Using the best scientific data for endangered species conservation

Environmental Management

Volumn 24, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 421-435

  Shawn Smallwood, K ^a   Beyea, Jan ^b   Morrison, Michael L ^c  

^a Consulting in the Public Interest ^*  (United States)

^b Senior Scientist Emeritus   (United States)

^c CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Endangered Species Act; Habitat conservation plans; Independent review; Risk assessment; Scientific data; Uncertainty analysis

Indexed keywords

CONSERVATION; ECOSYSTEMS; LAWS AND LEGISLATION;

ENDANGERED SPECIES CONSERVATION;

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION;

BIODIVERSITY; CONSERVATION PLANNING; ENDANGERED SPECIES; ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION;

DATA ANALYSIS; ECOSYSTEM; ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; LAW; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SCIENCE; SPECIES;

UNITED STATES;

EID: 0344631660     PISSN: 0364152X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s002679900244     Document Type: Review

References (98)

1. Battaglin, W. A., and D. A. Goolsby. 1995. Spatial data in geographic information system format on agricultural chemical use, land use, and cropping practices in the United States. US Geological Survey, Water Resources Investigations Report 94-4176, Denver, 87 pp.
2. Bedford, B. L., and E. M. Preston. 1988. Developing the scientific basis for assessing cumulative effects of wetland loss and degradation on landscape functions: Status, perspectives, and prospects. Environmental Management 12:751-771.
3. Berry, D. A., and D. K. Stangl (eds). 1996. Bayesian biostatistics. Dekker, New York.
4. Blackburn, T. M., and K. J. Gaston. 1996. Abundance-body size relationships: The area you census tells you more. Oikos 75:303-309.
5. Blew, R. D. 1996. On the definition of ecosystem. Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America 77:171-173.
6. Bogert, L. M. 1994. That's my story and I'm stickin' to it: Is the "best available" science any available science under the Endangered Species Act? Idaho Law Review 31:85-150.
7. Boyce, M. S. 1992. Population viability analysis. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 23:481-506.
8. Cairns, J., Jr., and P. V. McCormick. 1992. Developing an ecosystem-based capability for ecological risk assessments. The Environmental Professional 14:186-196.
9. Carroll, R., C. Augspurger, A. Dobson, J. Franklin, G. Orians, W. Reid, R. Tracy, D. Wilcove, and J. Wilson. 1996. Strengthening the use of science in achieving the goals of the Endangered Species Act: An assessment by the Ecological Society of America. Ecological Applications 6:1-11.
10. Chubin, D. E. 1985. Research malpractice. Bioscience 35:80-89.
11. Connell, J. H., and W. P. Sousa. 1983. On the evidence needed to judge ecological stability or persistence. American Naturalist 121:729-824.
12. Cooke, R. M. 1991. Experts in uncertainty: Opinion and subjective probability in science. Oxford, New York.
13. Cyr, H. 1997. Does inter-annual variability in population density increase with time? Oikos 79:549-558.
14. den Boer, P. J. 1981. On the survival of populations in a heterogeneous and variable environment. Oecologia 50: 39-53.
15. Dobson, A. P., J. P. Rodriguez, W. M. Roberts, and D. S. Wilcove. 1997. Geographic distribution of endangered species in the United States. Science 275:550-553.
16. Dynesius, M., and C. Nilsson. 1994. Fragmentation and flow regulation of river systems in the northern third of the world. Science 266:753-762.
17. EIP Associates. 1996. Yolo County Final Habitat Conservation Plan: A plan to mitigate biological impacts from urban development in Yolo County. Sacramento, California.
18. Fauth, J. E. 1997. Working toward operational definitions in ecology: Putting the system back into ecosystem. Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America 78:295-297.
19. Fore, L. S., J. R. Karr, and L. L. Conquest. 1994. Statistical properties of an index of biological integrity used to evaluate water resources. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 51:1077-1087.
20. Gerrodette, T. 1987. A power analysis for detecting trends. Ecology 68:1364-1372.
