Bridging Social Capital in Personal Networks: An Exploratory Analysis of Data from Urban China

Issues and Studies

Volumn 39, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 177-195

  Francis Johnston, M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Gender; Organizations; Social capital; Urban; Workers

Indexed keywords

EID: 0344628497     PISSN: 10132511     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (57)

1. Barry Wellman and Milena Guila, "The Network Basis of Social Support: A Network is More Than the Sum of Its Ties," in Networks in the Global Village: Life in Contemporary Communities, ed. Barry Wellman (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1999), 83-118.
2. I b i d.
3. Robert Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000).
4. Ibid., 22.
5. Miller McPherson, Pamela Popielarz, and Sonia Drobnic, "Social Networks and Organizational Dynamics," American Sociological Review 57 (1992): 153-70; and Pamela Popielarz and Miller McPherson, "On the Edge or In Between: Niche Position, Niche Overlap, and the Duration of Voluntary Association Memberships," American Journal of Sociology 101, no. 3 (1995): 698-720.
6. Miller McPherson, Pamela Popielarz, and Sonia Drobnic, "Social Networks and Organizational Dynamics," American Sociological Review 57 (1992): 153-70; and Pamela Popielarz and Miller McPherson, "On the Edge or In Between: Niche Position, Niche Overlap, and the Duration of Voluntary Association Memberships," American Journal of Sociology 101, no. 3 (1995): 698-720.
7. Lynne Smith-Lovin and Miller McPherson, "You Are Who You Know: A Network Approach to Gender," in Theory on Gender/Feminism, ed. Paula England (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 1993), 223-51.
8. When organizational boundaries are "hard," such as in prisons, boundary-spanning ties will be more likely to connect people living in different social worlds. Even when organizational boundaries are porous, such as in a firm with a high turnover, there may be very little overlap between related non-work organizations, such as recreational clubs, churches, and neighborhood organizations. Relevant ideas can be found in Bernice Pescosolido and Beth Rubin, "The Web of Group Affiliations Revisited: Social Life, Postmodernism, and Sociology," American Sociological Review 65 (2000): 52-76; Scott Feld, "The Focused Organization of Social Ties," American Journal of Sociology 86, no. 5 (1981): 1015-35; Edward Laumann et al., The Social Organization of Sexuality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994); and Barrett Lee, Karen Campbell, and Oscar Miller, "Racial Differences in Urban Neighboring," Sociological Forum 6, no. 3 (1991): 525-50.
9. When organizational boundaries are "hard," such as in prisons, boundary-spanning ties will be more likely to connect people living in different social worlds. Even when organizational boundaries are porous, such as in a firm with a high turnover, there may be very little overlap between related non-work organizations, such as recreational clubs, churches, and neighborhood organizations. Relevant ideas can be found in Bernice Pescosolido and Beth Rubin, "The Web of Group Affiliations Revisited: Social Life, Postmodernism, and Sociology," American Sociological Review 65 (2000): 52-76; Scott Feld, "The Focused Organization of Social Ties," American Journal of Sociology 86, no. 5 (1981): 1015-35; Edward Laumann et al., The Social Organization of Sexuality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994); and Barrett Lee, Karen Campbell, and Oscar Miller, "Racial Differences in Urban Neighboring," Sociological Forum 6, no. 3 (1991): 525-50.
10. When organizational boundaries are "hard," such as in prisons, boundary-spanning ties will be more likely to connect people living in different social worlds. Even when organizational boundaries are porous, such as in a firm with a high turnover, there may be very little overlap between related non-work organizations, such as recreational clubs, churches, and neighborhood organizations. Relevant ideas can be found in Bernice Pescosolido and Beth Rubin, "The Web of Group Affiliations Revisited: Social Life, Postmodernism, and Sociology," American Sociological Review 65 (2000): 52-76; Scott Feld, "The Focused Organization of Social Ties," American Journal of Sociology 86, no. 5 (1981): 1015-35; Edward Laumann et al., The Social Organization of Sexuality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994); and Barrett Lee, Karen Campbell, and Oscar Miller, "Racial Differences in Urban Neighboring," Sociological Forum 6, no. 3 (1991): 525-50.
