'Playing for fascism': Sportsmanship, antisemitism and the British Union of Fascists

Patterns of Prejudice

Volumn 37, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 359-376

  Spurr, Michael A ^a,b  

^a MONASH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^b History Teach' Assoc of Victoria   (Australia)

Author keywords

Antisemitism; British fascism; British Union of Fascists; Fascism; Oswald Mosley; Racism; Sports

Indexed keywords

EID: 0344392792     PISSN: 0031322X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/0031322032000144465     Document Type: Article

References (118)

1. This article is based on an MA thesis prepared at the School of Historical Studies, Monash University. I wish to thank Eleanor Hancock for her continuing guidance, Roger Griffin for making his time and forthcoming articles available, the Friends of Oswald Mosley, particularly John Christian and Robert Richard, for their assistance, and Eileesh Diviney for her encouragement.
2. Philip Rees, 'Changing interpretations of British fascism: a biographical survey', in Kenneth Lunn and Richard Thurlow (eds), British Fascism: Essays on the Radical Right in Inter-war Britain (London: Croom Helm 1980), 187. While the British Union of Fascists (BUF) changed its name to the British Union of Fascists and National Socialists in 1936 and from that time generally referred to itself as the British Union, I shall adhere to the convention of referring to the movement as the BUF, as no significant alteration to policy or structure accompanied the name change.
3. Studies of these aspects of the BUF are extensive. See, for recent examples, Richard Thurlow, Fascism in Britain: A History, 2nd edn (London: I. B. Tauris 1998); and Mike Cronin (ed.), The Failure of British Fascism: The Far Right and the Fight for Political Recognition (Basingstoke: Macmillan 1996).
4. Studies of these aspects of the BUF are extensive. See, for recent examples, Richard Thurlow, Fascism in Britain: A History, 2nd edn (London: I. B. Tauris 1998); and Mike Cronin (ed.), The Failure of British Fascism: The Far Right and the Fight for Political Recognition (Basingstoke: Macmillan 1996).
5. Kenneth Lunn, 'British fascism revisited: a failure of imagination', in Cronin (ed.), 166-79.
6. Thomas Linehan, East London for Mosley: The British Union of Fascists in East London and South West Essex, 1933-40 (London: Frank Cass 1996).
7. Thomas Linehan, British Fascism 1918-1939: Parties, Ideology and Culture (Manchester: Manchester University Press 2000).
8. Martin Durham, Women and Fascism (London: Routledge 1998).
9. Julie Gottlieb, Feminine Fascism: Women in Britain's Fascist Movement, 1923-1945 (London: I. B. Tauris 2000). See also R. M. Douglas, Feminist Freikorps: The British Voluntary Women Police, 1914-1940 (Westport, CT: Praeger 1999) for a discussion of the appeal of fascism to Mary Allen, a former militant suffragette and leader of the women's volunteer police formations.
10. Julie Gottlieb, Feminine Fascism: Women in Britain's Fascist Movement, 1923-1945 (London: I. B. Tauris 2000). See also R. M. Douglas, Feminist Freikorps: The British Voluntary Women Police, 1914-1940 (Westport, CT: Praeger 1999) for a discussion of the appeal of fascism to Mary Allen, a former militant suffragette and leader of the women's volunteer police formations.
11. Tony Collins, 'Return to manhood: the cult of masculinity and the British Union of Fascists', International Journal of the History of Sport, vol. 3, no. 1, 1999, 145-62.
12. See, for example, Phillip Copland, 'The blackshirted Utopians', Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 33, no. 2, 1998, 255-72; Michael A. Spurr, 'Living the blackshirt life: culture, community and the British Union of Fascists, 1932-1940', Contemporary European History, vol. 12, no. 3, 2003, 305-22; and Thomas Linehan and Julie Gottlieb (eds), Cultural Expressions of the Far Right in Twentieth Century Britain (London: I. B. Tauris forthcoming).
13. See, for example, Phillip Copland, 'The blackshirted Utopians', Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 33, no. 2, 1998, 255-72; Michael A. Spurr, 'Living the blackshirt life: culture, community and the British Union of Fascists, 1932-1940', Contemporary European History, vol. 12, no. 3, 2003, 305-22; and Thomas Linehan and Julie Gottlieb (eds), Cultural Expressions of the Far Right in Twentieth Century Britain (London: I. B. Tauris forthcoming).
