Lymphocutaneous syndrome: A review of non-sporothrix causes

Medicine

Volumn 78, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 38-63

  Smego Jr , Raymond A ^a,d   Castiglia, Mary ^b   Asperilla, Marianito O ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND   (South Africa)

^b WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c ALBANY MEDICAL COLLEGE   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND   (South Africa)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BLASTOMYCOSIS; COCCIDIOIDOMYCOSIS; COWPOX VIRUS; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; LEISHMANIASIS; LYMPHANGITIS; LYMPHOCUTANEOUS SYNDROME; MYCOBACTERIOSIS; NOCARDIOSIS; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PUNCH BIOPSY; TULAREMIA;

DERMATOMYCOSES; DISEASE PROGRESSION; HUMANS; LEISHMANIASIS, CUTANEOUS; LYMPHANGITIS; MYCOBACTERIUM INFECTIONS, ATYPICAL; NOCARDIA INFECTIONS; SKIN ULCER; SPOROTRICHOSIS; SYNDROME; TULAREMIA; VIRUS DISEASES;

EID: 0344142383     PISSN: 00257974     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00005792-199901000-00004     Document Type: Article

References (261)

1. Adams R, Remington J, Steinberg J, Seibert J. Tropical fish aquariums: A source of Mycobacterium marinum infections resembling sporotrichosis. JAMA 211: 457-61, 1970.
2. Ajello L, Walker WW, Dungworth DL, Brumfield GL. Isolation of Nocardia brasiliensis from a cat with review of its prevalence and geographic distributions. J Am Vet Assoc 138: 370-76, 1961.
3. Alarcon CJ, Obalia J, Borelli D. Nocardia brasiliensis aislada de un caso de lymphangitis nodular aguda suparativa. Dermatologia Venez 1: 269-85, 1959.
4. Al-Gindan Y, Kubba R, El-Hassan AM, Omer AHS, Kutty MK, Saeed MBM. Dissemination in cutaneous leishmaniasis. 3. Lymph node involvement. Int J Dermatol 28: 248-54, 1989.
5. Al-Shammari SA, Khoja TA, Fehr A. Cutaneous leishmaniasis in Riyadh region: Four-year study of the epidemiologic and clinical features. Int J Dermatol 31: 565-67, 1992.
6. Alvarado R, Avendano R, Salfelder K. Primary cutaneous histoplasmosis. Mykosen 19: 259-63, 1976.
7. Arai H, Nakajima H, Kaminago Y. In vitro susceptibility of Mycobacterium marinum to dihydromycoplanecin A and ten other antimicrobial agents. J Dermatol 17: 370-4, 1990.
8. Aronson JD. Spontaneous tuberculosis in saltwater fish. J Infect Dis 39: 315-20, 1926.
9. Baden HP, Provan J, Tanenbaum L. Circular indurated lymphangitis of the penis. Arch Dermatol 112: 1146, 1976.
10. Bass JB, Hankin EL. Treatment of disease caused by nontuberculous mycobacteria. Arch Intern Med 143: 1439-41, 1983.
11. Bates R, Rifkind D. Nocardia brasiliensis lymphocutaneous syndrome. Am J Dis Child 121: 246-7, 1971.
12. Baumgarten A. Nocardiosis: Report of a case resembling sporotrichosis. Med J Aust 48: 321-3, 1961.
13. Beckmeyer WJ. Nocardiosis: Report of a successfully treated case of cutaneous granuloma. Pediatrics 23: 35-9, 1959.
14. Belliveau F, Geiger F. Lymphocutaneous Nocardia brasiliensis infection simulating sporotrichosis. West J Med 127: 245-6, 1977.
15. Bennett JE. Miscellaneous fungi and prototheca. In: Mandell GL, Douglas RG, Bennett JE, Dolin R, eds. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. 4th ed. New York: Churchill-Livingstone, pp 2389-93, 1995.
16. Berger TG, Meltzer MS, Oster CN. Lymph node involvement in leishmaniasis. J Am Acad Dermatol 12: 993-6, 1985.
17. Berkey P, Moore D, Rolston K. In vitro susceptibilities of Nocardia species to newer antimicrobial agents. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 32: 1078-9, 1988.