11. When organizational boundaries are "hard," such as in prisons, boundary-spanning ties will be more likely to connect people living in different social worlds. Even when organizational boundaries are porous, such as in a firm with a high turnover, there may be very little overlap between related non-work organizations, such as recreational clubs, churches, and neighborhood organizations. Relevant ideas can be found in Bernice Pescosolido and Beth Rubin, "The Web of Group Affiliations Revisited: Social Life, Postmodernism, and Sociology," American Sociological Review 65 (2000): 52-76; Scott Feld, "The Focused Organization of Social Ties," American Journal of Sociology 86, no. 5 (1981): 1015-35; Edward Laumann et al., The Social Organization of Sexuality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994); and Barrett Lee, Karen Campbell, and Oscar Miller, "Racial Differences in Urban Neighboring," Sociological Forum 6, no. 3 (1991): 525-50.
12. In Granovetter's formulation of "social capital," social worlds are not constructed on the basis of organizational boundaries, but through the aggregation of people into distinct clusters on the basis of like-dislike relations. The problem is that bridging ties are essentially immeasurable: to prove that the connection between two people is a bridging tie, it is necessary to demonstrate that no two other individuals from either cluster know each other. Such an approach is simply not empirically practical when studying large numbers of people. Granovetter solved this problem by arguing that weak ties are a proxy for bridging ties and thus used weak ties in his empirical analyses. See Mark Granovetter, "The Strength of Weak Ties," American Journal of Sociology 78 (1973): 1360-80.
13. James Johnson et al., "Bridging Social Networks and Female Labor Force Participation in a Multiethnic Metropolis," in Prismatic Metropolis: Inequality in Los Angeles, ed. Larry Bobo et al. (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2000), 383-416; Jennifer Stoloff, Jennifer Glanville, and Elisa Bienenstock, "Women's Participation in the Labor Force: The Role of Social Networks," Social Networks 21 (1999): 91-108; Howard Aldrich, Amanda Elam, and Pat Reese, "Strong Ties, Weak Ties, and Strangers: Do Women Owners Differ from Men in Their Use of Networking to Obtain Assistance?" in Entrepreneurship in a Global Context, ed. Sue Birley and Ian MacMillan (London: Routledge, 1997), 1-25; John Beggs and Jeanne Hurlbert, "The Social Context of Men's and Woman's Job Search Ties: Membership in Voluntary Organizations, Social Resources, and Job Search Outcomes," Sociological Perspectives 40 (1997): 601-22; William Bridges and Wayne Villemez, "Informal Hiring and Income in the Labor Market," American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 574-82; Susan Hanson and Geraldine Pratt, "Job Search and the Occupational Segregation of Women," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 81, no. 2 (1991): 229-53; Nan Lin, Walter Ensel, and John Vaughn, "Social Resources and the Strength of Weak Ties: Structural Factors in Occupational Status Attainment," American Sociological Review 46 (1981): 393-405; Peter Marsden and Jeanne Hurlbert, "Social Resources and Status Attainment: Replication and Extension," Social Forces 66 (1988): 1038-59; Stephen Murray, Joseph Rankin, and Dennis Magill, "Strong Ties and Job Information," Work and Occupations 8, no. 1 (1981): 119-36; and Berend Wegener, "Job Mobility and Social Ties: Social Resources, Prior Job, and Prestige Attainment," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 60-71.
14. James Johnson et al., "Bridging Social Networks and Female Labor Force Participation in a Multiethnic Metropolis," in Prismatic Metropolis: Inequality in Los Angeles, ed. Larry Bobo et al. (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2000), 383-416; Jennifer Stoloff, Jennifer Glanville, and Elisa Bienenstock, "Women's Participation in the Labor Force: The Role of Social Networks," Social Networks 21 (1999): 91-108; Howard Aldrich, Amanda Elam, and Pat Reese, "Strong Ties, Weak Ties, and Strangers: Do Women Owners Differ from Men in Their Use of Networking to Obtain Assistance?" in Entrepreneurship in a Global Context, ed. Sue Birley and Ian MacMillan (London: Routledge, 1997), 1-25; John Beggs and Jeanne Hurlbert, "The Social Context of Men's and Woman's Job Search Ties: Membership in Voluntary Organizations, Social Resources, and Job Search Outcomes," Sociological Perspectives 40 (1997): 601-22; William Bridges and Wayne Villemez, "Informal Hiring and Income in the Labor Market," American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 574-82; Susan Hanson and Geraldine Pratt, "Job Search and the Occupational Segregation of Women," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 81, no. 2 (1991): 229-53; Nan Lin, Walter Ensel, and John Vaughn, "Social Resources and the Strength of Weak Ties: Structural Factors in Occupational Status Attainment," American Sociological Review 46 (1981): 393-405; Peter Marsden and Jeanne Hurlbert, "Social Resources and Status Attainment: Replication and Extension," Social Forces 66 (1988): 1038-59; Stephen Murray, Joseph Rankin, and Dennis Magill, "Strong Ties and Job Information," Work and Occupations 8, no. 1 (1981): 119-36; and Berend Wegener, "Job Mobility and Social Ties: Social Resources, Prior Job, and Prestige Attainment," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 60-71.
