State-of-the-art in ecosystem theory

Ecological Modelling

Volumn 100, Issue 1-3, 1997, Pages 135-161

  Müller, Felix ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF KIEL   (Germany)

Author keywords

Ecosystem research; Ecosystem science; Ecosystem theory; Systems ecology

Indexed keywords

ECOSYSTEM THEORY; SYSTEMS THEORY;

EID: 0344352490     PISSN: 03043800     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0304-3800(97)00156-7     Document Type: Article

References (194)

1. Allen, T.H.F., Hoekstra, T.W., 1992. Toward a Unified Ecology. Columbia University Press, New York.
2. Allen, T.H.F., Starr, T.B., 1982. Hierarchy - Perspectives for Ecological Complexity. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
3. Audi, R. (Ed.), 1995. The Cambridge dictionary of Philosophy. Cambridge.
4. Bak P., Tang C., Wiesenfeld K. Self-organized criticality. Phys. Rev. A. 38:1988;364-374.
5. Bahg C.G. Major system theories throughout the world. Behav. Sci. 35:1990;79-107.
6. Bendoricchio G., Coffaro G., de Marchi C. A trophic model for Ulva rigida in the Lagoon of Venice. Ecol. Model. 75(76):1994;485-496.
7. Bossel H. Real-structure process description as the basis of understanding ecosystems and their development. Ecol. Model. 63:1992;261-276.
8. Boltzmann, L., 1905. The second law of thermodynamics. Popular Schriften, Essay No. 3, in: Theoretical Physics and Philosophical Problems (reprinted in English) selected writings of L. Boltzmann, Dortrecht.
9. Bormann, F.H., Likens, G.E., 1979. Pattern and Process in a Forested Ecosystem. Berlin.
10. Breckling B., Müller F. Current trends in ecological modelling and the 8th ISEM conference on the state-of-the-art. Ecol. Model. 75(76):1994;667-676.
11. Breckling B., Reuter H. The use of individual based models to study the interaction of different levels of organization in ecological systems. Seckenbergiana Maritima. 27(3/6):1996;195-206.
12. Brillouin, L., 1962. Science and Information Theory. New York.
13. Brooks, D.R., Wiley, E.O., 1986. Evolution as Entropy. Chicago.
14. Burns, T.P., Patten, B.C., Higashi, M., 1991. Hierarchical evolution in ecological networks: Environs and selection. In: Higashi, M., Burns, T.P. (Eds.), Theoretical Studies of Ecosystems. The Network Perspective, Cambridge, pp. 211-239.
15. Cariani, P., 1992. Emergence and artificial life. In: Langton, G., Taylor, C., Farmer, J.D., Rasmussen, S. (Eds.), Artificial life II, Addison-Wesley, Redwood City, pp. 775-797.
16. Christensen V. On the behaviour of some proposed goal functions for ecosystem development. Ecol. Model. 75:1994;37-50.
17. Christensen, V., Pauly, D., 1993. Trophic Models of Aquatic Ecosystems, Manila.
18. Corning, P.A., 1983. The Synergism Hypothesis. A Theory of Progressive Evolution, New York.
19. Costanza, R., Norton, B.G., Haskell, B.D., 1992. Ecosystem Health - New Goals for Environmental Management. Island Press, Washington DC, p. 269.
20. De Angelis D.L. Stability and connectance in food web models. Ecology. 56:1975;238-243.
21. De Angelis, D.L., 1995. The nature and significance of feedback in ecosystems. In: Patten, B.C., Jörgensen, S.E. (Eds.), Complex Ecology: The Part-whole Relation in Ecosystems. Englewood Cliffs, pp. 450-467.
22. De Angelis, D.L., Post, W.M., Travis, C.C., 1980. Positive Feedback in Natural Systems. Berlin.
23. Ebeling, W., 1989. Chaos - Ordnung - Information. Franfurt/M.
24. Ebeling, W., Feistel, R., 1982. Physik der Selbstorganisation und Evolution. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin.
25. Eigen M. Selforganization of matter and the evolution of biological macromolecules. Naturwissenschaften. 58:1971;465-523.