21. Gilpin, M. 1996. Metapopulations and wildlife conservation: Approaches to modeling spatial structure. Pages 11-27 in D. R. McCullough (ed.), Metapopulations and wildlife conservation. Island Press, Washington, DC.
22. Goodman, D. 1987. How do any species persist? Lessons for conservation biology. Conservation Biology 1:59-62.
23. Gordon, R. E., Jr., J. K. Lacy, and J. R. Streeter. 1997. Conservation under the Endangered Species Act. Environmental International 23:359-419.
24. Graham, R. L., C. T. Hunsaker, R. V. O'Neill, and B. L. Jackson. 1991. Ecological risk assessment at the regional scale. Ecological Applications 1:196-206.
25. Green, R. H., and R. C. Young. 1993. Sampling to detect rare species. Ecological Applications 3:351-356.
26. Greig-Smith, P. 1983. Quantitative plant ecology. University of California Press, Berkeley.
27. Halbert, C. 1993. How adaptive is adaptive management? Implementing adaptive management in Washington state and British Columbia. Reviews in Fisheries Science 1:261-283.
28. Hall, L. S., P. R. Krausman, and M. L. Morrison. 1997. The habitat concept and a plea for standard terminology. Wildlife Society Bulletin 25:173-182.
29. Haney, A., and R. L. Power. 1996. Adaptive management for sound ecosystem management. Environmental Management 20:879-886.
30. Hannah, L., D. Lohse, C. Hutchinson, J. L. Carr, and A. Lankerani. 1994. A preliminary inventory of human disturbance of world ecosystems. Ambio 23:246-250.
31. Hanski, I. 1994. Spatial scale, patchiness and population dynamics on land. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 343:19-25.
32. Heath, A. G. 1989. Professional ethics for research biologists. Bioscience 39:472-474.
33. Heyer, W. R., M. A. Donnelly, R. W. McDiarmid, L. C. Hayek, and M. S. Foster (eds.). 1993. Measuring and monitoring biological diversity. Standard methods for amphibians. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
34. Holling, C. S. (ed.). 1978. Adaptive environmental assessment and management. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
35. Holling, C. S. 1986. The resilience of terrestrial ecosystems: local surprise and global change. Pages 292-317 in W. C. Clark and R. E. Munn (eds.), Sustainable development of the biosphere. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
36. Hunsaker, C. T., R. L. Graham, G. W. Suter, II, R. V. O'Neill, L. W. Barnthouse, and R. H. Gardner. 1990. Assessing ecological risk on a regional scale. Environmental Management 14:325-332.
37. Hurlbert, S. H. 1984. Pseudoreplication and the design of ecological field experiments. Ecological Monographs 54:187-211.
38. Karr, J. R. 1994. Landscapes and management for ecological integrity. Pages 229-251 in K. C. Kim and R. D. Weaver (eds.), Biodiversity and landscape: A paradox for humanity. Cambridge University Press, New York.
39. Karr, J. R. 1995. Protecting aquatic ecosystems: Clean water is not enough. Biological assessment and criteria: Tools for water resource planning and decision making. Pages 7-13 in W. S. Davis and T. P. Simon (eds.), Lewis Publications, Boca Raton, Florida.
40. Karr, J. R., K. D. Fausch, P. L. Angermeier, P. R. Yant, and I. J. Schlosser. 1986. Assessing biological integrity in running waters: A method and its rational. Illinois Natural History Survey Special Publication 5, 28 pp.
41. Kennedy, P. L. 1997. The northern goshawk (Accipter gentilis atricapillus): Is there evidence of a population decline? Journal of Raptor Research 31:95-106.
42. Klijn, F., and H. A. Udo de Haes. 1994. A hierarchical approach to ecosystems and its applications for ecological land classification. Landscape Ecology 9:89-104.
43. Kotlier, N. B., and J. A. Wiens. 1990. Multiple scales of patchiness and patch structure: a hierarchical framework for the study of heterogeneity. Oikos 59:253-260.
44. Kuhn, T. S. 1970. The structure of scientific revolutions, 2nd ed. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 210 pp.
45. Lancia, R. A., C. E. Braun, M. W. Collopy, R. D. Dueser, J. G. Kie, C. J. Martinka, J. D. Nichols, T. D. Nudds, W. R. Porath, and N. G. Tilghman. 1996. ARM! For the future: Adaptive resource management in the wildlife profession. Wildlife Society Bulletin 24:436-442.
46. Lee, K. N. 1991. Rebuilding confidence: Salmon, science, and law in the Columbia Basin. Environmental Law 21:745-805.