14. See, for example, Phillip Copland, 'The blackshirted Utopians', Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 33, no. 2, 1998, 255-72; Michael A. Spurr, 'Living the blackshirt life: culture, community and the British Union of Fascists, 1932-1940', Contemporary European History, vol. 12, no. 3, 2003, 305-22; and Thomas Linehan and Julie Gottlieb (eds), Cultural Expressions of the Far Right in Twentieth Century Britain (London: I. B. Tauris forthcoming).
15. See Roger Griffin, 'The primacy of culture: the current growth (or manufacture) of consensus within fascist studies', Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 37, no. 2, 2002, 21-43. For responses, see David D. Roberts, Alexander De Grand, Mark Antliff and Thomas Linehan, 'Roger Griffin. The primacy of culture: the current growth (or manufacture) of consensus within fascist studies', Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 37, no. 2, 2002, 259-74. Examples of 'culturalist' studies of Italian Fascism, for example, include Emilio Gentile, The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1996); Jeffrey T. Schnapp, Staging Fascism: 18 BL and the Theatre of Masses for Masses (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press 1996) ; and Mabel Berezin, Making the Fascist Self: The Political Culture of Interwar Italy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 1997).
16. See Roger Griffin, 'The primacy of culture: the current growth (or manufacture) of consensus within fascist studies', Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 37, no. 2, 2002, 21-43. For responses, see David D. Roberts, Alexander De Grand, Mark Antliff and Thomas Linehan, 'Roger Griffin. The primacy of culture: the current growth (or manufacture) of consensus within fascist studies', Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 37, no. 2, 2002, 259-74. Examples of 'culturalist' studies of Italian Fascism, for example, include Emilio Gentile, The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1996); Jeffrey T. Schnapp, Staging Fascism: 18 BL and the Theatre of Masses for Masses (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press 1996) ; and Mabel Berezin, Making the Fascist Self: The Political Culture of Interwar Italy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 1997).
17. See Roger Griffin, 'The primacy of culture: the current growth (or manufacture) of consensus within fascist studies', Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 37, no. 2, 2002, 21-43. For responses, see David D. Roberts, Alexander De Grand, Mark Antliff and Thomas Linehan, 'Roger Griffin. The primacy of culture: the current growth (or manufacture) of consensus within fascist studies', Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 37, no. 2, 2002, 259-74. Examples of 'culturalist' studies of Italian Fascism, for example, include Emilio Gentile, The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1996); Jeffrey T. Schnapp, Staging Fascism: 18 BL and the Theatre of Masses for Masses (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press 1996) ; and Mabel Berezin, Making the Fascist Self: The Political Culture of Interwar Italy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 1997).
18. See Roger Griffin, 'The primacy of culture: the current growth (or manufacture) of consensus within fascist studies', Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 37, no. 2, 2002, 21-43. For responses, see David D. Roberts, Alexander De Grand, Mark Antliff and Thomas Linehan, 'Roger Griffin. The primacy of culture: the current growth (or manufacture) of consensus within fascist studies', Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 37, no. 2, 2002, 259-74. Examples of 'culturalist' studies of Italian Fascism, for example, include Emilio Gentile, The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1996); Jeffrey T. Schnapp, Staging Fascism: 18 BL and the Theatre of Masses for Masses (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press 1996) ; and Mabel Berezin, Making the Fascist Self: The Political Culture of Interwar Italy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 1997).
19. See Roger Griffin, 'The primacy of culture: the current growth (or manufacture) of consensus within fascist studies', Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 37, no. 2, 2002, 21-43. For responses, see David D. Roberts, Alexander De Grand, Mark Antliff and Thomas Linehan, 'Roger Griffin. The primacy of culture: the current growth (or manufacture) of consensus within fascist studies', Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 37, no. 2, 2002, 259-74. Examples of 'culturalist' studies of Italian Fascism, for example, include Emilio Gentile, The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1996); Jeffrey T. Schnapp, Staging Fascism: 18 BL and the Theatre of Masses for Masses (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press 1996) ; and Mabel Berezin, Making the Fascist Self: The Political Culture of Interwar Italy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 1997).