18. Beyt BE Jr, Ortbals DW, Santa Cruz DJ, Kobayashi GS, Eisen AZ, Medoff G. Cutaneous mycobacteriosis: Analysis of 34 cases with a new classification of the disease. Medicine (Baltimore) 60: 95-109, 1981.
19. Bolivar R, Satterwhite TK, Floyd M. Cutaneous lesions due to Mycobacterium kansasii. Arch Dermatol 116: 207-8, 1980.
20. Bonifaz A, Saul A, Galindo J, Andrade R. Primary cutaneous coccidioidomycosis treated with itraconazole. Int J Dermatol 33: 720-2, 1994.
21. Bonnet E, Debat-Zoguereh D, Petit N, Ravaux I, Gallais H. Clarithromycin: A potent agent against infections due to Mycobacterium marinum. Clin Infect Dis 18: 644-6, 1994.
22. Borelli D. A clinical trial of itraconazole in the treatment of deep mycosis and leishmaniasis. Rev Infect Dis 9: 557-63, 1987.
23. Bottei E, Flaherty JP, Kaplan LJ, Duffee-Kerr L. Lymphocutaneous Nocardia brasiliensis infection transmitted via a cat scratch: A second case. Clin Infect Dis 18: 649-50, 1994.
24. Brady RC, Sheth A, Mayer T, Goderwis D, Schleiss MR. Facial sporotrichoid infection with Mycobacterium marinum. J Pediatr 130: 324-6, 1997.
25. Bradsher RW. Blastomycosis. Clin Infect Dis 14(Suppl 1): S82-90, 1992.
26. Brown JW, Sander CV. Mycobacterium marinum infections: A problem of recognition, not therapy. Arch Intern Med 147: 817-8, 1987.
27. Brown J, Kelm M, Bryan LE. Infection of the skin by Mycobacterium marinum: Report of five cases. Can Med Assoc J 117: 912-4, 1977.
28. Burger RS, Perez-Figadeo RA, Spielvogel RL. Leishmaniasis: The touch preparation as a rapid means of diagnosis. J Am Acad Dermatol 16: 1096-1105, 1987.
29. Callen JP, Kingman J. Disseminated cutaneous Nocardia brasiliensis infection. Pediatr Dermatol 2: 49-51, 1984.
30. Canby J. Primary cutaneous tuberculosis. J Pediatr 63: 331-3, 1963.
31. Carroll F, Haley LD, Brown JM. Primary cutaneous coccidioidomycosis: Review of the literature and a report of a new case. Arch Dermatol 113: 933-6, 1977.
32. Carter RR III, Wilson JP, Turner HR, Chapman SW. Cutaneous blastomycosis as a complication of transthoracic needle aspiration. Chest 91: 917-8, 1987.
33. Chandrasekhar S, Chokkavelu V. Therapy of mycobacteria other than tuberculosis (MOTT) lymphocutaneous syndrome with newer antimicrobials. Am Coll Phys Regional Meeting, Charleston, WV, January 1996.
34. Chulay JD. Cutaneous leishmaniasis of the new world. In: Strickland GT, ed. Hunter's tropical medicine, 7th ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, pp 552-5, 1991.
35. Chulay JD, Manson-Bahr PEC. Cutaneous leishmaniasis of the old world. In: Strickland GT, ed. Hunter's tropical medicine, 6th ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, pp 548-52, 1984.
36. Cole GW. Mycobacterium marinum infection in a mechanic. Contact Dermatitis 16: 283-4, 1987.
37. Como JA, Dismukes WE. Oral azole drugs as systemic antifungal therapy. N Engl J Med 330: 263-72, 1994.
38. Conti-Diaz IA. Micetomas y procesos premicetomatosos en el Uruguay. Mycopathologia 72: 59-64, 1980.
39. Cott GR, Smith TW, Hinthorn DR, Liu C. Primary cutaneous histoplasmosis in an immunosuppressed patient. JAMA 242: 456-7, 1979.
