Short bowel syndrome: Pathophysiological and clinical aspects

Pathophysiology

Volumn 6, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 1-19

  Höllwarth, Michael E ^a  

^a Univ Klin Kinderchirurgie LKH G   (Austria)

Author keywords

Bacterial overgrowth; Intestinal adaptation; Intestinal transplantation; Liver failure; Short bowel

Indexed keywords

BOMBESIN; EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR; GLUTAMINE; HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE; OXYNTOMODULIN; PROSTAGLANDIN E2; SOMATOMEDIN C;

AGE; BACTERIAL TRANSLOCATION; CATHETER INFECTION; CHOLESTASIS; CRYPT CELL; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; HUMAN; ILEOCECAL VALVE; INTESTINE GRAFT; INTESTINE VILLUS; LACTIC ACIDOSIS; LIVER FAILURE; MALABSORPTION; PARENTERAL NUTRITION; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; REVIEW; SHORT BOWEL SYNDROME; SMALL INTESTINE RESECTION;

EID: 0344327103     PISSN: 09284680     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0928-4680(98)00035-2     Document Type: Review

References (156)

1. Rickham P.P. Massive intestinal resection in newborn infants. Ann. R. Coll. Surg. 41:1967;480-485.
2. Touloukian R.J., Walker Smith G.J. Normal intestinal length in preterm infants. J. Paediat. Surg. 6:1983;720-723.
3. Mughal M., Irving M. Home parenteral nutrition in the United Kingdom and Ireland. Lancet. 2:1986;383-387.
4. Wallander J., Ewald U., Läckgren G., Tufveson G., Wahlberg J., Meurling S. Extreme short bowel syndrome in neonates: an indication for small bowel transplantation? Transplant. Proc. 24:1992;1230-1235.
5. J. Schalamon, P.H. Schober, P. Gallippi, L. Matthyssen, M.E. Höllwarth, Congenital short bowel: a case study and review of the literature, Eur. J. Paediatr. Surg. (1999) (in press).
6. R. Finaly, Z. Cohen, A.J. Mares, Near total intestinal aganglionosis with extreme short bowel syndrome - a difficult surgical dilemma, Eur. J. Paediatr. Surg. (1999) (in press).
7. Madara J.L., Trier J.S. The functional morphology of the mucosa of the small intestine. Johnson L.R. Physiology of the Gastrointestinal Tract. 2:1994;1577-1622 Raven Press, New York.
8. Westergaard H., Spady D.K. Short bowel syndrome. Sleisenger M.H., Fordtran W.B. Gastrointestinal Disease. 2:1993;1249-1257 Saunders, Philadelphia, PA.
9. Bond J.H., Currier B.E., Buchwald H., Levitt M.D. Colonic conservation of malabsorbed carbohydrates. Gastroenterology. 78:1980;444-447.
10. Nordgaard I., Hansen B.S.T., Mortensen P.B. Colon as digestive organ in patients with short bowel. Lancet. 343:1994;373-376.
11. Chang E.B., Sitrin M.D., Black D.D. Gastrointestinal, Hepatobiliary, and Nutritional Physiology. 1996;Lippincott-Raven, 141, Philadelphia.
12. Spiller R.C., Trotman I.F., Higgins B.E. et al. The ileal brake-inhibition of jejunal motility after ileal perfusion in man. Gut. 25:1984;365-374.
13. Holgate A.M., Read N.W. The effect of ileal infusion of intralipid on gastrointestinal transit, ileal flow rate and carbohydrate absorption in humans after ingestion of a liquid meal. Gastroenterology. 88:1985;1005-1011.
14. Nightingale J.M., Kamm M.A., van-der Sijp J.R. et al. Disturbed gastric emptying in the short bowel syndrome. Evidence for a 'colonic brake'. Gut. 34:1993;1171-1176.
15. Sturm A., Layer P., Goebell H., Dignass A.U. Short-bowel syndrome: an update on the therapeutic approach. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 32:1997;289-296.