20. Some, such as R. J. B. Bosworth, attribute the close attention paid to cultural aspects of fascism as a direct legacy of Mosse's extensive writing on the subject. A closer reading of 'culturalist' studies, however, suggests that poststructuralism, deconstruction and anthropological theory more directly underpin the methodology of recent works. Mosse's prominence in the 'culturalist' literature arguably results from the fact that he was one of the few pre-1990 theorists of fascism to consider culture seriously and so he is frequently cited as a precursor with a similar interest rather than as the shaper of an approach.
21. For a detailed discussion of the BUF as a subculture, see Spurr, 'Living the blackshirt life', and Michael A. Spurr, 'Becoming Blackshirts: Ideology, Culture and the British Union of Fascists, 1932-1940', MA Thesis, School of Historical Studies, Monash University, Australia, 1998.
22. For examples, see William F. Mandle, Anti-Semitism and the British Union of Fascists (London: Longman 1968); Robert Benewick, The Fascist Movement in Britain (London: Allan Lane 1972); and Gisela Lebzelter, Political Anti-Semitism in England, 1918-1939 (London: Macmillan 1978).
23. For examples, see William F. Mandle, Anti-Semitism and the British Union of Fascists (London: Longman 1968); Robert Benewick, The Fascist Movement in Britain (London: Allan Lane 1972); and Gisela Lebzelter, Political Anti-Semitism in England, 1918-1939 (London: Macmillan 1978).
24. For examples, see William F. Mandle, Anti-Semitism and the British Union of Fascists (London: Longman 1968); Robert Benewick, The Fascist Movement in Britain (London: Allan Lane 1972); and Gisela Lebzelter, Political Anti-Semitism in England, 1918-1939 (London: Macmillan 1978).
25. Oswald Mosley, The Greater Britain (London: Greater Britain 1932), 38.
26. I b i d.
27. Ibid., 38-9.
28. Ibid., 39-40.
29. Oswald Mosley, 'The philosophy of fascism: lecture to the English Speaking Union, 22 March 1933', Fascist Quarterly, vol. 1, no. 1, 1935, 35-46.
30. Ibid., 41.
31. 'A call to blackshirts - live like athletes', Blackshirt, no. 128, 3 July 1937, 2.
32. I b i d.
33. Ian Ferguson, 'Youth takes up the struggle', Action, no. 175, 1 July 1939, 3.
34. 'How to do it: rugby', Action, no. 32, 24 August 1936, 15.
35. See 'Defence force control', Blackshirt, no. 37, 5 November 1934, 3; 'NHQ activities', Blackshirt, no. 90, 11 January 1935, 3; and 'Limehouse boxing', Blackshirt, no. 216, 19 June 1937, 7.
36. See 'Defence force control', Blackshirt, no. 37, 5 November 1934, 3; 'NHQ activities', Blackshirt, no. 90, 11 January 1935, 3; and 'Limehouse boxing', Blackshirt, no. 216, 19 June 1937, 7.
37. See 'Defence force control', Blackshirt, no. 37, 5 November 1934, 3; 'NHQ activities', Blackshirt, no. 90, 11 January 1935, 3; and 'Limehouse boxing', Blackshirt, no. 216, 19 June 1937, 7.
38. Mosley, The Greater Britain, 38.
39. Robert Richard, 'Geordie recollections', [n.d.], 30: unpublished manuscript in the author's possession.
40. Ibid., 33.
41. The politicization of the apolitical was common in the subculture of British fascism. Examples include fascist weddings and baptisms, debagging of political opponents and the cult of the missing generation of 1914. See Spurr, 'Becoming blackshirts'.
42. Oswald Mosley, My Life (London: Nelson 1968), 30, 32-4, 368; 'Crack swordsman or umbrella waver', Action, no. 69, 12 June 1937, 3.
43. Oswald Mosley, My Life (London: Nelson 1968), 30, 32-4, 368; 'Crack swordsman or umbrella waver', Action, no. 69, 12 June 1937, 3.
44. 'BU personalities: Thomas Patrick Moran', Action, no. 59, 3 April 1937, 8; 'Candidates', Action, no. 40, 21 November 1936, 7.
45. 'BU personalities: Thomas Patrick Moran', Action, no. 59, 3 April 1937, 8; 'Candidates', Action, no. 40, 21 November 1936, 7.
46. 'BU personalities: Capt. Robert Gordon-Canning, MC', Action, no. 44, 19 December 1936, 8.
47. John Hoberman, Sport and Political Ideology (Austin: University of Texas Press 1984), 92.
48. Victoria de Grazia, The Culture of Consent: Mass Organization of Leisure in Fascist Italy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1981), 170-9.