40. Cott R, Carter M. Cutaneous disease caused by atypical mycobacteria. Arch Dermatol 95: 259-68, 1967.
41. Craven RB, Barnes AM. Plague and tularaemia. Infect Dis Clin North Am 5: 165-75, 1991.
42. Curtis AC, Cawley EP. Genital histoplasmosis. J Urol 57: 781-7, 1947.
43. Curtis AC, Grekin JN. Histoplasmosis: A review of the cutaneous and adjacent mucous membrane manifestations, with a report of 3 cases. JAMA 134: 1217-21, 1947.
44. Curtis AC. Coccidioidomycosis, primary inoculational. Arch Dermatol 65: 365-6, 1952.
45. Dalovisio J, Pankey G. Problems in diagnosis and therapy of Mycobacterium fortuitum infections. Am Rev Resp Dis 116: 625-30, 1978.
46. Dalovisio JR, Pankey GA. Dermatologic manifestations of nontuberculous mycobacterial diseases. Infect Dis Clin North Am 8: 677-88, 1994.
47. Develoux M, Blanc L, Garba S, Mamoudou HD, Warter A, Ravisse P. Cutaneous leishmaniasis in Niger. Am J Trop Med Hyg 43: 29-30, 1990.
48. Devetski RL, Goldyn R, Denham R. Primary cutaneous mycobacteriosis. J Indiana Med Assoc 65: 1149-51, 1972.
49. Dickey RF. Sporotrichoid mycobacteriosis caused by M. marinum (balnei). Arch Dermatol 98: 385-91, 1968.
50. Dickson EC, Gifford MA. Coccidioidomycosis. II. Primary type of infection. Arch Intern Med 62: 853-71, 1938.
51. Dienst FT Jr. Tularemia: A perusal of three hundred thirty-nine cases. J La State Med Soc 115: 114-30, 1963.
52. Dismukes WE, Bradsher RW, Cloud GC, Kauffman CA, Chapman SW, Stevens DA, Girard WM, Saag MS, Bowles-Patton C. Itraconazole therapy for blastomycosis and histoplasmosis. Am J Med 93: 489-97, 1992.
53. Dogra J, Aneja N, Lai BB, Misra S. Cutaneous leishmaniasis in India: Clinical experiences with itraconazole. Int J Dermatol 29: 661-2, 1990.
54. Donta S, Smith PW, Levits RE, Quintiliani R. Therapy of Mycobacterium marinum infections: Use of tetracyclines vs. rifampin. Arch Intern Med 146: 902-4, 1986.
55. Dore N, Collins JP, Mankiewcz E. A sporotrichoid-like Mycobacterium kansasii infection of the skin treated with minocycline hydrochloride. Br J Dermatol 101: 75-9, 1979.
56. Dorman JM. Herpetic lymphangitis in a student population. J Adolesc Health Care 3: 49-50, 1982.
57. Drugs for parasitic infections. Med Lett 40: 1-12, 1998.
58. Dufresne RG Jr, Latour DL, Fields JP. Sulfur granules in lymphocutaneous nocardiosis. J Am Acad Dermatol 14: 847, 1986.
59. Duncan WC. Cutaneous mycobacterial infections. Texas Med 64: 66-70, 1968.
60. Edelstein H. Mycobacterium marinum skin infections. Report of 31 cases and review of the literature. Arch Intern Med 154: 1359-64, 1994.
61. Evans MA. Clinical report of a case of blastomycosis of the skin from accidental inoculation. JAMA 40: 1772-5, 1903.
62. Feder HM, Long SS. Herpetic whitlow: Epidemiology, clinical characteristics, diagnosis and treatment. Am J Dis Child 37: 861-3, 1983.
63. Fisher I, Orkin M. Primary tuberculosis of the skin. JAMA 195: 314-16, 1966.
64. Foshay L. Tularemia: A summary of certain aspects of the disease including methods for early diagnosis and the results of serum treatment in 600 patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 19: 1-83, 1940.
65. Francis E. A summary of present knowledge of tularaemia. Medicine (Baltimore) 7: 411-32, 1928.
66. Franck N, Cabie A, Vilette B, Amor B, Lesana-Leibowitch M, Escande JP. Treatment of Mycobacterium chelonae-induced skin infection with clarithromycin. J Am Acad Dermatol 28: 1019-21, 1993.
