell also illustrates the complexities on both sides and, hence, the pitfalls of explaining the origins of the emergency 'in the simple terms of either "communist plot" or "colonial conspiracy" '. 'Origins of the Malayan Emergency'.
43. Stenson, Industrial Conflict, p. 226.
44. CO 717/172, 'Text of a Meeting of Business Interests with Secretary of State and Under-Secretary of State, 22 June 1948'.
45. CO 537/3686, Enclosure in Telegram from Federation, 4 July 1948.
46. Ibid., Minute for PM, 30 June 1948.
47. Short, Communist Insurrection, pp. 114-18.
48. CAB 129/25, CP (48) 171, 'Memorandum by Colonial Secretary, 1 July 1948', cited in John Darwin, 'British Decolonization since 1945: A Pattern or a Puzzle?', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, XII, 2 (Jan. 1984), p. 197.
49. CO 537/5979, Copy of letter to Sullivan, RGA from H. Munro Scott, UPAM, 2 Nov. 1950.
50. Ibid., Sullivan to Watson, 14 Dec. 1950.
51. Ibid., 'Memorandum of a Meeting with the Secretary of State, 10 May'.
52. Ibid., Telegram from Federation, 27 Jan. 1950.
53. In 1950 there were, according to the High Commissioner, 'still some estates on which Trade Unions are regarded with suspicion and endeavours of Trade Union leaders have been rebuffed' [ibid.].
54. CO 537/7265, 'Memorandum of a Meeting of a Deputation of Leading Members of Commercial Interests in Malaya, 11 January 1951'. For a fuller account of the Briggs Plan, see Short, Communist Insurrection, pp. 237-9.
55. Records of these meetings are in CO 537/6090.
56. CAB 129/40 CP (50) 25, 13 June 1950; CAB 128/17 CM 37 (50) 1, 19 June 1950.
57. CO 537/7265, 'Memorandum of a Meeting with the Colonial Secretary, 19 December 1950'.
58. CAB 134/497, Malaya Committee, and Meeting, 24 April 1950.
59. CO 537/4773, 'Draft Memorandum on the Implications of a Declaration of Martial Law', cited in Stubbs, Hearts and Minds, pp. 118-19.
60. J. Osterhammel, 'British business in China, 186os to 1950s', in R. P. T. Davenport-Hines and Geoffrey Jones (eds), British Business in Asia since 1860 (Cambridge, 1989), PP- 212-13.
61. Chairman's Address at RGA Ordinary General Meeting of 31 March 1950 reprinted from The Times, 3 April 1950.
62. CO 537/5979, 'Memo of Meeting, 10 May 1950'.
63. CO 717/186/5, Godsall to Bourdillon, 31 July 1951.
64. Short, Communist Insurrection, p. 305.
65. CO 967/240, Donald Hawkins to Ascoli, 10 Nov. 1951 enclosed in Sir Clive Baillieu to Lyttelton, 21 Nov. 1951.
66. Nicholas J. White, 'Government and Business in the Era of Decolonization: Malaya, 1942-57' (University of London, Ph.D. Thesis, 1993), pp. 217-20.
67. CO 1022/39, 'Memorandum of a Meeting with Secretary of State on 15 November 1951'.
68. British Association of Malaysia Historical Collection, Royal Commonwealth Society Library, II/10, 'Notes of a Meeting Between the Colonial Secretary and representatives of UPAM etc. at King's House on 3 December 1951', enclosed in Sullivan to Shearn, 21 Dec. 1951.
69. BT 258/47, Baillieu to Swinton, 21 Nov. 1951 enclosing Copy of Note for Lyttelton, 13 Nov. 1951. No record of this discussion survives in the CO files.
70. CO 967/244, Letter from Fletcher, 19 Nov. 1951.
71. PREM 11/121, Montgomery to Lyttelton, 27 Dec. 1951; 'Success in Malaya. Note by Montgomery', 2 Jan. 1952.
72. CAB 129/48 C (51) 1, 'The Economic Position: Analysis and Remedies. Memorandum by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, 31 October 1951'.
73. BT 258/47, Note by Baillieu, 13 Nov. 1951.
74. See Stockwell, 'Insurgency and Decolonisation', p. 75.
75. CO 1022/44, Copy of letter from Harvey Paterson to parents, May 1952, enclosed in J. K. Swaine to Campbell, 17 June 1952. The General, however, made it clear he was not serving British capital. In March, Templer, recounting briefings in the metropole, told a planter on Perak's SWEC that he had 'spent four or five days in London listening to a load of utter balls from the rubber companies'. [Jim Crawford, cited in J. Cloake, Templer, Tiger of Malaya (London, 1985), p. 266.]
76. RGACM, 63, 30 March 1953.
77. CO 1022/21 and CO 1030/14, 'Reports of Casualties and Damage in the Tin Mining Industry'.
78. CO 1030/17, 'The Protection of Estates and Mines: Policy Resulting from the High Commissioner's Meeting with Planters and Miners, 8 May 1953'.
79. ANM, Harry Traill papers, SP 95/B/24, Draft Letter to Secretary, Selangor Coast District Planting Association, c. October 1954. In January 1955, Templer's successor as High Commissioner, Sir Donald MacGillivray, noted widespread disquiet amongst European managers [CO 1030/403, Circular Despatch, 26 Jan. 1955].