15. James Johnson et al., "Bridging Social Networks and Female Labor Force Participation in a Multiethnic Metropolis," in Prismatic Metropolis: Inequality in Los Angeles, ed. Larry Bobo et al. (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2000), 383-416; Jennifer Stoloff, Jennifer Glanville, and Elisa Bienenstock, "Women's Participation in the Labor Force: The Role of Social Networks," Social Networks 21 (1999): 91-108; Howard Aldrich, Amanda Elam, and Pat Reese, "Strong Ties, Weak Ties, and Strangers: Do Women Owners Differ from Men in Their Use of Networking to Obtain Assistance?" in Entrepreneurship in a Global Context, ed. Sue Birley and Ian MacMillan (London: Routledge, 1997), 1-25; John Beggs and Jeanne Hurlbert, "The Social Context of Men's and Woman's Job Search Ties: Membership in Voluntary Organizations, Social Resources, and Job Search Outcomes," Sociological Perspectives 40 (1997): 601-22; William Bridges and Wayne Villemez, "Informal Hiring and Income in the Labor Market," American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 574-82; Susan Hanson and Geraldine Pratt, "Job Search and the Occupational Segregation of Women," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 81, no. 2 (1991): 229-53; Nan Lin, Walter Ensel, and John Vaughn, "Social Resources and the Strength of Weak Ties: Structural Factors in Occupational Status Attainment," American Sociological Review 46 (1981): 393-405; Peter Marsden and Jeanne Hurlbert, "Social Resources and Status Attainment: Replication and Extension," Social Forces 66 (1988): 1038-59; Stephen Murray, Joseph Rankin, and Dennis Magill, "Strong Ties and Job Information," Work and Occupations 8, no. 1 (1981): 119-36; and Berend Wegener, "Job Mobility and Social Ties: Social Resources, Prior Job, and Prestige Attainment," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 60-71.
16. James Johnson et al., "Bridging Social Networks and Female Labor Force Participation in a Multiethnic Metropolis," in Prismatic Metropolis: Inequality in Los Angeles, ed. Larry Bobo et al. (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2000), 383-416; Jennifer Stoloff, Jennifer Glanville, and Elisa Bienenstock, "Women's Participation in the Labor Force: The Role of Social Networks," Social Networks 21 (1999): 91-108; Howard Aldrich, Amanda Elam, and Pat Reese, "Strong Ties, Weak Ties, and Strangers: Do Women Owners Differ from Men in Their Use of Networking to Obtain Assistance?" in Entrepreneurship in a Global Context, ed. Sue Birley and Ian MacMillan (London: Routledge, 1997), 1-25; John Beggs and Jeanne Hurlbert, "The Social Context of Men's and Woman's Job Search Ties: Membership in Voluntary Organizations, Social Resources, and Job Search Outcomes," Sociological Perspectives 40 (1997): 601-22; William Bridges and Wayne Villemez, "Informal Hiring and Income in the Labor Market," American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 574-82; Susan Hanson and Geraldine Pratt, "Job Search and the Occupational Segregation of Women," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 81, no. 2 (1991): 229-53; Nan Lin, Walter Ensel, and John Vaughn, "Social Resources and the Strength of Weak Ties: Structural Factors in Occupational Status Attainment," American Sociological Review 46 (1981): 393-405; Peter Marsden and Jeanne Hurlbert, "Social Resources and Status Attainment: Replication and Extension," Social Forces 66 (1988): 1038-59; Stephen Murray, Joseph Rankin, and Dennis Magill, "Strong Ties and Job Information," Work and Occupations 8, no. 1 (1981): 119-36; and Berend Wegener, "Job Mobility and Social Ties: Social Resources, Prior Job, and Prestige Attainment," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 60-71.