26. Ellenberg, H., Mayer, R., Schauermann, J., 1986. Ökosystemforschung, Ergebnisse des Solling-Projekts, Stuttgart, pp. 1966-1986.
27. Ellenberg H., Ovington J.D., Cragg J.B., Duvigneaud P. Produktions-Ökologie von Land-Lebensgemeinschaften im Rahmen des Internationalen Biologischen Programms. Berichte des Geobotanischen Instituts der ETH. Stiftung Rübel. Zürich. 35:1964;14-40.
28. Elton, C., 1927. Animal Ecology, London.
29. Emmeche, C., Köppe, S., Stjernfeld, F., 1993. Emergence and the ontology of levels: in search for the unexplainable. Arbejdspapir Afdeling for Litteraturveidenskab 11, Universitet Kobenhavn.
30. Evans, R.B., 1969. A proof that essergy is the only consistent measure of potential work. Ph.D. Thesis, Dartmouth College, New Hampshire.
31. Fenchel, T., 1987. Ecology - potentials and limitations, Oldendorf.
32. Feyerabend, P., 1975. Against method, London.
33. Finn J.T. Measures of ecosystem structure and function derived from analysis of flow. J. Theor. Biol. 56:1976;363-380.
34. Forbes S.A. The lake as a microcosm. Bull. Peoria Sci Assoc., Ill, Natural History Surv. Bull. 15:1887;537-550.
35. Forrester, J.W., 1961. Industrial Dynamics, Cambridge.
36. von Förster, H.V., 1960. On self-organizing systems and their environments. In: Yovits, M.C., Cameron, S. (Eds.), Self-organizing systems. international tracts in computer. Science and Technology and their Application, Vol. 2, Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 31-50.
37. Fränzle, O., 1978. Die Struktur und Belastbarkeit von Ökosystemen. Tagungsberichte und wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen, 41. Deutscher Geographentag, Mainz, pp. 469-485.
38. Gell-Mann, M., 1994. The Quark and the Jaguar. New York.
39. Gierer A., Meinhardt H. A theory of biological pattern pattern formation. Kybernetik. 12:1972;30-39.
40. Glansdorff, P., Prigogine, I., 1971. Thermodynamic Theory of Structure, Stability and Fluctuations. Wiley, New York.
41. Goldman, C.E. (Ed.), 1966. Primary Productivity in Aquatic Environments, Berkeley.
42. Golley, F.B., 1993. A History of the Ecosystem Concept in Ecology, New Haven, London.
43. Grimm V., Frank K., Jeltsch F., Brandl R., Umanski J., Wissel C. Pattern-oriented modelling in population ecology. Sci. Total Environ. 183:1996;151-166.
44. Grossmann, W.D., 1986. Hierarchy of systems. In: Bruening, E.F., Bossel, H., Elpel, K.P., Grossmann, W.D., Schneider, T.W., Zhu-Hao, Wang, Zuo-Yue, Yu (Eds.), Ecological-socioeconomic Systems Analysis and Simulation. Hamburg, pp. 253-277.
45. Haken, H., 1983. Synergetics, An Introduction. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York.
46. Halfon, E. (ed.), 1979. Theoretical Systems Ecology. New York.
47. Halfon E. Is there a best model structure? (II). Ecol. Model. 20:1983;153-163.
48. Hannon B. The structure of ecosystems. J. Theor. Biol. 41:1973;535-546.
49. Hassenstein, B., 1965. Biologische Kybernetik. Heidelberg.
50. Herendeen R.A. Energy intensity, residence time, exergy, and ascendency in dynamic ecosystems. Ecol. Model. 41:1989;117-126.
51. Herendeen R. System-level indicators in dynamic ecosystems: Comparison based on energy and nutrient flows. J. Theor. Biol. 143:1990;523-553.
52. Higashi, M., Burns, T.P. (Ed.), 1991. Theoretical Studies of Ecosystems. The Network Approach. Cambridge.
53. Hirata, H., 1995. Information Theory and Ecological Networks. In: Patten, B.C., Jörgensen, S.E. (Eds.), Complex Ecology: The Part-whole Relation in Ecosystems. Englewood Cliffs, pp. 623-642.