16. Rodrigues C.A., Lennard-Jones J.E., Thompson D.G., Farthing M.J.G. Energy absorption as a measure of intestinal failure in the short bowel syndrome. Gut. 30:1989;176-183.
17. Windsor C.W.O., Fejfar J., Woodward D.A.K. Gastric secretion after massive small bowel resection. Gut. 10:1969;779-786.
18. Dudrick S.J., Latifi R., Fosnocht D. Management of the short bowel syndrome. Surg. Clin. North. Am. 73:1991;625-643.
19. Booth I.W. Enteral nutrition as primary therapy in short bowel syndrome. Gut. 35:1994;S69-S72.
20. Dobbins J.W., Binder H.J. Effect of bile salts and fatty acids in the colonic absorption of oxalate. Gastroenterology. 70:1976;1096-1100.
21. Brink M.A., Méndez-Sánchez N., Carey M.C. Bilirubin cycles enterohepatically after ileal resection in the rat. Gastroenterology. 110:1996;1945-1957.
22. Georgeson K.E. Short-bowel syndrome. O'Neill J.A. Jr, Rowe M.I., Grosfeld J.L., Fonkalsrud E.W., Coran A.G. Pediatric Surgery. 2:1998;1223-1232 Mosby.
23. Debongnie J., Philips S. Capacity of the human colon to absorb fluid. Gastroenterology. 74:1978;698-703.
24. Johnson C.P., Sama S.K., Zhu Y.R. et al. Delayed gastroduodenal emptying is an important mechanism for control of intestinal transit in short gut syndrome. Am. J. Surg. 171:1996;90-95.
25. Uchiyama M., Iwafuchi M., Matsuda Y., Naitho M., Yagi M., Ohtani S. Intestinal motility after massive bowel resection in conscious canines: comparison of acute and chronic phases. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 23:1996;217-223.
26. J.M. Mayr, U. Weissensteiner, P.H. Schober, M.H. Höllwarth, Morbidity and mortality of the short bowel syndrome - an overview of our patients, Eur. J. Pediatr. Surg. (1999) (in press).
27. Remington M., Malagelada J.R., Zuismeister A., Fleming C.R. Abnormalities in gastrointestinal motor activity in patients with short bowels: effects of a synthetic opiate. Gastroenterology. 85:1983;629-636.
28. Goulet O.J., Revillon Y., Jan D., De Potter S., Maurage C., Lortat-Jacob S. Neonatal short bowel syndrome. J. Pediatr. 119:1991;19-23.
29. L. Eizaguirre, P. Aldazabal, J.J. Barrena, et al., Bacterial translocation is favoured by the preservation of the ileocecal valve in experimental short bowel with total parenteral nutrition, Europ. J. Paediat Surg. (1999) (in press).
30. G. Schimpl, G. Feierl, K. Linni, C. Uitz, H. Özbey, M.E. Höllwarth, Bacterial translocation in short bowel syndrome in rats, Eur. J. Paediatr. Surg. (1999) (in press).
31. Kaufman S.S., Loseke C.A., Lupo J.V., Young R.J., Murray N.D., Pinch L.W., Vanderhoof J.A. Influence of bacterial overgrowth and intestinal inflammation on duration of parenteral nutrition in children with short bowel syndrome. J. Pediatr. 131:1997;356-361.
32. Höllwarth M.E., Ulrich-Baker M.G., Kvietys P.R., Granger D.N. Blood flow in experimental short bowel syndrome. Pediatr. Surg. Int. 4:1988;242-246.
33. Ulrich-Baker M.G., Höllwarth M.E., Kvietys P.R., Granger D.N. Blood flow response to small bowel resection. Am. J. Physiol. 251:1986;G815-G822.
34. Dowling R.H., Booth C.C. Structural and functional changes following small intestinal resection in the rat. Clin. Sci. 32:1967;139-149.
35. Hanson W.R., Osborne J.W., Sharp J.G. Compensation by the residual intestine after intestinal resection in the rat. I. Influence of amount of tissue removed. Gastroenterology. 73:1977;692-700.