17. James Johnson et al., "Bridging Social Networks and Female Labor Force Participation in a Multiethnic Metropolis," in Prismatic Metropolis: Inequality in Los Angeles, ed. Larry Bobo et al. (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2000), 383-416; Jennifer Stoloff, Jennifer Glanville, and Elisa Bienenstock, "Women's Participation in the Labor Force: The Role of Social Networks," Social Networks 21 (1999): 91-108; Howard Aldrich, Amanda Elam, and Pat Reese, "Strong Ties, Weak Ties, and Strangers: Do Women Owners Differ from Men in Their Use of Networking to Obtain Assistance?" in Entrepreneurship in a Global Context, ed. Sue Birley and Ian MacMillan (London: Routledge, 1997), 1-25; John Beggs and Jeanne Hurlbert, "The Social Context of Men's and Woman's Job Search Ties: Membership in Voluntary Organizations, Social Resources, and Job Search Outcomes," Sociological Perspectives 40 (1997): 601-22; William Bridges and Wayne Villemez, "Informal Hiring and Income in the Labor Market," American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 574-82; Susan Hanson and Geraldine Pratt, "Job Search and the Occupational Segregation of Women," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 81, no. 2 (1991): 229-53; Nan Lin, Walter Ensel, and John Vaughn, "Social Resources and the Strength of Weak Ties: Structural Factors in Occupational Status Attainment," American Sociological Review 46 (1981): 393-405; Peter Marsden and Jeanne Hurlbert, "Social Resources and Status Attainment: Replication and Extension," Social Forces 66 (1988): 1038-59; Stephen Murray, Joseph Rankin, and Dennis Magill, "Strong Ties and Job Information," Work and Occupations 8, no. 1 (1981): 119-36; and Berend Wegener, "Job Mobility and Social Ties: Social Resources, Prior Job, and Prestige Attainment," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 60-71.
18. James Johnson et al., "Bridging Social Networks and Female Labor Force Participation in a Multiethnic Metropolis," in Prismatic Metropolis: Inequality in Los Angeles, ed. Larry Bobo et al. (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2000), 383-416; Jennifer Stoloff, Jennifer Glanville, and Elisa Bienenstock, "Women's Participation in the Labor Force: The Role of Social Networks," Social Networks 21 (1999): 91-108; Howard Aldrich, Amanda Elam, and Pat Reese, "Strong Ties, Weak Ties, and Strangers: Do Women Owners Differ from Men in Their Use of Networking to Obtain Assistance?" in Entrepreneurship in a Global Context, ed. Sue Birley and Ian MacMillan (London: Routledge, 1997), 1-25; John Beggs and Jeanne Hurlbert, "The Social Context of Men's and Woman's Job Search Ties: Membership in Voluntary Organizations, Social Resources, and Job Search Outcomes," Sociological Perspectives 40 (1997): 601-22; William Bridges and Wayne Villemez, "Informal Hiring and Income in the Labor Market," American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 574-82; Susan Hanson and Geraldine Pratt, "Job Search and the Occupational Segregation of Women," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 81, no. 2 (1991): 229-53; Nan Lin, Walter Ensel, and John Vaughn, "Social Resources and the Strength of Weak Ties: Structural Factors in Occupational Status Attainment," American Sociological Review 46 (1981): 393-405; Peter Marsden and Jeanne Hurlbert, "Social Resources and Status Attainment: Replication and Extension," Social Forces 66 (1988): 1038-59; Stephen Murray, Joseph Rankin, and Dennis Magill, "Strong Ties and Job Information," Work and Occupations 8, no. 1 (1981): 119-36; and Berend Wegener, "Job Mobility and Social Ties: Social Resources, Prior Job, and Prestige Attainment," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 60-71.