67. Gaafar A, Fadl A, El Kadaro AY, El Hassan MM, Kemp M, Ismail AIA, Morgos SA, El Hassan AM. Sporotrichoid cutaneous leishmaniasis due to Leishmania major of different zymodemes in the Sudan and Saudi Arabia: A comparative study. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 88: 552-4, 1994.
68. Galgiani JN, Stevens DA, Graybill JR, Stevens DL, Tillinghast AJ, Levine HB. Pseudoallescheria boydii infections treated with ketoconazole: Clinical evaluation of seven patients and in vitro susceptibility results. Chest 86: 219-24, 1984.
69. Geoghiou PR, Blacklock ZM. Infections with Nocardia species in Queensland: A review of 102 clinical isolates. Med J Aust 156: 692-7, 1992.
70. Gezuele E, Conti-Diaz IA, Burgoa F, DeJimenez AC. Acute lymphangitic nocardiosis. Br J Dermatol 89: 305-7, 1973.
71. Ghon A. The primary complex in human tuberculosis and its significance. Am Rev Resp Dis 7: 314-7, 1923.
72. Giessel M, Rau JM. Primary cutaneous histoplasmosis. Cutis 25: 152-4, 1980.
73. Glickman FS. Sporotrichoid mycobacterial infections: Case report and review. J Am Acad Dermatol 8: 703-7, 1983.
74. Gnann JW, Bressler GS, Boet A, Avent CK. Human blastomycosis after a dog bite. Ann Intern Med 98: 48-9, 1983.
75. Gomez UFG, Urcuyo F, Zaias N. Oral ketoconazole in the treatment of leishmaniasis. Int J Dermatol 21: 414-6, 1982.
76. Goodman DM, Shabarum B. Primary cutaneous coccidioidomycosis: Visible classic demonstration of delayed hypersensitivity. Ann Intern Med 59: 84-90, 1963.
77. Gougerot H, Blum P. Herpes a large bulles de doigt, five, recidivant, consecutif a une piquire de perche. Inoculation herpetique au lapin positive. Bull Soc Fr Dermatol Syphiligr 41: 1894-7, 1934.
78. Graham WR, Calloway JL. Primary inoculation blastomycosis in a veterinarian. J Am Acad Dermatol 7: 785-6, 1982.
79. Grange JM, Moble WC, Yates MD, Collins CH. Inoculation mycobacterioses. Clin Exp Dermatol 13: 211-20, 1988.
80. Gray SF, Smith RS, Reynolds NJ, Williams EW. Fish tank granuloma. Br Med J 300: 1069-70, 1990.
81. Greer KE, Gross GP, Martensen SH. Sporotrichoid cutaneous infection due to Mycobacterium chelonei. Arch Dermatol 115: 738-9, 1979.
82. Guy WH, Jacob FM. Granuloma coccidioides. Arch Dermatol Syph 16: 308-11, 1927.
83. Guy WH. Nocardiosis cutis resembling sporotrichosis. Arch Dermatol Syph 2: 137-43,1920.
84. Haim S, Merzbach D. Primary chancriform syndrome caused by Nocardia asteroides. Mykosen 22: 360-3, 1979.
85. Hanau LH, Leaf A, Soeiro R, Weiss LM, Pollack SS. Mycobacterium marinum infection in a patient with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Cutis 54: 103-4, 1994.
86. Hand L, Sanford J. Mycobacterium fortuitum - A human pathogen. Ann Intern Med 73: 971-7, 1970.
87. Hanke CW, Temofeew RK, Slama SL. Mycobacterium kansasii infection with multiple cutaneous lesions. J Am Acad Dermatol 16: 1122-8, 1987.
88. Harrell ER, Honeycut WM. Coccidioidomycosis: A travelling fungus disease. Arch Dermatol 87: 188-96, 1963.
89. Heller HM, Swartz MN. Nodular lymphangitis: Clinical features, differential diagnosis, and management. Curr Clin Top Infect Dis 14:142-58, 1994.
90. Herndon J, Pantzker D, Lanque A. Mycobacterium fortuitum infections involving the extremities. J Bone Joint Dis 6: 1279-82, 1972.
91. Herwaldt BL, Berman JD. Recommendations for treating leishmaniasis with sodium stibogluconate (pentostam) and review of pertinent clinical studies. Am J Trop Med Hyg 46: 296-306, 1992.