54. Holling, C.S., 1986. The resilience of terrestrial ecosystems: local surprise and global change. In: Clark, W.M., Munn, R.E., (Eds.), Sustainable Development of the Biosphere. Oxford, pp. 292-320.
55. Hörmann, G., Irmler, U., Müller, F., Piotrowski, J.A., Pöpperl, R., Reiche, E.-W., Schernewski, G., Schimming, C.-G., Schrautzer, J., Windhorst, W., 1992. Ökosystemforschung im Bereich der Bornhöveder Seenkette. Arbeitsbericht, Ecosys Bd. 1, pp. 1988-1991.
56. Hutchinson G.E. Circular causes in ecology. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 50:1948;221-224.
57. Jantsch, E., 1988. Die Selbstorganisation des Universums. München.
58. Jeltsch, F., 1992. Modelle zu natürlichen Waldsterbensphänomenen. Diss. Marburg.
59. Johnson, L., 1995. The far-from-equilibrium hinterlands. In: Patten, B.C., Jörgensen, S.E. (Eds.), Complex Ecology: The Part-whole Relation in Ecosystems. Englewood Cliffs, pp. 51-103.
60. Jörgensen, S.E., 1988. Fundamentals of ecological modelling. Amsterdam.
61. Jörgensen, S.E., 1992. Integration of ecosystem theories: A pattern. Dordrecht.
62. Jörgensen, S.E., 1994. Fundamentals of ecological modelling. 2nd edition, Amsterdam.
63. Jörgensen S.E. The growth rate of zooplankton at the edge of chaos: Ecological models. J. Theor. Biol. 175:1995;13-21.
64. Jörgensen, S.E., 1997a. Thermodynamik offener Systeme. In: Fränzle, O., Müller, F., Schröder, W. (Eds.), Handbuch der Ökosystemforschung, Kapitel III-1.6.
65. Jörgensen, S.E., 1997b. Möglichkeiten zur Integration verschiedener theoretischer Ansätze. In: Fränzle, O., Müller, F., Schröder, W. (Eds.), Handbuch der Ökosystemforschung, Kapitel III-1.8.
66. Jörgensen, S.E., 1997c. Integration of ecosystem theories: A pattern. 2nd edition, Dordrecht.
67. Jörgensen, S.E., Mejer, H., 1981. Exergy as a key function in ecological models. In: Mitsch, W.J. (Ed.), Energy and Ecological Modelling. Amsterdam, pp. 587-590.
68. Jörgensen S.E., Patten B.C., Straskraba M. Ecosystems emerging: Toward an ecology of complex systems in a complex future. Ecol. Model. 62:1992;1-28.
69. Juday C. The annual budget of an inland lake. Ecology. 21(4):1940;438-450.
70. Kay, J.J., 1983. Self-organization and the thermodynamics of living systems: A paradigm. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Waterloo, Cd.
71. Kauffman, S.A., 1986. Self-organization, selective adaptation, and its limits. In: Depew, D.J., Weber, B.H. (Eds.), Evolution at a Crossroad. Mit Press, Cambridge, London, pp. 169-208.
72. Klaus, K., 1961. Kybernetik in Philosophischer Sicht. Berlin.
73. Koestler, A., 1970. Jenseits von Atomismus und Holismus - Der Begriff des Holons. In: Koestler, A., Smythies, J.R. (Eds.), Das neue Menschenbild. Die Revolutionierung der Wissenschaften vom Leben, Vienna.
74. Krohn, W., Küppers, G., 1992. Selbstorganisation. Zum Stand einer Theorie in den Wissenschaften. In: Krohn, W., Küppers, G. (Eds.), Emergenz: Die Entstehung von Ordnung, Organisation und Bedeutung, Suhrkamp, Frankfurt/M, pp. 7-26.
75. Kuhn, T., 1962. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago.
76. Kull, U., Ramm, E., Reiner, R. (Eds.), 1995. Evolution und Optimierung. Stuttgart.
77. Lakatos, I., 1978. Die Geschichte der Wissenschaft und ihre rationale Rekonstruktion. In: Diederich, W. (Ed.), Theorien der Wissenschaftsgeschichte. Frankfurt/M, pp. 55-119.