19. James Johnson et al., "Bridging Social Networks and Female Labor Force Participation in a Multiethnic Metropolis," in Prismatic Metropolis: Inequality in Los Angeles, ed. Larry Bobo et al. (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2000), 383-416; Jennifer Stoloff, Jennifer Glanville, and Elisa Bienenstock, "Women's Participation in the Labor Force: The Role of Social Networks," Social Networks 21 (1999): 91-108; Howard Aldrich, Amanda Elam, and Pat Reese, "Strong Ties, Weak Ties, and Strangers: Do Women Owners Differ from Men in Their Use of Networking to Obtain Assistance?" in Entrepreneurship in a Global Context, ed. Sue Birley and Ian MacMillan (London: Routledge, 1997), 1-25; John Beggs and Jeanne Hurlbert, "The Social Context of Men's and Woman's Job Search Ties: Membership in Voluntary Organizations, Social Resources, and Job Search Outcomes," Sociological Perspectives 40 (1997): 601-22; William Bridges and Wayne Villemez, "Informal Hiring and Income in the Labor Market," American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 574-82; Susan Hanson and Geraldine Pratt, "Job Search and the Occupational Segregation of Women," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 81, no. 2 (1991): 229-53; Nan Lin, Walter Ensel, and John Vaughn, "Social Resources and the Strength of Weak Ties: Structural Factors in Occupational Status Attainment," American Sociological Review 46 (1981): 393-405; Peter Marsden and Jeanne Hurlbert, "Social Resources and Status Attainment: Replication and Extension," Social Forces 66 (1988): 1038-59; Stephen Murray, Joseph Rankin, and Dennis Magill, "Strong Ties and Job Information," Work and Occupations 8, no. 1 (1981): 119-36; and Berend Wegener, "Job Mobility and Social Ties: Social Resources, Prior Job, and Prestige Attainment," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 60-71.
20. James Johnson et al., "Bridging Social Networks and Female Labor Force Participation in a Multiethnic Metropolis," in Prismatic Metropolis: Inequality in Los Angeles, ed. Larry Bobo et al. (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2000), 383-416; Jennifer Stoloff, Jennifer Glanville, and Elisa Bienenstock, "Women's Participation in the Labor Force: The Role of Social Networks," Social Networks 21 (1999): 91-108; Howard Aldrich, Amanda Elam, and Pat Reese, "Strong Ties, Weak Ties, and Strangers: Do Women Owners Differ from Men in Their Use of Networking to Obtain Assistance?" in Entrepreneurship in a Global Context, ed. Sue Birley and Ian MacMillan (London: Routledge, 1997), 1-25; John Beggs and Jeanne Hurlbert, "The Social Context of Men's and Woman's Job Search Ties: Membership in Voluntary Organizations, Social Resources, and Job Search Outcomes," Sociological Perspectives 40 (1997): 601-22; William Bridges and Wayne Villemez, "Informal Hiring and Income in the Labor Market," American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 574-82; Susan Hanson and Geraldine Pratt, "Job Search and the Occupational Segregation of Women," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 81, no. 2 (1991): 229-53; Nan Lin, Walter Ensel, and John Vaughn, "Social Resources and the Strength of Weak Ties: Structural Factors in Occupational Status Attainment," American Sociological Review 46 (1981): 393-405; Peter Marsden and Jeanne Hurlbert, "Social Resources and Status Attainment: Replication and Extension," Social Forces 66 (1988): 1038-59; Stephen Murray, Joseph Rankin, and Dennis Magill, "Strong Ties and Job Information," Work and Occupations 8, no. 1 (1981): 119-36; and Berend Wegener, "Job Mobility and Social Ties: Social Resources, Prior Job, and Prestige Attainment," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 60-71.
21. James Johnson et al., "Bridging Social Networks and Female Labor Force Participation in a Multiethnic Metropolis," in Prismatic Metropolis: Inequality in Los Angeles, ed. Larry Bobo et al. (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2000), 383-416; Jennifer Stoloff, Jennifer Glanville, and Elisa Bienenstock, "Women's Participation in the Labor Force: The Role of Social Networks," Social Networks 21 (1999): 91-108; Howard Aldrich, Amanda Elam, and Pat Reese, "Strong Ties, Weak Ties, and Strangers: Do Women Owners Differ from Men in Their Use of Networking to Obtain Assistance?" in Entrepreneurship in a Global Context, ed. Sue Birley and Ian MacMillan (London: Routledge, 1997), 1-25; John Beggs and Jeanne Hurlbert, "The Social Context of Men's and Woman's Job Search Ties: Membership in Voluntary Organizations, Social Resources, and Job Search Outcomes," Sociological Perspectives 40 (1997): 601-22; William Bridges and Wayne Villemez, "Informal Hiring and Income in the Labor Market," American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 574-82; Susan Hanson and Geraldine Pratt, "Job Search and the Occupational Segregation of Women," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 81, no. 2 (1991): 229-53; Nan Lin, Walter Ensel, and John Vaughn, "Social Resources and the Strength of Weak Ties: Structural Factors in Occupational Status Attainment," American Sociological Review 46 (1981): 393-405; Peter Marsden and Jeanne Hurlbert, "Social Resources and Status Attainment: Replication and Extension," Social Forces 66 (1988): 1038-59; Stephen Murray, Joseph Rankin, and Dennis Magill, "Strong Ties and Job Information," Work and Occupations 8, no. 1 (1981): 119-36; and Berend Wegener, "Job Mobility and Social Ties: Social Resources, Prior Job, and Prestige Attainment," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 60-71.