92. Hessen MT, Santoro J. Lymphocutaneous nocardiosis in Pennsylvania. Pa Med 91: 54 ff, 1988.
93. Higgins EM, Lawrence CM. Sporotrichoid spread of Mycobacterium chelonei. Clin Exp Dermatol 13: 234-6, 1988.
94. Hironaga M, Mochizuki T, Watanabe S. Acute primary cutaneous nocardiosis. J Am Acad Dermatol 23: 399-400, 1990.
95. Hirsh F, Safold O. Mycobacterium kansasii infection with dermatologic manifestations. Arch Dermatol 112: 706-7, 1976.
96. Hooks ER. Coccidioidomycosis. Dermatol Clin 7: 227-39, 1989.
97. Howard WE, Taylor JS, Steck WI. Lymphatic complication of manual Herpes simplex infection. Cutis 23: 580-3, 1979.
98. Huminer D, Pitlik SD, Block C, Kauffman L. Aquarium-borne Mycobacterium marinum infection. Arch Dermatol 122: 698-703, 1986.
99. Imerman SW, Imerman CP. Granuloma coccidioides: Primary cutaneous lesion - Treatment with the actual cautery. Southwest Med 17: 18-21, 1933.
100. [Deleted.]
101. Jaspers RH. Transmission of blastomycosis from animals to man. J Am Vet Med Assoc 164: 8-10, 1974.
102. Johnson JE III, Perry JE, Fekety FR, Kudull PJ, Cluff LE. Laboratory-acquired coccidioidomycosis: A report of 210 cases. Ann Intern Med 60: 941-56, 1964.
103. Johnson M, Meier P. A palmar chancre and multiple proximal erythematous nodules: Nodular lymphangitis due to Nocardia brasiliensis. Arch Dermatol 132: 964 ff, 1996.
104. Johnston JM, Izumi AK. Cutaneous Mycobacterium marinum infection ("swimming pool granuloma"). Clin Dermatol 5: 68-75, 1987.
105. Jolly HW Jr, Seabury JK. Infections with Mycobacterium marinum. Arch Dermatol 106: 32-7, 1972.
106. Jopp-McKay AG, Randell P. Sporotrichoid cutaneous infection due to Mycobacterium chelonei in a renal transplant patient. Australas J Dermatol 31: 105-9, 1990.
107. Jousfree DS. Cutaneous leishmaniasis from Belize: Treatment with ketoconazole. Clin Exp Dermatol 11: 62-8, 1986.
108. Kalb RE, Kaplan NH, Grossman ME. Cutaneous nocardiosis: Case reports and review. J Am Acad Dermatol 13: 125-33, 1985.
109. Kantor HR, Roenigk RK, Bailin PL, Bergfeld NF, Bass J. Cutaneous blastomycosis. Cleve Clin J Med 54: 121-4, 1987.
110. Kaplan DL. Mycobacterium marinum cutaneous infections. Infections in Medicine May: 257-68, 1988.
111. Kauffman CA. Old and new therapies for sporotrichosis. Clin Infect Dis 21: 981-5, 1995.
112. Kauffman CA. Newer developments in therapy for endemic mycoses. Clin Infect Dis 10(Suppl 1): S28-32, 1994.
113. Kavanaugh CN. Tularemia: A consideration of one-hundred and twenty-three cases with observation at autopsy in one. Arch Intern Med 55: 61-85, 1935.
114. Kerdel-Vegas F. American leishmaniasis. Int J Dermatol 21: 291-303, 1982.
115. Khardori N, Shawar R, Gupta R, Rosenbaum B, Rolston K. In vitro antimicrobial susceptibilities of Nocardia species. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 37: 882-1, 1993.
116. Kibbi AH, Karam PG, Kurban AK. Sporotrichoid leishmaniasis in patients from Saudi Arabia: Clinical and histologic features. J Am Acad Dermatol 17: 759-64, 1987.
117. Kligman AM. Personal communication. In: Larsh HW, Schwarz J. Accidental inoculation blastomycosis. Cutis 19: 334-7, 1977.
118. Kong NC, Morad Z, Suleiman AB, Cheong IK, Lajin I. Spectrum of nocardiosis in renal patients. Ann Acad Med Singapore 19: 375-9, 1990.