36. Hanson W.R., Osborne J.W., Sharp J.G. Compensation by the residual intestine after intestinal resection in the rat. II. Influence of postoperative time interval. Gastroenterology. 73:1977;701-705.
37. Kurkchubasche A.G., Rowe M.I., Smith S.D. Adaptation in short bowel syndrome: reassessing old limits. J. Pediatr. Surg. 28:1993;1069-1071.
38. Porus R.L. Epithelial hyperplasia following massive bowel resection in man. Gastroenterology. 48:1967;753-757.
39. Briet F., Flourie B., Achour L., Maurel M., Rambaud J.C., Messing B. Bacterial adaptation in patients with short bowel and colon in continuity. Gastroenterology. 109:1995;1446-1453.
40. Tappenden K.A., Thomson A.B.R., Wild G.E., McBurney M.I. Short-chain fatty acid-supplemented total parenteral nutrition enhances functional adaptation to intestinal resection in rats. Gastroenterology. 112:1997;792-802.
41. Wilmore D.W., Dudrick S.J., Daly J.M. The role of nutrition in the adaptation of the small intestine after massive resection. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 132:1971;673-680.
42. Williamson R.C.N. Intestinal adaptation: mechanisms of control. New Engl. J. Med. 298:1978;1444-1450.
43. Deitch E.A., Wintertron J., Li M.A., Berg R. The gut is a portal entry for bacteremia. Ann. Surg. 205:1987;681-690.
44. Wilmore D.W., Smith R.J., O'Dwyer S.T., Jacobs D.O., Ziegler T.R., Wang X.D. The gut: a central organ after surgical stress. Surgery. 104:1988;917-923.
45. Pierro A., van Saene H.K.F., Jones M.O., Brown D., Nunn A.J., Lloyd D.A. Clinical impact of abnormal gut flora in infants receiving parenteral nutrition. Ann. Surg. 227:1998;547-552.
46. Weser E., Babitt J., Hoban M., Vandeventer A. Intestinal adaptation. Different growth responses to disaccharides compared with monosaccharides in rat small bowel. Gastroenterology. 91:1986;1521-1527.
47. Vanderhoof J.A., Langnas A.N. Short-bowel syndrome in children and adults. Gastroenterology. 113:1997;1767-1778.
48. Koruda M.J., Rolandelli R.H., Settle R.G., Rombeau J.L. Small bowel disaccharidase activity in the rat as affected by intestinal resection and pectin feeding. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 47:1988;448-453.
49. Finkel Y., Brown G., Smith H.L., Buchanan E., Booth I.W. The effect of a pectin-supplemented elemental diet in a boy with short gut syndrome. Acta Paediatr. Scand. 79:1990;893-896.
50. Kripke S.A., De Paula J.A., Berman J.M., Fox A.D., Rombeau J.L., Settle R.G. Experimental short-bowel syndrome: effect of an elemental diet supplemented with short-chain triglyceride. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 53:1991;954-962.
51. Bristol J.B., Williamson R.C.N. Postoperative adaptation of the small intestine. World J. Surg. 9:1985;825-832.
52. Johnson J.R. The trophic action of gastrointestinal hormones. Gastroenterology. 70:1976;278-288.
53. Williams N.S., Evans P., King R.F.G.J. Gastric acid secretion and gastrin production in the short bowel syndrome. Gut. 26:1985;914-919.
54. Stringer M.D., Puntis J.W. Short bowel syndrome. Arch. Dis. Child. 73:1995;170-173.
55. Bloom S.R., Polak J.M. The hormonal pattern of intestinal adaptation. A major role for enteroglucagon. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 74:1982;93-103.
56. J.A. Vanderhoof, S.M. Mataya, Enteral and parenteral nutrition in patients with short bowel syndrome. Eur. J. Pediatr. Surg. (1999) (in press).
57. Fuller P.J., Beveridge D.J., Taylor R.G. Ileal proglucagon gene expression in rat: characterization in intestinal adaptation using in situ hybridization. Gastroenterology. 104:1993;459-466.
58. Drucker D.J., Ehrlich P., Asa S.L., Brubaker P.L. Induction of intestinal epithelial proliferation by glucagon-like peptide 2. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA. 93:1996;7911-7916.