22. James Johnson et al., "Bridging Social Networks and Female Labor Force Participation in a Multiethnic Metropolis," in Prismatic Metropolis: Inequality in Los Angeles, ed. Larry Bobo et al. (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2000), 383-416; Jennifer Stoloff, Jennifer Glanville, and Elisa Bienenstock, "Women's Participation in the Labor Force: The Role of Social Networks," Social Networks 21 (1999): 91-108; Howard Aldrich, Amanda Elam, and Pat Reese, "Strong Ties, Weak Ties, and Strangers: Do Women Owners Differ from Men in Their Use of Networking to Obtain Assistance?" in Entrepreneurship in a Global Context, ed. Sue Birley and Ian MacMillan (London: Routledge, 1997), 1-25; John Beggs and Jeanne Hurlbert, "The Social Context of Men's and Woman's Job Search Ties: Membership in Voluntary Organizations, Social Resources, and Job Search Outcomes," Sociological Perspectives 40 (1997): 601-22; William Bridges and Wayne Villemez, "Informal Hiring and Income in the Labor Market," American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 574-82; Susan Hanson and Geraldine Pratt, "Job Search and the Occupational Segregation of Women," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 81, no. 2 (1991): 229-53; Nan Lin, Walter Ensel, and John Vaughn, "Social Resources and the Strength of Weak Ties: Structural Factors in Occupational Status Attainment," American Sociological Review 46 (1981): 393-405; Peter Marsden and Jeanne Hurlbert, "Social Resources and Status Attainment: Replication and Extension," Social Forces 66 (1988): 1038-59; Stephen Murray, Joseph Rankin, and Dennis Magill, "Strong Ties and Job Information," Work and Occupations 8, no. 1 (1981): 119-36; and Berend Wegener, "Job Mobility and Social Ties: Social Resources, Prior Job, and Prestige Attainment," American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 60-71.
23. Ronald Burt, Structural Holes (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), 25-30.
24. Wellman and Guila, "The Network Basis of Social Support," 96; Barry Wellman, "The Network Community: An Introduction," in Wellman, Networks in the Global Village, 22, 24; and Barry Wellman and Stephanie Potter, "The Elements of Personal Communities," ibid., 49-81.
25. Wellman and Guila, "The Network Basis of Social Support," 96; Barry Wellman, "The Network Community: An Introduction," in Wellman, Networks in the Global Village, 22, 24; and Barry Wellman and Stephanie Potter, "The Elements of Personal Communities," ibid., 49-81.
26. Wellman and Guila, "The Network Basis of Social Support," 96; Barry Wellman, "The Network Community: An Introduction," in Wellman, Networks in the Global Village, 22, 24; and Barry Wellman and Stephanie Potter, "The Elements of Personal Communities," ibid., 49-81.
27. In this respect, qualitative studies have been much better. See, for example: Mayfair Yang, Gifts, Favors, and Banquets: The Art of Social Relationships in China (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1994); Yun-Xiang Yan, The Flow of Gifts: Reciprocity and Social Networks in a Chinese Village (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996); and Andrew Kipnis, Producing Guanxi: Sentiment, Self, and Subculture in a North China Village (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1997).
28. In this respect, qualitative studies have been much better. See, for example: Mayfair Yang, Gifts, Favors, and Banquets: The Art of Social Relationships in China (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1994); Yun-Xiang Yan, The Flow of Gifts: Reciprocity and Social Networks in a Chinese Village (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996); and Andrew Kipnis, Producing Guanxi: Sentiment, Self, and Subculture in a North China Village (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1997).
29. In this respect, qualitative studies have been much better. See, for example: Mayfair Yang, Gifts, Favors, and Banquets: The Art of Social Relationships in China (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1994); Yun-Xiang Yan, The Flow of Gifts: Reciprocity and Social Networks in a Chinese Village (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996); and Andrew Kipnis, Producing Guanxi: Sentiment, Self, and Subculture in a North China Village (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1997).