119. Kostman JR, Dinubile MJ. Nodular lymphangitis: A distinctive but often unrecognized syndrome. Ann Intern Med 118: 883-8, 1993.
120. Kubba R, Al-Gindan Y, El-Hassan AM, Omer AHS, Kutty MK, Saeed MBM. Dissemination in cutaneous leishmaniasis. II. Satellite papules and subcutaneous induration. Int J Dermatol 27: 702-6, 1988.
121. Kubba R, El-Hassan AM, Al-Gindan Y, Omer AHS, Kutty MK, Saeed MBM. Dissemination in cutaneous leishmaniasis. I. Subcutaneous nodules. Int J Dermatol 26: 300-4, 1987.
122. Kushara M, Hachisuka H. Lymphocutaneous infection due to Scedosporium apiospermum. Int J Dermatol 36: 677-88, 1997.
123. Lampe RM, Baker CJ, Septimus EJ, Wallace RJ Jr. Cervicofacial nocardiosis in children. J Pediatr 99: 593-5, 1981.
124. Landau Z, Feld S, Frumkin A, Resnitzky P. Nocardia brasiliensis skin infections. Israel J Med Sci 22: 397-9, 1986.
125. Landay ME, Schwarz J. Primary cutaneous blastomycosis. Arch Dermatol 104: 408-11, 1971.
126. Larsh MW, Schwarz J. Accidental inoculation blastomycosis. Cutis 19: 334-7, 1977.
127. Larson DM, Eckman MR, Alber RL, Gobischmidt VG. Primary cutaneous (inoculation) blastomycosis: An occupational hazard to pathologists. Am J Clin Pathol 79: 253-5, 1983.
128. Law BT, Marks MI. Pediatric nocardiosis. Pediatrics 70: 560-4, 1982.
129. Levan NE, Huntington RW. Primary cutaneous coccidioidomycosis in agriculture workers. Arch Dermatol 92: 215-20, 1965.
130. Leventhal LC, Jaworsky C, Werth V. An asymptomatic penile lesion. Circular indurated lymphangitis of the penis (CILP) with concurrent syphilis. Arch Dermatol 129: 366, 1993.
131. Leysen DC, Haemers A, Pattyn SR. Mycobacteria and the new quinolones. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 33: 1-5, 1989.
132. Lieberman AA, Grossman ME, Bloongarder D. Sporotrichoid lymphangitis due to Staphylacoccus aureus in a diabetic patient. Clin Infect Dis 21: 433-4, 1995.
133. Lopes JO, Alves SH, Benevenga JP, et al. Subcutaneous pseudoallescheriasis in a renal transplant recipient. Mycopathologia 125: 153-6, 1994.
134. Loria PR. Minocycline hydrochloride treatment for atypical acid-fast infection. Arch Dermatol 112: 517-9, 1976.
135. Markley AJ, Philpott OS, Weidman FD. Deep scopulariopsosis of ulcerating granuloma type confirmed by culture and animal inoculation: Arch Dermatol Syphilol 33: 627-9, 1936.
136. Martinez S, Marr JJ. Allopurinol in the treatment of American cutaneous leishmaniasis. N Engl J Med 326: 741-4, 1997.
137. Martinez S, Gonzalez M, Vernaza ME. Treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis with allopurinol and stibogluconate. Clin Infect Dis 24:165-9, 1997.
138. Mayberry J. Cutaneous infection due to Mycobacterium kansasii. JAMA 194: 1135-7, 1965.
139. McKinsey DS, Kauffman CA, Pappas PG, Cloud GA, Girard WM, Sharkey PK, Hamill FJ, Thomas CJ, Dismukes WE. Fluconazole therapy for histoplasmosis. Clin Infect Dis 23: 996-1001, 1996.
140. Melby PC, Kreutzer RD, McMahon-Pratt D, Gam AA, Neva FA. Cutaneous leishmaniasis: Review of 59 cases seen at the National Institutes of Health. Clin Infect Dis 15: 924-37, 1992.
141. Mercurio MG, Elewski BE. Cutaneous blastomycosis. Cutis 50: 422-4, 1992.
142. Miller F. Recognition of primary tuberculous infection of skin and mucosa. Lancet 6: 5-9, 1983.
143. Miller S. The natural history of peripheral tuberculous lymphadenitis associated with a primary visible focus. Lancet 1: 1286-9, 1955.