59. Chu K.U., Evers B.M., Ishizuka J., Townsend Jr C.M., Thompson J.C. Role of bombesin on gut mucosal growth. Ann. Surg. 222:1995;94-100.
60. Inoue Y., Copeland E.M., Souba W.W. Growth hormone enhances amino acid uptake by the human small intestine. Ann. Surg. 219:1994;715-724.
61. Byrne T.A., Morrissey T.B., Nattakorn T.V., Ziegler T.R., Wilmore D.W. Growth hormone, glutamine, and a modified diet enhance nutrient absorption in patients with severe short bowel syndrome. JPEN. 19:1995;296-302.
62. Iannoli P., Miller J.H., Ryan C.K., Gu L.H., Ziegler T.R., Sax H.C. Epidermal growth factor and human growth hormone accelerate adaptation after massive enterectomy in an additive, nutrient dependent, and site-specific fashion. Surgery. 122:1997;721-729.
63. Saxena S.K., Thompson J.S., Sharp J.G. Role of epidermal growth factor in intestinal regeneration. Surgery. 111:1992;318-325.
64. Salloum R.M., Stevens B.R., Schultz G.S., Souba W.W. Regulation of small intestinal glutamine transport by epidermal growth factor. Surgery. 113:1993;552-559.
65. Forgue-Lafitte M.E., Loburthe M., Chamblie M.C. Demonstration of specific receptor for EGF-urogastrone in isolated rat intestinal epithelial cells. FEBS Lett. 114:1980;243-246.
66. Ziegler T.R., Mantell M.P., Chow J.C., Rombeau J.L., Smith R.J. Gut adaptation and the insulin-like growth factor system: regulation by glutamine and IGF-I administration. Am. J. Physiol. 271:1996;G866-G875.
67. Clemmons D.R., Underwood L.E. Nutritional regulation of IGF-I and IGF binding protein. Ann. Rev. Nutr. 11:1991;393-412.
68. Winesett D.E., Ulshen D.M., Hoyt E.C., Mohapatra N.K., Fuller C.R., Lund P.K. Regulation and localization of the insulin-like growth factor system in small bowel during altered nutrition status. Am. J. Physiol. 268:1995;G631-G640.
69. Mantell M.P., Ziegler T.R., Adamson W.T. et al. Resection induced colonic adaptation is augmented by IGF-I and associated with upregulation of colonic IGF-I m-RNA. Am. J. Physiol. 269:1995;G974-G980.
70. Uhlsen M.H., Dowling R.H., Fuller C.R., Zimmerman E.M., Lund P.K. Enhanced growth of small bowel in transgenic mice overexpressing bovine growth hormone. Gastroenterology. 104:1993;973-980.
71. Lukish J., Schwartz M.Z., Rushin J.M., Riordan G.P. A comparison of the effect of growth factors on intestinal function and structure in short bowel syndrome. J. Pediatr. Surg. 32:1997;1652-1655.
72. Stehle P., Fürst P. Glutamine and the gut. Cynober L., Fürst P., Lawin P. W. Pharmacological Nutrition - Immune Nutrition. 1995;105-115 Zuckschwerdt, München.
73. Wilmore D.W. Glutamine and the gut. Gastroenterology. 107:1994;1885-1901.
74. Papaconstantinou H.T., Hwang K.O., Rajaraman S., Hellmich M.R., Townsend J.C.M., Ko T.C. Glutamine deprivation induces apoptosis in intestinal epithelial cells. Surgery. 124:1998;152-160.
75. Vanderhoof J.A., Blackwood D.A., Mohammadpour H., Park J.H.Y. Effects of oral supplementation of glutamine on small intestinal mucosal mass following resection. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 99:1992;223-227.
76. Vanderhoof J.A., Kollman K.A., Griffin S.K., Adrian T.E. Growth hormone and glutamine do not stimulate intestinal adaptation following massive small bowel resection in the rat. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 25:1997;327-331.