80. Reported in Manchester Guardian, 13 April 1955.
81. CO 1030/17, Swaine to Lennox-Boyd, 27 March 1956.
82. Short, Communist Insurrection, pp. 114-18.
83. CO 1022/44, Swaine to Lennox-Boyd, 31 Jan. 1952 and Telegram from Federation, 1 May 1952.
84. Short, Communist Insurrection, p. 124.
85. CO 537/3694, Telegram from Federation, 2 Aug. 1948.
86. CO 717/169/3, Minute by Roberts, 11 March 1949.
87. CO 537/6090, Gidden to Watherston, 19 Oct. 1950 and reply of 1 Nov.
88. ANM, FS 11395/48, Minute by Shaw for Watherston (quoting Chief Police Officer, Negeri Sembilan), 11 Jan. 1949 in response to letter from Cumberbatch & Co., 11 Dec. 1948.
89. See The Times, 27 April 1951.
90. CO 717/197, Bukit Mertajam Rubber Co. Ltd. to Secretary of State, 8 Jan. 1951 and reply from Melville.
91. CO 1022/44, Coghlan to Secretary of State, 11 Feb. 1952.
92. CO 1022/43, 'Extract from Security Forces Weekly Intelligence Summary for the week ending 22 November 1951'; 'Extract from Secret Telegram from FARELF to the War Office received 11 February 1952'.
93. CO 967/240, Hawkins to Ascoli, 10 Nov. 1951 enclosed in Baillieu to Lyttelton, 21 Nov. 1951.
94. CO 1022/44, Extract from report of visiting agent, R. M. Skeet, 15 March 1952 in Coghlan to Secretary of State, 25 April 1952.
95. CO 717/176/1, Telegram to Federation, 5 Aug. 1948.
96. Ibid., Telegram from Federation, 7 Sept. 1948.
97. Ibid., Telegram to Federation, 6 Oct. 1948.
98. Ibid., 'Report of Meeting with Minister of State, 7 September 1948'.
99. BoE, EC 5/216, Minute, 7 Oct. 1948.
100. Ibid., Siepmann to Sir Sydney Caine, 10 Sept. 1948.
101. CO 717/176/1, Minute by Higham, 9 Oct. 1948.
102. Ibid., Minute by Chaplin for Higham, 9 Oct. 1948.
103. BoE, EC 5/216, Minute by O'Brien for Siepmann, 29 Dec. 1948.
104. T 220/85, Minutes by Flett and Pitblado, 20 Jan. and 9 Feb. 1949.
105. CO 717/176/2, Records of Meetings to discuss Malayan Insurance of 17 Feb., 2 March, 6 May and 17 June 1949.
106. T 220/85, Minute by Pitblado for Brittain, 13 Sept. 1948.
107. Ibid., 'Note of a meeting held at the Treasury on 8 September to discuss the position of insurance in Malaya in the light of the present disturbances'.
108. CO 717/176/2, Telegram from Federation, 7 Feb. 1949.
109. Letter to the author from John Gullick (then Principal Assistant Secretary (Economics)), 8 Sept. 1990.
110. CAB 134/497 MAL (C) (50), 5th Meeting, 18 May 1950.
111. Daily Telegraph, 24 March 1950.
112. Stubbs, Hearts and Minds, p. 140.
113. CO 537/6090 Watherston to Howard-Drake, 14 Sept. 1950.
114. The Times, 16 Sept. 1954. Cited in Stubbs, Hearts and Minds, p. 112.
115. The Times, 16 Sept. 1954. Cited in Stubbs, Hearts and Minds, p. 112.
116. Short, Communist Insurrection, p. 347.
117. CO 537/7265, 'Memorandum of a Meeting with Colonial Secretary on 24JuIy 1951'.
118. Ibid., Gurney to Paskin, 3 Sept. 1951.
119. Ibid., Minute by Higham for Paskin, 1 Oct. 1951.
120. Report of the Mission of Enquiry into the Rubber Industry of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 1954. PP. 41-2.
121. Short, Communist Insurrection, p. 126.
122. Richard Stubbs, 'Counter Insurgency and the Economic Factor. The Impact of the Korean War Prices Boom on the Malayan Emergency', ISEAS, Singapore, Occasional Paper 19, Feb. 1974 and idem, Hearts and Minds, pp. 109-14. See also CO 1030/17, 'Protection of Estates and Mines', 1953.
123. Richard Stubbs, 'Counter Insurgency and the Economic Factor. The Impact of the Korean War Prices Boom on the Malayan Emergency', ISEAS, Singapore, Occasional Paper 19, Feb. 1974 and idem, Hearts and Minds, pp. 109-14. See also CO 1030/17, 'Protection of Estates and Mines', 1953.
124. Richard Stubbs, 'Counter Insurgency and the Economic Factor. The Impact of the Korean War Prices Boom on the Malayan Emergency', ISEAS, Singapore, Occasional Paper 19, Feb. 1974 and idem, Hearts and Minds, pp. 109-14. See also CO 1030/17, 'Protection of Estates and Mines', 1953.
125. CO 1022/71, Minute by Harding, 4 Jan. 1954.
126. CO 537/5979, 'Memo of Meeting, 10 May 1950'.
127. T 220/233, Note by Clough for Crombie, 15 Nov. 1949.
128. T 220/281, Griffiths to Cripps, 18 Sept. 1950 and Note by Clough, 27 Sept. 1950; T 220/282, Note by Clough, 28 Nov. 1950.
129. T 220/281, Note by Colonel Russell Edmunds, 7 Oct. 1950.
130. Ibid., Griffiths to Cripps, 18 Sept. 1950.
131. PREM 11/121, cited in A. J. Stockwell, 'Imperial Policy and Decolonization in Malaya, 1942-52', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, XIII, 1 (Oct. 1984), p. 82; CO 1030/403, 'Briefs [Economic and Financial] for the Secretary of State's Visit to Malaya: 10. Cost of the Emergency, Undated (c. summer 1955)'.
132. CO 717/176/1, Minute by Higham, 9 Oct. 1948.
133. CAB 134/497, Malaya Committee, 4th Meeting, 8 May 1950.