78. Langton, C., 1986. Artificial life - Santa Fe Institute Studies in the Sciences of Complexity. Proc. Vol. 6, Addison-Wesley, Redwood City.
79. Laszlo, E. (Ed.), 1972. The Relevance of General Systems Theory. New York.
80. Laszlo, E., 1978. Evolution und Invarianz in der Sicht der Allgemeinen Systemtheorie. In: Lenk, H., Rohpohl, G. (Eds.), Systemtheorie als Wissenschaftsprogramm. Königstein, pp. 221-238.
81. Le Cren, E.D., Lowe-McConnell, R.H. (Eds.), 1980. The Functioning of Freshwater Ecosystems. Cambridge.
82. Leontief, W.W., 1966. Input-output economics. London.
83. Lewin, R., 1992. Complexity. Life at the Edge of Chaos. New York.
84. Li B.L., Müller F. Application of the pansystem entropy concept to hierarchical ecosystem analysis. Adv. Sys. Sci. Appl. 1:1995;13-18.
85. Likens, G.E., 1985. An Ecosystem Approach to Aquatic Ecology: Mirror Lake and its Environment. New York.
86. Likens, G.E. (Ed.), 1989. Long-term Studies in Ecology. Berlin.
87. Likens, G.E., 1992. The Ecosystem Approach: Its Use and Abuse. Oldendorf.
88. Lindeman R.L. The trophic-dynamic aspect of ecology. Ecology. 23:1942;399-413.
89. Lorenz E. Deterministic nonperiodic flow. J. Atmos. Sci. 20:1963;130-141.
90. Lotka, A.J., 1925. Elements of Physical Biology. Baltimore.
91. Macarthur R. Fluctuations of animial populations and a measure of community stabilty. Ecology. 36:1955;533-536.
92. Mandelbrot, B., 1977. The Fractal Geometry of Nature. Freeman, San Francisco.
93. Margalef R. Information theory in ecology. Gen. Sys. 3:1958;36-71.
94. Margalef R. On certain unifying principles in ecology. Am. Nat. 97:1963;357-374.
95. Margalef, R., 1968. Perspectives in Ecological Theory. Chicago.
96. Margalef, R., 1991. Networks in Ecology. In: Higashi, M., Burns, T.P. (Eds.), Theoretical Studies of Ecosystems. The Network Approach, Cambridge, pp. 41-57.
97. Margalef, R., 1995. Information theory and complex ecology. In: Patten, B.C., Jörgensen, S.E. (Eds.), Complex Ecology: The Part-whole Relation in Ecosystems. Englewood Cliffs, pp. 40-50.
98. Maturana, H.R., Varela, F.J., 1975. Autopoietic Systems. A Characterization of the Living Organization, urbana.
99. Mauersberger, P., 1995. Entropy control of complex ecological processes. In: Patten, B.C., Jörgensen, S.E. (Eds.), Complex Ecology: The Part-whole Relation in Ecosystems. Englewood Cliffs, pp. 130-159.
100. May, R.M., 1973. Stability and Complexity in Model Ecosystems. Princeton.
101. May R.M. Biological populations with non-overlapping generations: stable points, stable cycles, and chaos. Science. 186:1974;645-647.
102. May R.M. Simple mathematical models with very complicated dynamics. Nature. 261:1976;459-467.
103. May, R.M. (Ed.), 1980. Theoretische Ökologie. Weinheim.
104. Mejer, H., Jörgensen, S.E., 1979, Exergy and ecological buffer capacity. In: Jörgensen, S.E. (Ed.), State of the Art in Ecological Modelling 7, pp. 829-846.
105. McIntosh, R.P., 1985. The Background of Ecology - Concept and Theory. Cambridge.
106. Mickulecky, D.C., 1991. Network thermodynamics: a unifying approach to dynamic nonlinear living systems. In: Higashi, M., Burns, T.P. (Eds.), Theoretical Studies of Ecosystems. The Network Approach. Cambridge, pp. 71-100.