30. James Montgomery, "Weak Ties, Employment, and Inequality. An Equilibrium Analysis," American Journal of Sociology 99, no. 5 (1994): 1212-36.
31. Wellman, "The Network Community," 25.
32. Barry Naughton, "Danwei: The Economic Foundations of a Unique Institution," in The Changing Chinese Workplace in Historical and Comparative Perspective, ed. Xiaobo Lu and Elizabeth Perry (Boston: M.E. Sharpe, 1997), 169-94; Athar Hussain, "The Social Role of the Chinese State Enterprise," in Changing Workplace Relations in the Chinese Economy, ed. Malcolm Warner (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000), 57-73; and Piper Gaubatz, "Urban Transformation in Post-Mao China: Impacts of the Reform Era on China's Urban Form," in Urban Spaces in Contemporary China: The Potential for Autonomy and Community in Post-Mao China, ed. Deborah Davis et al. (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Press, 1995), 28-60.
33. Barry Naughton, "Danwei: The Economic Foundations of a Unique Institution," in The Changing Chinese Workplace in Historical and Comparative Perspective, ed. Xiaobo Lu and Elizabeth Perry (Boston: M.E. Sharpe, 1997), 169-94; Athar Hussain, "The Social Role of the Chinese State Enterprise," in Changing Workplace Relations in the Chinese Economy, ed. Malcolm Warner (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000), 57-73; and Piper Gaubatz, "Urban Transformation in Post-Mao China: Impacts of the Reform Era on China's Urban Form," in Urban Spaces in Contemporary China: The Potential for Autonomy and Community in Post-Mao China, ed. Deborah Davis et al. (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Press, 1995), 28-60.
34. Barry Naughton, "Danwei: The Economic Foundations of a Unique Institution," in The Changing Chinese Workplace in Historical and Comparative Perspective, ed. Xiaobo Lu and Elizabeth Perry (Boston: M.E. Sharpe, 1997), 169-94; Athar Hussain, "The Social Role of the Chinese State Enterprise," in Changing Workplace Relations in the Chinese Economy, ed. Malcolm Warner (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000), 57-73; and Piper Gaubatz, "Urban Transformation in Post-Mao China: Impacts of the Reform Era on China's Urban Form," in Urban Spaces in Contemporary China: The Potential for Autonomy and Community in Post-Mao China, ed. Deborah Davis et al. (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Press, 1995), 28-60.
35. Malcolm Warner, "Introduction: Whither the Iron-Rice Bowl," in Warner, Changing Work-place Relations in the Chinese Economy, 3-14; and Hussain, "The Social Role of the Chinese State Enterprise."
36. Malcolm Warner, "Introduction: Whither the Iron-Rice Bowl," in Warner, Changing Work-place Relations in the Chinese Economy, 3-14; and Hussain, "The Social Role of the Chinese State Enterprise."
37. Yanjie Bian, "Indirect Ties, Network Bridges, and Job Searches in China," American Sociological Review 62, no. 3 (1997): 366-85.
38. Marc Blecher, "Hegemony and Workers' Politics in China," The China Quarterly, no. 170 (2002): 283-303; see esp. p. 288.
39. Criteria include: (1) that the worker be an ordinary manual worker; (2) that the worker be aged 30-34; (3) that the worker be a graduate of either middle school (chuzhong) or high school (gaozhong), the overwhelming modal categories of education among urban workers aged 30-34 in 1998; and (4) that the worker was laid off between January 1, 1998 and June 1, 1999. This is a purposive cluster sample and the sampled workers are thus not representative of laid-off workers in general.
40. A few respondents listed no contacts at all in response to the eleven name-generator questions. In a later round, respondents were also asked to name their family members. The two sets of contacts were merged together. In most cases, there was almost no change to the nature of respondents' personal job search networks because most respondents had mentioned their family in the original answers.
41. Nan Lin, "Networks and Status Attainment," Annual Review of Sociology 25 (1999): 467-87.
42. From August 1997 to June 1998, name-generator questions were screened and refined for cultural authenticity in approximately seventy-five interviews (about one-third were with workers laid-off from state-owned enterprises, one-third with government officials addressing the problem of laid-off workers, and one-third with academics researching laid-off workers). Questions were fashioned with the assistance of Zhang Wenhong (Department of Sociology, Nankai University), Wang Hansheng (Department of Sociology, Beijing University), and Shi Xiuying (Chinese Academy of Social Sciences).