77. Souba W.W., Klimberg V.S., Hautamaki R.D. et al. Oral glutamine reduces bacterial translocation following abdominal radiation. J. Surg. Res. 48:1990;1-5.
78. Schimpl G., Pesendorfer P., Steinwender G., Feierl G., Ratschek M., und Höllwarth M.E. Allopurinol and glutamine attenuate bacterial translocation in chronic portal hypertensive and common bile duct ligated growing rats. Gut. 39:1996;48-53.
79. Vanderhoof J.A., Park J.H., Grandjean C.J. Morphological and functional effects of 16,16 dimethyl-prostaglandin-E2 on mucosal adaptation after massive distal small bowel resection. Am. J. Physiol. 254:1988;G373-G377.
80. Höllwarth M.E., Granger D.N., Ulrich-Baker M.G., Kvietys P.R., Ramenowsky M.L. Pharmacologic enhancement of adaptive growth after extensive small bowel resection. Ped. Surg. Int. 3:1988;G55-G61.
81. Pul M., Yilmaz N., Gürses N., Özgur K.G., Turgutalp H. Enhancement by testosterone of adaptive growth after small bowel resection. Isr. J. Med. Sci. 27:1991;339-342.
82. Wilmore D.W., Lacey J.M., Soultanakis R.P., Bosch R.L., Byrne T.A. Factors predicting a successful outcome after pharmacologic bowel compensation. Ann. Surg. 226:1997;288-293.
83. Vanderhoof J.A., Park J.H.Y., Herrington M.K., Adrian T.E. Dietary menhaden oil on mucosal adaptation after small bowel resection in rats. Gastroenterology. 106:1994;94-99.
84. Ziegler T.R. Glutamine supplementation in injury and infection. Cynober L., Fürst P., Lawin P.W. Pharmacological Nutrition - Immune Nutrition. 1995;135-144 Zuckschwerdt, München.
85. Scolapio J.S., Camilleri M., Fleming C.R. et al. Effect of growth hormone, glutamine, and diet on adaptation in short-bowel syndrome: a randomized, controlled study. Gastroenterology. 11:1997;1074-1081.
86. Ellegard L., Bosaeus I., Nordgren S., Bengtson B.A. Low-dose recombinant human growth hormone increases body weight and lean body mass in patients with short bowel syndrome. Ann. Surg. 225:1997;88-96.
87. Jacobsen O., Ladefoged K., Stage J.G., Jarnum S. Effects of cimetidine on jejunostomy effluents in patients with severe short-bowel syndrome. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 21:1986;824-828.
88. J.M. Nightingale, E.R. Walker, W. Burnham, M.J. Farthing, J.E. Lennard-Jones, Octreotide (a somatostatin analogue) improves the quality of life in some patients with a short intestine, Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 3 (1989) 367-373.
89. Vanderhoof J.A., Kollman K.A. The lack of inhibitory effect of octreotide on intestinal adaptation in short bowel syndrome in the rat. J. Pediatr. Gastronenterol. Nutr. 26:1998;241-244.
90. Schwarzenburg S.J., Bundy M. Ursodeoxycholic acid modifies gut-derived entotoxemia in neonatal rats. Pediatr. Res. 35:1994;214-217.
91. Binnington H.B., Siegel B.A., Kissane J.M., Ternberg J.L. A technique to increase jejunal mucosal surface area. J. Pediatr. Surg. 8:1973;765-769.
92. Zachariou Z., Daum R., Beiler H.A., Gorgas K. Autogeneic allotopic small-bowel mucosa transplantation in beagles. A new perspective for treatment of small-bowel syndrome. Eur. J. Paediatr. Surg. 8:1998;230-233.
93. Bragg L.E., Thompson J.S. Serosal patching impairs intestinal adaptation following enterectomy. J. Surg. Res. 52:1992;118-122.
94. Teitelbaum D.H., Drongowski R., Spivak D. Rapid development of hyperbilirubinemia in infants with the short bowel syndrome as a correlate to mortality: possible indication for early small bowel transplantation. Transplant. Proc. 28:1996;2699-2700.