107. Mitsch, W.J., Jörgensen, S.E., 1989. Ecological Engineering: An Introduction to Ecotechnology. New York.
108. Mittelstrass, J. (Ed.), 1996. Enzyklopädie Philosophie und Wissenschaftstheorie, Stuttgart, Weimar.
109. Müller F. Hierarchical approaches to ecosystem theory. Ecol. Model. 63:1992;215-242.
110. Müller F. Emergent properties of ecosystems - consequences of self-organizing processes? Senckenbergiana Maritima. 27(3.6):1996;151-168.
111. Müller, F., 1997. Gradients in ecological systems. Proceedings of the Eco-Summit 1996 in Copenhagen, Ecol. Model. (in press).
112. Müller, F., Breckling, B., Bredemeier, M., Grimm, V., Malchow, H., Nielsen, S.N., Reiche, E.W., 1997a. Ökosystemare Selbstorganisation. In: Fränzle, O., Müller, F., Schröder, W. (Eds.), Handbuch der Ökosystemforschung, Landsberg.
113. Müller, F., Breckling, B., Bredemeier, M., Grimm, V., Malchow, H., Nielsen, S.N., Reiche, E.W., 1997b. Emergente Ökosystemeigenschaften. In: Fränzle, O., Müller, F., Schröder, W. (Eds.), Handbuch der Ökosystemforschung, Landsberg.
114. Müller, F., Leupelt, M., 1997. Eco-targets, Goal Functions, and Orientors. New York (in press).
115. Müller, F., Nielsen, S.N., 1996. Thermodynamische Systemauffassungen in der Ökologie. In: Mathes, K., Breckling, B., Ekschmitt, K. (Eds.), Systemtheorie in der Ökologie. Landsberg, pp. 45-62.
116. Mussmann, F., 1995. Komplexe Natur - Komplexe Wissenschaft. Selbstorganisation, Chaos, Komplexität und der Durchbruch des Systemdenkens in den Naturwissenschaften, Opladen.
117. Newton-Smith, W.H., 1981. The Rationality of Science, Boston.
118. Nicolis, G., Prigogine, I., 1989. Exploring complexity: An Introduction. Freeman, New York.
119. Nielsen, S.N., 1992. Application of maximum exergy in structural dynamic models. Ph.D. Thesis, Risö National Laboratory.
120. Odum, E.P., 1958. Fundamentals of Ecology. Philadelphia.
121. Odum E.P. The new ecology. Bioscience. 14:1964;14-16.
122. odum E.P. The strategy of ecosystem development. Science. 164:1969;262-270.
123. Odum H.T. Trophic structure and productivity of Silver Springs, Florida. Ecol. Monogr. 27:1957;55-112.
124. Odum, H.T., 1971. Environment, Power, and Society, New York.
125. Odum, H.T., 1983. Systems Ecology: an Introduction, New York.
126. Odum H.T., Pinkerton R.C. Times speed regulator, the optimum efficiency for maximum output in physical and biological systems. Am. Sci. 43:1955;331-343.
127. Okubo A. Dynamical aspects of animal grouping: Swarms, schools, flocks, and herds. Adv. Biophys. 22:1986;1-94.
128. O'Neill, R.V., 1988. Hierarchy theory and global change. In: Rosswall, T., Woodmansee, R.G., Risser, P.G. (Eds.), Scales and Global Change, Wiley, Chichester, pp. 29-46.
129. O'Neill, R.V., De Angelis, D.L., Waide, J.B., Allen, T.H.F., 1986. A hierarchical concept of ecosystems. Monographs in Population Ecology 23, Princeton University Press.
130. O'Neill R.V., Johnson A.R., King A.W. A hierarchical framework for the analysis of scale. Landscape Ecol. 3(2/4):1989;193-206.
131. Pahl-Wostl, C., 1995. The Dynamic Nature of Ecosystems. Chaos and Order Entwined. New York.
132. Paslack, R., 1991. Urgeschichte der Selbstorganisation. Braunschweig/Wiesbaden.
133. Pattee, H.H. (Ed.), 1973. Hierarchy Theory, New York.
134. Patten B.C. An introduction to the cybernetics of the ecosystem: The trophic-dynamic aspect. Ecology. 40:1959;221-231.