49. Adolf Hitler, 'Speech to Hitler Youth, Nuremburg party rally, 14/9/1935', in The Speeches of Adolf Hitler, April 1922-August 1939, ed. and trans. Norman H. Baynes, 2 vols (New York: Howard Fertig 1969), i.542.
50. There is an extensive debate regarding Nazism's status as a fascist movement. While each national variant of fascism differed markedly it is clear that there are obvious 'familial resemblances' between German National Socialism and other varieties of European fascism, despite the centrality of the NSDAP's racialist definition of the nation and the singularity of the Holocaust as an historical event. It is beyond the scope of this article to engage with this debate. For a discussion of the body and National Socialism, see Wilfried van der Will, 'The body and the body politic as symptom and metaphor in the transition of German culture to National Socialism', in Brandon Taylor and Wilfried van der Will (eds), The Nazification of Art: Art, Design, Music, Architecture and Film in the Third Reich (Winchester: The Winchester Press 1990), 14-52, and, in particular, 'the first exhibit' in Susan Sontag, 'Fascinating fascism', in Susan Sontag, Under the Sign of Saturn (New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux 1980), 73-105.
51. There is an extensive debate regarding Nazism's status as a fascist movement. While each national variant of fascism differed markedly it is clear that there are obvious 'familial resemblances' between German National Socialism and other varieties of European fascism, despite the centrality of the NSDAP's racialist definition of the nation and the singularity of the Holocaust as an historical event. It is beyond the scope of this article to engage with this debate. For a discussion of the body and National Socialism, see Wilfried van der Will, 'The body and the body politic as symptom and metaphor in the transition of German culture to National Socialism', in Brandon Taylor and Wilfried van der Will (eds), The Nazification of Art: Art, Design, Music, Architecture and Film in the Third Reich (Winchester: The Winchester Press 1990), 14-52, and, in particular, 'the first exhibit' in Susan Sontag, 'Fascinating fascism', in Susan Sontag, Under the Sign of Saturn (New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux 1980), 73-105.
52. Hoberman, eh. 6 ('Nazi sport theory: racial heroism and the critique of sport'), 162-9. See also George L. Mosse, The Images of Man (Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996), 170, and J. A. Mangan (ed.), Shaping the Superman: Fascist Body as Political Icon: Aryan Fascism (London: Frank Cass 1999).
53. Hoberman, eh. 6 ('Nazi sport theory: racial heroism and the critique of sport'), 162-9. See also George L. Mosse, The Images of Man (Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996), 170, and J. A. Mangan (ed.), Shaping the Superman: Fascist Body as Political Icon: Aryan Fascism (London: Frank Cass 1999).
54. Hoberman, eh. 6 ('Nazi sport theory: racial heroism and the critique of sport'), 162-9. See also George L. Mosse, The Images of Man (Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996), 170, and J. A. Mangan (ed.), Shaping the Superman: Fascist Body as Political Icon: Aryan Fascism (London: Frank Cass 1999).
55. Adolf Hitler, 'Speech at Reichenberg, 4/12/1938', in J. Noakes and G. Pridham (eds), Nazism 1919-1945, vol. 2: State, Economy and Society 1933-39. A Documentary Reader (Exeter: University of Exeter Press 1984), 417. See also Michael Spurr, 'Nazism and Masculinity: Aspects of National Socialist Manhood', Honours Thesis, Department of History, La Trobe University, Melbourne, 1992.
56. Adolf Hitler, 'Speech at Reichenberg, 4/12/1938', in J. Noakes and G. Pridham (eds), Nazism 1919-1945, vol. 2: State, Economy and Society 1933-39. A Documentary Reader (Exeter: University of Exeter Press 1984), 417. See also Michael Spurr, 'Nazism and Masculinity: Aspects of National Socialist Manhood', Honours Thesis, Department of History, La Trobe University, Melbourne, 1992.
57. Quoted in Hoberman, 62.
58. Drieu la Rochelle's preoccupation with youth, virility and masculinity figures prominently in his writing. For a detailed discussion, see Robert Soucy, Fascist Intellectual: Drieu La Rochelle (Berkeley: University of California Press 1979), passim.