95. Abu-Elmagd K., Reyes J., Todo S. et al. Clinical intestinal transplantation: new perspectives and immunological considerations. J. Am. Coll. Surg. 186:1998;512-527.
96. J.S. Thompson, Surgical approach to the short bowel syndrome: procedures to slow intestinal transit, Eur. J. Paediatr. Surg. (1999) (in press).
97. Lloyd D.A. Colonic interposition between the jejunum and ileum after massive small bowel resection in rats. Prog. Pediatr. Surg. 12:1978;51-106.
98. Sawchuk A., Goto S., Yount J. et al. Chemically induced bowel denervation improves survival in short bowel syndrome. J. Pediatr. Surg. 22:1987;492-496.
99. Bianchi A. Intestinal loop lengthening - a technique for increasing small intestinal length. J. Pediatr. Surg. 15:1980;145-151.
100. A. Bianchi, Experience with longitudinal intestinal lengthening and tailoring, Eur. J. Paediatr. Surg. (1999) (in press).
101. Kimura K., Soper R.T. A new bowel elongation technique for the short-bowel syndrome using isolated bowel segment Iowa models. J. Pediatr. Surg. 28:1990;792-794.
102. Weber T.R., Vane D.W., Grosfeld J.L. Tapering enteroplasty in infants with bowel atresia and short gut. Arch. Surg. 117:1982;684-688.
103. DeLorimier A.A., Harrison M.R. Intestinal plication in the treatment of atresia. J. Pediatr. Surg. 6:1983;734-737.
104. Lloyd D.A., Shanbogue L.K.R., Doherty P.J., Sunderland D., Hart C.A., Williams D.F. Does the fibrin coat around a central venous catheter influence catheter related sepsis? J. Pediatr. Surg. 28:1993;345-349.
105. Jones G.R., Konsler G.K., Dunaway R.P., Lacey S.R., Azizkhan R.G. Prospective analysis of urokinase in the treatment of catheter sepsis in pediatric hematology-oncology patients. J. Pediatr. Surg. 28:1993;350-357.
106. Kurkchubasche A.G., Smith S.D., Rowe M.I. Catheter sepsis in short-bowel syndrome. Arch. Surg. 127:1992;21-25.
107. Lloyd D.A. Central venous catheters for parenteral nutrition: a double-edged sword. J. Pediatr. Surg. 32:1997;943-948.
108. Quigley E.M.M., Marsh M.N., Shaffer J.L., Markin R.S. Hepatobiliary complications of total parenteral nutrition. Gastroenterology. 104:1993;286-301.
109. Briones E.R., Iber F.L. Liver and biliary tract changes and injury associated with total parenteral nutrition: pathogenesis and prevention. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 14:1995;219-228.
110. Teitelbaum D.H. Parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis. Curr. Opin. Pediatr. 9:1997;270-275.
111. Pereira G.P., Sherman M.S., DiGiacomo J., Ziegler M., Roth K., Jacobowski D. Hyperalimentation-induced cholestasis. Am. J. Dis. Child. 135:1981;842-845.
112. Pitt H.A., Lewinski M.A., Müller E.L., Porter-Fink V., DenBesten L. Ileal resection induced gallstones: altered bilirubin or cholesterol metabolism? Surgery. 96:1984;154-162.
113. Cone J.B., Pasley J.N., Bond P.J., McKay D.W., Rayford P.L. Alterations in gastrointestinal peptides after thermal injury in humans. J. Burn Care Rehabil. 14:1993;663-665.
114. Rinatala R., Lindahl H., Pohjavuori M., Saxen H., Sariola H. Surgical treatment of intractable cholestasis associated with total parenteral nutrition in premature infants. J. Pediatr. Surg. 28:1993;716-719.
115. Rinatala R.J., Lindahl H., Pohjavuori M. Total parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis in surgical neonates may be reversed by intravenous cholecystokinin: a preliminary report. J. Pediatr. Surg. 30:1995;827-830.
116. Sitzmann J.V., Pitt H.A., Steinborn P.A., Pasha Z.R., Sanders R.C. Cholecystokinin prevents parenteral nutrition induced biliary sludge in humans. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 170:1990;25-31.