135. Patten, B.C. (Ed.), 1971. Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology, Vol. 1, New York.
136. Patten, B.C. (Ed.), 1972. Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology, Vol. 2, New York.
137. Patten, B.C., (Ed.), 1975. Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology, Vol. 3, New York.
138. Patten B.C. Environs: relativistic elementary particles for ecology. Am. Nat. 119:1982;179-219.
139. Patten B.C. Energy, emergy, and environs. Ecol. Model. 62:1992;29-70.
140. Patten, B.C., 1997. Steps towards a cosmography of ecosystems: 20 remarkable properties of life in environment. In: Müller, F., Leupelt, M. (Eds.), Eco-targets, goal functions, and orientors. (in press).
141. Patten, B.C., Bossermann, R.W., Finn, J.T., Cale, W.G., 1976. Propagation of cause in ecosystems. In: Patten, B.C. (Ed.), Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology, Vol. 4, New York, pp. 457-579.
142. Patten, B.C., Jörgensen, S.E., (Eds.), 1995. Complex Ecology: The Part-whole Relation in Ecosystems. Englewood Cliffs.
143. Patten B.C., Odum E.P. The cybernetic nature of ecosystems. Am. Nat. 118:1981;886-895.
144. Peters, R.H., 1991. A Critique for Ecology. Cambridge University Press.
145. Picket, S.T., Kolasa, J., Jones, C.G., 1994. Ecological Understanding: The Nature of Theory and the Theory of Nature. Academic Press, San Diego.
146. Popper, K., 1973. Objektive Erkenntnis - ein evolutionärer Entwurf, Hamburg.
147. Popper, K., 1989. Logik der Forschung, Tübingen.
148. Prigogine, I., 1947. Etude Thermodynamic des Processes Irréversibles, Desoer, Liege.
149. Prigogine I., Nicolis G. On symmetry-breaking instabilities in dissipative systems. J. Chem. Phys. 46:1967;3542-3550.
150. Remmert H. Gleichgewicht durch Katastrophen. Aus Forsch. Technik. 1:1988;7-17.
151. Remmert, H., 1991. The mosaic-cycle concept of ecosystems - an overview. In: Remmert, H. (Ed.), The Mosaic-cycle Concept of Ecosystems (ecological studies 85). Springer, New York, pp. 1-21.
152. Roughgarden, J., May, R.M., Levin, S.A., 1989. Perspectives in Ecological Theory. Princeton.
153. Salthe, S.N., 1985. Evolving Hierarchical Systems - their Structure and Representation. Columbia University Press, New York, p. 343.
154. Salthe, S.N., 1993. Development and Evolution. Complexity and Change in Biology. MIT Press, Cambridge.
155. Schneider E.D., Kay J. Life as a manifestation of the second law of thermodynamics. Math. Comput. Model. 19:1994;25-48.
156. Schneider E.D., Kay J. Complexity and thermodynamics: Towards a new ecology. Futures. 26:1994;626-647.
157. Schrödinger, E., 1944. What is life? Cambridge.
158. Shannon, C.E., Weaver, W., 1949. The Mathematical Theory of Communication. University of Illinois Press.
159. Shrader-Frechette, K.S., McCoy, E.D., 1993. Method in Ecology. Cambridge University Press.
160. Shugart, H.H., O'Neill, R.V., 1979. Systems Ecology. Stroudsburg.
161. Simon H.A. The architecture of complexity. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. 106:1962;467-482.
162. Simon, H.A., 1973. The Organization of Complex Systems. In: Pattee, H.H. (Ed.), Hierarchy theory. New York, pp. 1-27.
163. Straskraba, M., 1995a. Cybernetic theory of complex ecosystems. In: Patten, B.C., Jörgensen, S.E. (Eds.), Complex Ecology: The Part-whole Relation in Ecosystems. Englewood Cliffs, pp. 104-165.
164. Straskraba, M., 1995b. Cybernetic theory of ecosystems. In: Gnauck, A., Frischmuth, A., Kraft, A. (Eds.), Ökosysteme: Modellierung und Simulation. Umweltwissenschaften, Band 6, Taunusstein, pp. 31-52.