59. The pervasiveness of notions of decadence and degeneration in western culture from the late nineteenth century onwards is extensively documented. For general discussions, see J. Edward Chamberlain and Sander Gilman (eds), Degeneration: The Dark Side of Progress (New York: Columbia University Press 1985), and Daniel Pick, Faces of Degeneration: A European Disorder c. 1848-c. 1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1989).
60. The pervasiveness of notions of decadence and degeneration in western culture from the late nineteenth century onwards is extensively documented. For general discussions, see J. Edward Chamberlain and Sander Gilman (eds), Degeneration: The Dark Side of Progress (New York: Columbia University Press 1985), and Daniel Pick, Faces of Degeneration: A European Disorder c. 1848-c. 1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1989).
61. See Collins.
62. For examples from the 1920s, see W. Dix, 'The man behind the scrum: the qualities he needs and how he should play', Boy's Own Paper, vol. 43, November 1920, 13-14, and Sid Smart, 'The real forward at rugby', Boy's Own Paper, vol. 43, January 1921, 119-20. Smart's discussion is particularly apposite: 'What was it that famous Apostle said so long ago? "We are all members one of another; for no man liveth to himself alone!" Just so it is in Rugby, more than at most games! No man playeth for himself in our great game. At least if he does, then farewell to hopes of many victories, to that splendid good comradeship which makes real men, which conquers all obstacles, which leads us to the highest and best in life.'
63. For examples from the 1920s, see W. Dix, 'The man behind the scrum: the qualities he needs and how he should play', Boy's Own Paper, vol. 43, November 1920, 13-14, and Sid Smart, 'The real forward at rugby', Boy's Own Paper, vol. 43, January 1921, 119-20. Smart's discussion is particularly apposite: 'What was it that famous Apostle said so long ago? "We are all members one of another; for no man liveth to himself alone!" Just so it is in Rugby, more than at most games! No man playeth for himself in our great game. At least if he does, then farewell to hopes of many victories, to that splendid good comradeship which makes real men, which conquers all obstacles, which leads us to the highest and best in life.'
64. George Orwell, 'Boys' weeklies', in George Orwell, Collected Essays (London: Secker and Warburg 1961), 115.
65. Joseph Bristow, Empire Boys: Adventures in a Man's World (London: HarperCollins 1991), 38-48.
66. Henry Newbolt, 'Vitai Lampada', in Henry Newbolt, The Island Race (London: Elkin Mathews 1907), 86-7. Newbolt's poem celebrates the bravery of a junior officer, a former public schoolboy, exhorting his outnumbered troops on the North-west Frontier to 'Play up! and play the game!'
67. 'The cricketers of Flanders', in Martin Stephen (ed.), Never Such Innocence: A New Anthology of Great War Verse (London: J. M. Dent 1993), 40-1. See also George L. Mosse, Fallen Soldiers: Reshaping the Memory of the World Wars (Oxford: Oxford University Press 1990), 60-1.
68. 'The cricketers of Flanders', in Martin Stephen (ed.), Never Such Innocence: A New Anthology of Great War Verse (London: J. M. Dent 1993), 40-1. See also George L. Mosse, Fallen Soldiers: Reshaping the Memory of the World Wars (Oxford: Oxford University Press 1990), 60-1.
69. Robert S. S. Baden Powell, 'The value of pigsticking', The Greyfriars, April 1895, quoted in Robert H. MacDonald, The Language of Empire: Myths and Metaphors of Popular Imperialism, 1880-1940 (Manchester: Manchester University Press 1994), 22.
70. Robert S. S. Baden Powell, 'The value of pigsticking', The Greyfriars, April 1895, quoted in Robert H. MacDonald, The Language of Empire: Myths and Metaphors of Popular Imperialism, 1880-1940 (Manchester: Manchester University Press 1994), 22.
71. A. G. Findlay, 'Sport - football', Action, no. 5, 19 March 1936, 15.
72. 'London takes "action" - the sellers', Action, no. 35, 17 October 1936, 15.
73. Lebzelter, 91; David Cesarani, 'An alien concept? The continuity of anti-alienism in British society before 1940', in David Cesarani and Tony Kushner (eds), The Internment of Aliens in Twentieth-century Britain (London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass 1993), 25-52 (42).
74. Lebzelter, 91; David Cesarani, 'An alien concept? The continuity of anti-alienism in British society before 1940', in David Cesarani and Tony Kushner (eds), The Internment of Aliens in Twentieth-century Britain (London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass 1993), 25-52 (42).