47. Levin, S. 1992. The problem of pattern and scale in ecology. Ecology 73:1943-1967.
48. MacArthur, R. H., and E. O. Wilson. 1967. The theory of island biogeography. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
49. Maser, C., J. M. Trappe, and R. A. Nussbaum. 1978. Fungalsmall mammal interrelationships with emphasis on Oregon coniferous forests. Ecology 59:799-809.
50. McCold, L., and J. Holman. 1995. Cumulative impacts in environmental assessments: How well are they considered? The Environmental Professional 17:2-8.
51. McLain, R. J., and R. G. Lee. 1996. Adaptive management: Promises and pitfalls. Environmental Management 20:437-442.
52. Meyer, W. B., and B. L. Turner, II. 1992. Human population growth and global land-use/cover change. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 23:39-61.
53. Morgan, M. G., and M. Henrion. 1990. Uncertainty: A guide to dealing with uncertainty in quantitative risk and policy analysis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
54. Morrison, M. L., B. G. Marcot, and R. W. Mannan. 1998. Wildlife-habitat relationships: Concepts and applications, 2nd ed. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.
55. NRC (National Research Council). 1986. Ecological knowledge and environmental problem-solving: Concepts and case studies. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
56. NRC (National Research Council). 1995. Science and the Endangered Species Act. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
57. O'Neill, R. V., D. L. Deangelis, J. B. Waide, and T. F. H. Allen. 1986. A hierarchical concept of ecosystems. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
58. O'Neill, R. V., K. B. Jones, K. H. Riitters, J. D. Wickham, and I. A. Goodman. 1994. Landscape monitoring and assessment research plan. US EPA 620/R-94/009, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, 53 pp.
59. Pimm, S. L., H. L. Jones, and J. Diamond. 1988. On the risk of extinction. American Naturalist 132:757-785.
60. Popper, K. R. 1969. Conjecture and refutation. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 431 pp.
61. Rapport, D. J., H. A. Reiger, and T. C. Hutchinson. 1985. Ecosystem behavior under stress. American Naturalist 125:617-640.
62. Rejesky, D. 1993. GIS and risk: A three-culture problem. Pages 318-331 in M. F. Goodchild, B. O. Parks, and L. T. Steyaert (eds.), Environmental modeling with GIS. Oxford University Press, New York.
63. Ricklefs, R. E., Z. Naveh, and R. E. Turner. 1984. Conservation of ecological processes. The Environmentalist 4 (Suppl 8): 1-16.
64. Riitters, K. H., R. V. O'Neill, and K. B. Jones. 1997. Assessing habitat suitability at multiple scales: A landscape-level approach. Biological Conservation 81:191-202.
65. Rotmans, J., M. B. A. van Asselt, A. J. de Bruin, M. G. J. den Elzen, J. de Greef, H. Hiderink, A. Y. Hoekstra, M. A. Janssen, H. W. Koster, W. J. M. Martens, L. W. Niessen, and H. J. M. de Vries. 1994. Global change and sustainable development. Global Dynamics & Sustainable Development Programme, GLOBO Report Series no. 4. RIVM, Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
66. Schoener, T. W., and A. Schoener. 1983. The time to extinction of a colonizing propagule of lizards increases with island area. Nature 302:332-334.
67. Schonewald-Cox, C., and M. Buechner. 1991. Housing viable populations in protected habitats: The value of a coarsegrained geographic analysis of density patterns and available habitat. Pages 213-226 in A. Seitz and V. Loeschcke (eds.), Species conservation: A population-biological approach. Birkhauser Verlag, Berlin.
68. Schulze, I., and others (7 authors). 1994. A conceptual framework to support the development and use of environmental information. Environmental Indicators Team, United States EPA, Office of Policy, Planning, and Evaluation, Washington, DC.
69. Shaffer, M. L. 1981. Minimum population sizes for species conservation. BioScience 31:131-134.
70. Shilling, F. 1997. Do habitat conservation plans protect endangered species? Science 276:1662-1663.
71. Shrader-Frechette, K. S., and E. D. McCoy. 1992. Statistics, costs and rationality in ecological inference. Tree 7:96-99.
72. Simberloff, D. 1998. Flagships, umbrellas, and keystones: Is single-species management passé in the landscape era? Biological Conservation 83:247-257.