165. Straskraba, M., Gnauck, A., 1983. Aquatische Ökosysteme - Modellierung und Simulation, Stuttgart.
166. Stugren, B., 1986. Grundlagen der Allgemeinen Ökologie, Stuttgart.
167. Svirezhev, Y.M., Logofet, D.O. 1983. Stability of Biological Communities, Moscow.
168. Tansley A.G. The use and abuse of vegetational concepts and terms. Ecology. 16:1935;284-307.
169. Thienemann A. Grundzüge einer allgemeinen Ökologie. Archiv Hydrobiol. 35:1939;267-285.
170. Trepl L. Ökologie - Alternative zu den 'klassischen' Naturwissenschaften? Wechselwirkung. 21:1984;20-25.
171. Troll, C., 1939. Luftbildplan und ökologische Bodenforschung. Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin, pp. 241-298.
172. Turing A.M. On the chemical basis of morphogenesis. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London. B. 237:1952;37-72.
173. Ulanowicz R.E. An hypothesis on the development of natural communities. J. Theor. Biol. 85:1980;223-245.
174. Ulanowicz, R.E., 1986. Growth and Development: Ecosystems Phenomenology. Berlin.
175. Ulanowicz, R.E., 1995. Network growth and development. In: Patten, B.C., Jörgensen, S.E. (Eds.), Complex Ecology: The Part-whole Relation in Ecosystems. Englewood Cliffs, pp. 643-655.
176. Ulrich, B., 1987. Stability, elasticity, and resilience of terrrestrial ecosystems with respect to matter balance. In: Schulze, E.D., Zwölfer, H. (Eds.), Potentials and Limitations of Ecosystem Analysis. Ecol. Studies 61, 11-49.
177. von Bertalanffy L.V. Der Organismus Als Physikalisches System Betrachtet. Naturwissenschaften. 28:1940;521.
178. van Dyne, G.M., 1966. Ecosystems, Systems Ecology, and Systems Ecologists. ORNL-3957, Oak Ridge.
179. van Dyne, G.M., 1980. Systems ecology: The state of the art. Oak Ridge. National Laboratory Environmental Sciences Laboratory Dedication, February 26-27, No. 5666, Oak Ridge, pp. 81-103.
180. von Bertalanffy, L., 1968. General Systems Theory. New York.
181. von Bertalanffy, L., 1972. The history and status of general systems theory. In: Klir, G.J. (Ed.), Trends in General Systems Theory. New York, pp. 21-41.
182. Van Dobben, W.H., Lowe-McDonnell, R.H. (Eds.), 1975. Unifying Concepts in Ecology, The Hague.
183. von Weizsäcker, C.F., 1985. Der Aufbau der Physik, Vienna.
184. von Weizsäcker, E.U., 1986. Offene Systeme 1, Stuttgart.
185. Watt, K.E.F., 1971. Dynamics of populations: A synthesis. In: Den Boer, P.J., Gradwell, G.R. (Eds.), Dynamics of Populations. Wageningen, pp. 568-580.
186. Weber B.H., Depew D.J., Dyke C., Salthe S.N., Schneider E.D., Ulanowicz R.E., Wicken J.S. Evolution in thermodynamic perspective: An ecological approach. Biol. Phil. 4:1989;373-405.
187. Weiss, P., 1970. Das lebende System. Ein Beispiel für den Schichtendeterminismus. In: Koestler, A., Smythies, J.R. (Eds.), Das neue Menschenbild, Vienna.
188. Wicken, J.S., 1987. Evolution, thermodynamics and information. Extending the Darwinian program. Oxford University Press.
189. Wiegleb G., Bröring U. The position of epistemological emergentism in ecology. Senckenbergiana maritima. 27(3/6):1996;179-194.
190. Wilson, E.O., 1975. Sociobiology: The New Synthesis. Cambridge.
191. Wiener, N., 1948. Cybernetics, New York.
192. Wissel, C., 1990. Theoretische Ökologie, Berlin.
193. Woodley, S., Kay, J., Francis, G., 1993. Ecological integrity and the management of ecosystems, Heritage Resources Centre, University of Waterloo and Canadian Park Service, Ottawa, p. 220.
194. Worthington, E.B., (ed.), 1975. The Evolution of IBP, Cambridge.