117. Teitelbaum D.H., Han-Markey T., Drongowski R.A. et al. Use of cholecystokinin to prevent the development of parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis. JPEN. 21:1997;100-103.
118. Belli D.C., Fournier L., Lepage G. et al. Total parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis in rats: comparison of different amino acid mixtures. JPEN. 11:1987;67-73.
119. Moss L.R., Das J.B., Ansari G., Raffensberger J.G. Total parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis: clinical and histopathological correlation. J. Pediatr. Surg. 28:1993;1270-1275.
120. Moss L. R., Das J. B., Ansari G., Raffensberger J. G. Hepatobiliary dysfunction during total parenteral nutrition is caused by infusate, not the route of administration. J. Pediatr. Surg. 28:1993;391-397.
121. Brown M.R., Thunberg B.J., Golub L., Maniscalco W.M., Cox C., Shapiro D.L. Decreased cholestasis with enteral instead of intravenous protein in the very low-birth-weight infant. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 9:1989;21-27.
122. Guertin F., Roy C.C., Lepage G. et al. Effect of taurine on total parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis. JPEN. 15:1991;247-251.
123. Meehan J.J., Georgeson K.E. Prevention of liver failure in parenteral nutrition-dependent children with short bowel syndrome. J. Pediatr. Surg. 32:1997;473-475.
124. Iyer K.R., Spitz L., Clayton P. New insight into mechanisms of parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis: role of plant sterols. J. Pediatr. Surg. 33:1998;1-6.
125. Capron J.P., Gineston J.L., Herve M.A., Braillon A. Metronidazole in prevention of cholestasis associated with total parenteral nutrition. Lancet. 26:1983;446-447.
126. Kubota A., Okada A., Imura K. et al. The effect of metronidazole on TPN-associated liver dysfunction in neonates. J Pediatr. Surg. 25:1990;618-621.
127. Duerksen D.R., Aerde J.E., Gramlich L. et al. Intravenous ursodeoxycholic acid reduces cholestasis in parenterally fed newborn piglets. Gastroenterology. 111:1996;1111-1117.
128. Spagnuolo M.I., Iorio R., Vegnente A., Guarino A. Ursodeoxycholic acid for treatment of cholestasis in children on long-term total parenteral nutrition: a pilot study. Gastroenterology. 111:1996;716-719.
129. Deitch E.A., Sittig K., Li M., Berg R., Specian R.D. Obstructive jaundice promotes bacterial translocation from the gut. Am. J. Surg. 159:1990;79-84.
130. Nieuwenhujis V.B., Luiking Y.C., Verheem A., van Berge-Henegouwen G.P., Gooszen H.G., Akkermans L.M.A. Disrupted bile flow affects interdigestive small bowel motility in rats. Surgery. 122:1997;600-608.
131. Nieuwenhujis V.B., Verheern A., Dujivenbode-Beumer H. et al. The role of interdigestive small bowel motility in the regulation of gut microflora, bacterial overgrowth, and bacterial translocation in rats. Ann. Surg. 228:1998;188-193.
132. Tracy T. Jr, Fox E.S. CD14-lipopolysaccharide receptor activity in hepatic macrophages after cholestatic liver injury. Surgery. 118:1995;371-377.
133. van Leeuwen P.A.M., Hong R., Rounds I.D., Rodrick M.L., Wilmore D.W. Hepatic failure and coma after liver resection is reversed by manipulation of gut contents: the role of entotoxin. Surgery. 110:1991;169-175.
134. Coutinho H.B., Robalinho T.I., Coutinho V.B. et al. Intraabdominal sepsis: an immunocytochemical study of the small intestinal mucosa. J. Clin. Pathol. 50:1997;294-298.
135. Alverdy J.C., Aoys E., Moss G.S. Total parenteral nutrition promotes bacterial translocation from the gut. Ann. Surg. 202:1985;681-684.
136. Li J., Kudsk K.A., Gocinski B., Dent D., Glezer J., Henken B.L. Effects of parenteral and enteral nutrition on gut-associated lymphoid tissue. J. Trauma. 39:1995;44-52.