75. See, for example, 'Fascism and the Jews', Blackshirt, no. 4, 1 April 1933, 1, and 'Jews and fascism', Blackshirt, no. 16, 12-18 August 1933, 3. See also Oswald Mosley, Tomorrow We Live (London: Greater Britain 1939), 63.
76. See, for example, 'Fascism and the Jews', Blackshirt, no. 4, 1 April 1933, 1, and 'Jews and fascism', Blackshirt, no. 16, 12-18 August 1933, 3. See also Oswald Mosley, Tomorrow We Live (London: Greater Britain 1939), 63.
77. See, for example, 'Fascism and the Jews', Blackshirt, no. 4, 1 April 1933, 1, and 'Jews and fascism', Blackshirt, no. 16, 12-18 August 1933, 3. See also Oswald Mosley, Tomorrow We Live (London: Greater Britain 1939), 63.
78. 'Do Jews attack us?', Blackshirt, no. 33, 16 October 1933, 3.
79. 'Britain for the British - the alien menace', Blackshirt, no. 23, 30 October 1933, 1.
80. 'Shall Jews drag Britain to war?', Blackshirt, no. 28, 4 November 1933, 1, 4.
81. See Robert Skidelsky, Oswald Mosley, 3rd edn (London: Macmillan 1990), 385. Despite the ban, there are claims of continued membership of Jews in the party. John Christian, the current editor of the Friends of Oswald Mosley's newsletter Comrade, claims in a short memoir that Lew Levisohn was a member of the Battersea branch during the late 1930s; John Christian, 'The South London reporter', in Jeffrey Hamm, Mosley's Blackshirts (London: Sanctuary Press 1986), 38.
82. See Robert Skidelsky, Oswald Mosley, 3rd edn (London: Macmillan 1990), 385. Despite the ban, there are claims of continued membership of Jews in the party. John Christian, the current editor of the Friends of Oswald Mosley's newsletter Comrade, claims in a short memoir that Lew Levisohn was a member of the Battersea branch during the late 1930s; John Christian, 'The South London reporter', in Jeffrey Hamm, Mosley's Blackshirts (London: Sanctuary Press 1986), 38.
83. 'The Sporting Jew', Action, no. 51, 6 February 1937, 7.
84. Michael Marrus, 'The theory and practice of antisemitism', Commentary, vol. 74, no. 2, 1982, 83-4.
85. For a more detailed discussion of Griffin's argument on the potential of BUF antisemitism, see Roger Griffin, '"This fortress built against infection": the BUF's vision of Britain's theatrical and musical renaissance', in Linehan and Gottlieb (eds).
86. 'The Sporting Jew'.
87. Findlay.
88. I b i d.
89. Clement Brunning, 'Jewish boxing racket', Action, no. 73, 10 July 1937, 8.
90. A. K. Chesterton, 'The truth about the Jews', Action, no. 38, 7 November 1936, 7.
91. William Joyce, Fascism and Jewry (London: BUF 1936), 6.
92. For a general discussion of the development of concepts of money, see John Kenneth Galbraith, Money: Whence It Came and Where It Went (Harmondsworth: Penguin 1975), passim.
93. For example, see Ezra Pound, 'A social creditor gives notice', Fascist Quarterly, vol. 2, no. 4, 1936, 492-500; Ezra Pound, 'Demarcations', British Union Quarterly, vol. 1, no. 1, 1937, 35-40; Ezra Pound, 'Intellectual money', British Union Quarterly, vol. 1, no. 2, 1937, 24-33; and Ezra Pound, 'Towards an economic orthology', British Union Quarterly, vol. 1, no. 4, 1937, 13-22.
94. For example, see Ezra Pound, 'A social creditor gives notice', Fascist Quarterly, vol. 2, no. 4, 1936, 492-500; Ezra Pound, 'Demarcations', British Union Quarterly, vol. 1, no. 1, 1937, 35-40; Ezra Pound, 'Intellectual money', British Union Quarterly, vol. 1, no. 2, 1937, 24-33; and Ezra Pound, 'Towards an economic orthology', British Union Quarterly, vol. 1, no. 4, 1937, 13-22.