73. Smallwood, K. S. 1993. Understanding ecological pattern and process by association and order. Acta Oecologica 14:443-462.
74. Smallwood, K. S. 1994. Site invasibility by exotic birds and mammals. Biological Conservation 69:251-259.
75. Smallwood, K. S. 1995. Scaling Swainson's hawk population density for assessing habitat use across an agricultural landscape. Journal of Raptor Research 29:172-178.
76. Smallwood, K. S. 1998. On the evidence needed for listing northern goshawks (Accipter gentilis): A reply to Kennedy. Journal of Raptor Research 32:323-329.
77. Smallwood, K. S., and M. L. Morrison. 1997. Alternate mitigation strategy for incidental take of giant garter snake and Swainson's hawk as part of the Natomas Basin Habitat Conservation Plan. Pages 6-9 and iii illustrations in W. D. Carrier, K. S. Smallwood and M. L. Morrison, Natomas Basin Habitat Conservation Plan: Narrow channel marsh alternative wetland mitigation. Northern Territories, Inc., Sacramento.
78. Smallwood, K. S., and C. M. Schonewald. 1996. Scaling population density and spatial pattern for terrestrial, mammalian carnivores. Oecologia 105:329-335.
79. Smallwood, K. S., B. Wilcox, R. Leidy, and K. Yarris. 1998. An Indicator of ecological integrity across large areas: A case study in Yolo County, California. Environmental Management (in press).
80. Soulé, M. E. 1991. Conservation: Tactics for a constant crisis. Science 253:744-750.
81. Soulé, M., and B. A. Wilcox. 1980. Conservation biology: An evolutionary-ecological perspective. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusettes.
82. Sutherland, W. J. 1996. Ecological census techniques: A handbook. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
83. Taylor, R. J. 1993. Biological uncertainty in the Endangered Species Act. Natural Resources and Environment 8:6-9, 58-59.
84. Taylor, R. A. J., and L. R. Taylor. 1979. A behavioral model for the evolution of spatial dynamics. Pages 1-28 in R. M. Anderson, B. D. Turner, and L. R. Taylor (eds.), Population dynamics. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, UK.
85. Turner, M. G. 1989. Landscape ecology: The effect of pattern on process. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematic* 20:171-197.
86. USDA. 1994. Agricultural resources and environmental indicators. Agricultural Handbook No. 705. US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Natural Resources and Environment Division, Washington, DC.
87. USDI and USDC. 1996. Endangered species habitat conservation planning handbook. US Department of the Interior and US Department of Commerce, Washington, DC.
88. US EPA. 1996. Summary report for the workshop on Monte Carlo analysis. Report EPA/630/R-96/010, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
89. US Fish and Wildlife Service. 1997a. Natomas Basin Habitat Conservation Plan. US Fish and Wildlife Service Sacramento Field Office, Sacramento, California.
90. US Fish and Wildlife Service. 1997b. San Diego Multiple Species Conservation Program Final EIR/EIS comments & responses. US Fish and Wildlife Service Carlsbad Field Office, Carlsbad, California.
91. US NRC. 1995. Probabilistic accident consequence uncertainty analysis: Dispersion and deposition uncertainty assessment. Report NUREG/CR-6244-V1-3. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, DC.
92. Verner, J., M. L. Morrison, and C. J. Ralph. 1986. Wildlife 2000: modeling habitat relationships of terrestrial vertebrates. The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisconsin, 470 pp.
93. Walters, C. J. 1986. Adaptive management of renewable resources. McGraw-Hill, New York.
94. Watt, K. E. F., and P. Craig. 1986. System stability principles. Systems Research 3:191-201.
95. Wilcox, B. A., and D. D. Murphy. 1985. Conservation strategy: The effects of fragmentation on extinction. American Naturalist 125:879-887.
96. Wilson, D. E., F. R. Cole, J. D. Nichols, R. Rudran, and M. S. Foster (eds). 1996. Measuring and monitorirg biological diversity: Standard methods for mammals. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
97. Woolf, P. 1981. Fraud in science: how much, how serious? The Hastings Center Report 11:9-14.
98. Zhang, M., S. Geng, and K. S. Smallwood. 1398. Nitrate contamination in groundwater of Tulare County, California. Ambio 27(31):170-174.