43. Peter Marsden and Karen Campbell, "Measuring Tie Strength," Social Forces 63 (1984): 482-501.
44. The research data collected enables a fuller analysis of bridging social capital than is possible with other data sets for two reasons. First, individuals often have hundreds of contacts and thus relatively complete enumerations of personal networks are nearly impossible to achieve. The generators used for this research elicited from respondents a larger number of names than typical network studies, however, because a large number of name-generators and respondents were not restricted in the number of contacts they could list per generator (previous studies tended to limit respondents to one or three contacts per generator). Second, most data sets are focused on respondent's active contact ties (see Wellman and Potter, "The Elements of Personal Communities," 52-54) and as a result are more likely to capture strong ties than weak ties. Accordingly, traditional name-generator questions would likely have elicited strong ties within the state-owned textile environment. Because respondents were asked to identify contacts that could help themselves find a new job, however, interviewers were more likely to elicit helpers from outside respondents' own work unit. In addition, one name-generator question specifically sought to capture weak ties. Overall, these data contain more dyadic social network ties that are not strong ties from the same social circle than would commonly occur.
45. See note 8 above.
46. Aldrich, Elam, and Reese, "Strong Ties, Weak Ties, and Strangers" (cited in note 9 above).
47. Gwen Moore, "Structural Determinants of Men's and Women's Personal Networks," American Sociological Review 55 (1990): 726-35; Claude Fischer and Stacey Oliker, "A Research Note on Friendship, Gender, and the Life Cycle," Social Forces 62 (1983): 124-33; and Peter Marsden, "Core Discussion Networks of Americans," American Sociological Review 52 (1987): 122-31.
48. Gwen Moore, "Structural Determinants of Men's and Women's Personal Networks," American Sociological Review 55 (1990): 726-35; Claude Fischer and Stacey Oliker, "A Research Note on Friendship, Gender, and the Life Cycle," Social Forces 62 (1983): 124-33; and Peter Marsden, "Core Discussion Networks of Americans," American Sociological Review 52 (1987): 122-31.
49. Gwen Moore, "Structural Determinants of Men's and Women's Personal Networks," American Sociological Review 55 (1990): 726-35; Claude Fischer and Stacey Oliker, "A Research Note on Friendship, Gender, and the Life Cycle," Social Forces 62 (1983): 124-33; and Peter Marsden, "Core Discussion Networks of Americans," American Sociological Review 52 (1987): 122-31.
50. Ideally, a boundary-spanning tie would be defined as a tie that crosses work unit boundaries. Since this variable is not available in the data, an operationalization with a higher bar for the study at hand was adopted: a boundary-spanning tie is a tie between a job-seeker and a person located outside of the state-owned textile sector. Such ties cross one of two very firm institutional lines that demarcate social worlds even more clearly than do organizational boundaries-either the industrial line (textile or not) or the state-market divide.
51. Tests of statistical significance are a means by which to determine whether quantitative results within a random sample drawn from a defined population may be generalized to that population. That is not the purpose in this research note. I use this purposive cluster sample as a device for exploring personal networks. Nevertheless, for sociologists who are accustomed to using inferential statistics as a tool to assess the meaningfulness of relationships, asterisks are placed next to coefficients in the appendix to signify which dependent variables would be statistically significant if these data were a random sample, hypotheses were specified in advance, and only a single model were fit to the data. Evaluated in this way, the results are compatible with the visual interpretations.
52. Putnam, Bowling Alone, 22.
53. Burt argues that "To the extent that people play an active role in shaping their relationships, then a player who knows how to structure a network to provide high opportunity knows whom to include in the network." See Burt, Structural Holes, 13. A variant of this thinking is that people who know how to build large networks also know who to include in their networks. Note, however, that this argument should not be over-simplified; one of the primary arguments in Burt's book is that among people with the same size of network, those with a greater number of bridging ties will gain more information and control than those with fewer bridging ties.
54. Aldrich, Elam, and Reese, "Strong Ties, Weak Ties, and Strangers," esp. 4-5.
55. Hanson and Pratt, "Job Search and the Occupational Segregation of Women," 250; and Karen Campbell, "Gender Differences in Job-Related Networks," Work and Occupations 15 (1988): 183-85.
56. Hanson and Pratt, "Job Search and the Occupational Segregation of Women," 250; and Karen Campbell, "Gender Differences in Job-Related Networks," Work and Occupations 15 (1988): 183-85.
57. Wellman and Guila, "The Network Basis of Social Support," 108.