95. For example, see Ezra Pound, 'A social creditor gives notice', Fascist Quarterly, vol. 2, no. 4, 1936, 492-500; Ezra Pound, 'Demarcations', British Union Quarterly, vol. 1, no. 1, 1937, 35-40; Ezra Pound, 'Intellectual money', British Union Quarterly, vol. 1, no. 2, 1937, 24-33; and Ezra Pound, 'Towards an economic orthology', British Union Quarterly, vol. 1, no. 4, 1937, 13-22.
96. For example, see Ezra Pound, 'A social creditor gives notice', Fascist Quarterly, vol. 2, no. 4, 1936, 492-500; Ezra Pound, 'Demarcations', British Union Quarterly, vol. 1, no. 1, 1937, 35-40; Ezra Pound, 'Intellectual money', British Union Quarterly, vol. 1, no. 2, 1937, 24-33; and Ezra Pound, 'Towards an economic orthology', British Union Quarterly, vol. 1, no. 4, 1937, 13-22.
97. See, for example, E. D. Hart, 'History of usury', Fascist Quarterly, vol. 1, no. 3, 1937, 315-27; Norman Davey, 'The caviar standard: a fable', British Union Quarterly, vol. 2, no. 4, 1938, 28-33; and Henry Swabey, 'From just price to usury', British Union Quarterly, vol. 3, no. 3, 1939, 31-42. There remains a pressing need to examine the often competing economic models articulated in BUF circles. While Mosley's emphasis on under-consumption and corporatist theory dominated policy a number of competing, yet related, streams of thought, such as social credit and guild socialism, were also in evidence.
98. See, for example, E. D. Hart, 'History of usury', Fascist Quarterly, vol. 1, no. 3, 1937, 315-27; Norman Davey, 'The caviar standard: a fable', British Union Quarterly, vol. 2, no. 4, 1938, 28-33; and Henry Swabey, 'From just price to usury', British Union Quarterly, vol. 3, no. 3, 1939, 31-42. There remains a pressing need to examine the often competing economic models articulated in BUF circles. While Mosley's emphasis on under-consumption and corporatist theory dominated policy a number of competing, yet related, streams of thought, such as social credit and guild socialism, were also in evidence.
99. See, for example, E. D. Hart, 'History of usury', Fascist Quarterly, vol. 1, no. 3, 1937, 315-27; Norman Davey, 'The caviar standard: a fable', British Union Quarterly, vol. 2, no. 4, 1938, 28-33; and Henry Swabey, 'From just price to usury', British Union Quarterly, vol. 3, no. 3, 1939, 31-42. There remains a pressing need to examine the often competing economic models articulated in BUF circles. While Mosley's emphasis on under-consumption and corporatist theory dominated policy a number of competing, yet related, streams of thought, such as social credit and guild socialism, were also in evidence.
100. Jeffery Herf, Reactionary Modernism: Technology, Culture, and Politics in Weimar and the Third Reich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1984), 141-3; Oswald Spengler, The Decline of the West, 2 vols (New York: Alfred A. Knopf 1939), ii.469-96.
101. Jeffery Herf, Reactionary Modernism: Technology, Culture, and Politics in Weimar and the Third Reich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1984), 141-3; Oswald Spengler, The Decline of the West, 2 vols (New York: Alfred A. Knopf 1939), ii.469-96.
102. See Sander Gilman, 'Salome, syphilis, Sarah Bernhardt and the modern Jewess', in Linda Nochlin and Tamer Garb (eds), The Jew in the Text: Modernity and the Construction of Identity (London: Thames and Hudson 1995), 97-100, for a discussion of Jewish women in modern antisemitism. See also Sander Gilman, The Jew's Body (New York: Routledge 1991), 5.
103. See Sander Gilman, 'Salome, syphilis, Sarah Bernhardt and the modern Jewess', in Linda Nochlin and Tamer Garb (eds), The Jew in the Text: Modernity and the Construction of Identity (London: Thames and Hudson 1995), 97-100, for a discussion of Jewish women in modern antisemitism. See also Sander Gilman, The Jew's Body (New York: Routledge 1991), 5.
104. See Patricia Anderson, When Passion Reigned: Sex and the Victorians (New York: Basic Books 1995), 57; and J. A. Mangan, Athleticism in the Victorian and Edwardian Public School: The Emergence and Consolidation of an Educational Ideology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1981).
105. See Patricia Anderson, When Passion Reigned: Sex and the Victorians (New York: Basic Books 1995), 57; and J. A. Mangan, Athleticism in the Victorian and Edwardian Public School: The Emergence and Consolidation of an Educational Ideology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1981).