137. Sedmann P.C., Macfie J., Sagar P. et al. The prevalence of gut translocation in humans. Gastroenterology. 107:1994;643-649.
138. Alverdy J.C., Chi H.S., Sheldon G.A. The effect of parenteral nutrition on gastrointestinal immunity: the importance of enteral stimulation. Ann. Surg. 202:1985;681-684.
139. O'Boyle C.J., MacFie J., Mitchell C.J., Johnstone D., Sagar P.M., Sedmann P.C. Microbiology of bacterial translocation in humans. Gut. 42:1998;29-35.
140. Deitch E.A., Xu D., Naruhn M.B., Deitch D.C., Lu Q., Marino A.A. Elemental diet and iv-TPN-induced bacterial translocation is associated with loss of intestinal mucosal barrier function against bacteria. Ann. Surg. 221:1995;299-307.
141. Wells C.L., Jechorek R.P., Erlandsen S.L. Inhibitory effect of bile on bacterial invasion of enterocyte: possible mechanism for increased translocation associated with obstructive jaundice. Crit. Care Med. 23:1995;301-307.
142. Albanese C.T., Cardona M., Smith S.D. et al. Role of intestinal mucus in transepithelial passage of bacteria across the intact ileum in vitro. Surgery. 116:1994;76-82.
143. Weber T.R. Enteral feeding increases sepsis in infants with short bowel. J. Pediatr. Surg. 30:1995;1086-1089.
144. Spaeth G., Gottwald T., Specian R.D., Mainous M.R., Berg R.D., Deitch E.A. Secretory immunoglobulin A, intestinal mucin, and mucosal permeability in nutritionally induced bacterial translocation in rats. Ann. Surg. 220:1994;798-808.
145. Bongaerts G.P.A., Tolboom J.J.M., Naber A.H.J. et al. Role of bacteria in the pathogenesis of short bowel syndrome - associated D-lactic acidemia. Microbiol. Pathog. 22:1997;285-293.
146. Maxson R.T., Johnson D.D., Jackson R.J., Smith S.D. The protective role of enteral IgA supplementation in neonatal gut-origin sepsis. Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 778:1996;405-406.
147. J.C. Alverdy, F. Rocha, Surgical stress, bacteria, and mucosal immune function, Eur. J. Pediatr. Surg. (1999) (in press).
148. Dickinson E.C., Gorga J.C., Garrett M. et al. Immunoglobulin A supplementation abrogates bacterial translocation and preserves the architecture of the intestinal epithelium. Surgery. 124:1998;284-290.
149. Fast C., Rosegger H. Necrotizing enterocolitis prophylaxis: oral antibiotics and lyophilized enterobacteria vs oral immunoglobulins. Acta Paediatr. Suppl. 396:1994;86-90.
150. Kurz R., Sauer H. Treatment and metabolic findings in extreme short-bowel syndrome with 11 cm jejunal remnant. J. Pediatr. Surg. 18:1983;257-263.
151. Dorney S.A., Ament M., Berquist W., Vargas J.H., Hassall E. Improved survival in very short small bowel of infancy with use of long-term parenteral nutrition. J. Pediatr. 107:1985;521-525.
152. Galea M.H., Holliday H., Carachi R., Kapila L. Short-bowel syndrome: a collective review. Enteral and parenteral nutrition in the short bowel syndrome in children. J. Pediatr. Surg. 27:1992;592-596.
153. Ricour C., Duhamel J.F., Arnaud-Battandier F., Collard Y., Revillon Y., Nihoul-Fekete C. World J. Surg. 9:1985;310-315.
154. Georgeson K.E., Breaux C.W. Outcome and intestinal adaptation in neonatal short-bowel syndrome. J. Pediatr. Surg. 27:1992;344-350.
155. Weber T.R., Tracy T., Connors R.H. Short-bowel syndrome in children: quality of life in an era of improved survival. Arch. Surg. 126:1991;841-846.
156. Hancock B.J., Wiseman N.E. Lethal short-bowel syndrome. J. Pediatr. Surg. 25:1990;1131-1134.