106. For the use of 'alien' as interchangeable with 'Jew' in the BUF, see Robert Hargrave, 'Speech 12/3/1937, Victoria Park Square, Bethnal Green': Public Record Office, Kew, PRO MEPO 2/3209/8-9. For a wider discussion of the concept of the 'alien' in British society, see Cesarani, 'An alien concept?'.
107. For the use of 'alien' as interchangeable with 'Jew' in the BUF, see Robert Hargrave, 'Speech 12/3/1937, Victoria Park Square, Bethnal Green': Public Record Office, Kew, PRO MEPO 2/3209/8-9. For a wider discussion of the concept of the 'alien' in British society, see Cesarani, 'An alien concept?'.
108. Robert Gordon-Canning, 'Letter to the editor: refugees', Action, no. 173, 17 June 1939, 19. For further discussion of the same incident, see 'Refugee's luxury camp', Action, no. 173, 24 June 1939, 13.
109. Robert Gordon-Canning, 'Letter to the editor: refugees', Action, no. 173, 17 June 1939, 19. For further discussion of the same incident, see 'Refugee's luxury camp', Action, no. 173, 24 June 1939, 13.
110. 'Alien molests Manchester girl', Action, no. 174, 24 June 1939, 20; T. H., 'Letter to the editor: plenty goot money', Action, no. 173, 17 June 1939, 19; 'Refugees and the vice racket: Jewish immorality', Action, no. 169, 20 May 1939, 16. The identification of a Jewish association with prostitution and white slavery is also made in The Protocols of the Elders of Zion and in Adolf Hitler's discussion of the 'Jewish problem' in pre-war Vienna. See Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, trans. Ralph Manheim (Boston: Houghton Mifflin 1971), 59.
111. 'Alien molests Manchester girl', Action, no. 174, 24 June 1939, 20; T. H., 'Letter to the editor: plenty goot money', Action, no. 173, 17 June 1939, 19; 'Refugees and the vice racket: Jewish immorality', Action, no. 169, 20 May 1939, 16. The identification of a Jewish association with prostitution and white slavery is also made in The Protocols of the Elders of Zion and in Adolf Hitler's discussion of the 'Jewish problem' in pre-war Vienna. See Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, trans. Ralph Manheim (Boston: Houghton Mifflin 1971), 59.
112. 'Alien molests Manchester girl', Action, no. 174, 24 June 1939, 20; T. H., 'Letter to the editor: plenty goot money', Action, no. 173, 17 June 1939, 19; 'Refugees and the vice racket: Jewish immorality', Action, no. 169, 20 May 1939, 16. The identification of a Jewish association with prostitution and white slavery is also made in The Protocols of the Elders of Zion and in Adolf Hitler's discussion of the 'Jewish problem' in pre-war Vienna. See Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, trans. Ralph Manheim (Boston: Houghton Mifflin 1971), 59.
113. 'Alien molests Manchester girl', Action, no. 174, 24 June 1939, 20; T. H., 'Letter to the editor: plenty goot money', Action, no. 173, 17 June 1939, 19; 'Refugees and the vice racket: Jewish immorality', Action, no. 169, 20 May 1939, 16. The identification of a Jewish association with prostitution and white slavery is also made in The Protocols of the Elders of Zion and in Adolf Hitler's discussion of the 'Jewish problem' in pre-war Vienna. See Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, trans. Ralph Manheim (Boston: Houghton Mifflin 1971), 59.
114. See H. G., 'Book reviews: Marriage by Leon Slum', British Union Quarterly, vol. 1, no. 3, 1937, 105.
115. 'Report on "Jew baiting", Hackney Police Station, 18/6/1936': Public Record Office, Kew, MEPO 2/3043/40.
116. Sharman Kadish, 'A Good Jew and a Good Englishman': The Jewish Lads' and Girls' Brigade, 1895-1995 (London: Vallentine Mitchell 1995), xvi-xvii, 95.
117. Tony Kushner, 'Clubland, cricket tests and internment, 1939-40', in Cesarani and Kushner (eds), 79-101.
118. Rothschild Archive, RAL 000/315C, quoted in Kushner, 'Clubland, cricket tests and internment', 85-6. The striking similarities with Norman Tebbit's 'cricket test' to establish whether young people from ethnic minorities are British (or not), and so entitled to British citizenship, is a point noted by Kushner in his article.