144. Mitchell G, Wells GM, Goodman JS. Sporotrichoid Nocardia brasiliensis infection: Response to potassium iodide. Am Rev Resp Dis 112: 721-3, 1975.
145. Moeller CA, Burton CS. Primary lymphocutaneous Nocardia brasiliensis infection. Arch Dermatol 122: 1180-2, 1986.
146. Moore M, Conrad AM. Sporotrichoid nocardiosis caused by Nocardia brasiliensis. Arch Dermatol 95: 390-3, 1967.
147. Moschella SA. Diseases of the mononuclear phagocytic system (the so-called reticuloendothelial system). In: Moshcella SL, Hurley HJ, eds. Dermatology. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, p 890, 1985.
148. Moss JT, Wilson JP. Current treatment recommendations for leishmaniasis. Ann Pharmacother 26: 1452-5, 1992.
149. Motley RJ, Holt PJ. Cowpox presenting with sporotrichoid spread. Br J Dermatol 122: 705-8, 1990.
150. Murdoch ME, Leigh IM. Sporotrichoid spread of cutaneous Mycobacterium chelonei infection. Clin Exp Dermatol 14: 309-12, 1989.
151. Naka W, Miyakawa S, Niizeki H, Fukuda T, Mikami Y, Nishikawa T. Unusually located lymphocutaneous nocardiosis caused by Nocardia brasiliensis. Br J Dermatol 132: 609-13, 1995.
152. Nahas LF, Bennett JE. Nocardiosis of the upper limb. Plast Reconstr Surg 68: 593-5, 1981.
153. Navin TR, Arana BA, Arana FE, Berman JD, Chajon JF. Placebo-controlled clinical trial of sodium stibogluconate (Pentostam) versus ketoconazole for treating cutaneous leishmaniasis in Guatemala. J Infect Dis 165: 528-34, 1992.
154. Neva FA, Wyler D, Nash T. Cutaneous leishmaniasis - A case with persistent organisms after treatment in the presence of normal immune response. Am J Trop Med Hyg 28: 467-71, 1979.
155. Newton JA Jr, Wallace MR. Nodular lymphadenitis caused by Nocardia brasiliensis [letter]. Clin Infect Dis 18: 843, 1994.
156. Nishimoto K, Ohno M. Subcutaneous abscesses caused by Nocardia brasiliensis complicated by malignant lymphoma. Int J Dermatol 14: 437-40, 1985.
157. Nomdedeu A, Brunei S, Martino R, Altes A, Ausina V, Domingo-Albos A. Successful treatment of pneumonia due to Scedosporium apiospermum with itraconazole: A case report. Clin Infect Dis 16: 731-3, 1993.
158. O'Brien RJ, Geiter LJ, Snider DE Jr. The epidemiology of nontuberculous mycobacterial diseases in the United States: Results from a national survey. Am Rev Resp Dis 135: 1007-14, 1987.
159. O'Connor PT, Dire DJ. Cutaneous nocardiosis associated with insect bites. Cutis 50: 301-2, 1992.
160. Offer R, Karlson D, Spitell J. Infection caused by Mycobacterium fortuitum. Mayo Clinic Proc 46: 747-50, 1971.
161. Overholt EL, Hormick RB. Primary cutaneous coccidioidomycosis. Arch Intern Med 144: 149-53, 1964.
162. Owens D, McBride ME. Sporotrichoid cutaneous infection with Mycobacterium kansasii. Arch Dermatol 100: 54-8, 1969.
163. Padron S, Dominguez M, Drosd R, Robinson MJ. Lymphocutaneous Nocardia brasiliensis infection mimicking sporotrichosis. South Med J 66: 609-12, 1973.
164. Pappas PG, Bradsher RW, Chapman SW, Kauffman CA, Dine A, Cloud GA, Dismukes WE. Treatment of blastomycosis with fluconazole: A pilot study. Clin Infect Dis 20: 267-71, 1995.
165. Pappas PG, Bradsher RW, Kauffman CA, Cloud GA, Thomas CJ, Campbell GD Jr, Chapman SW, Newman C, Dismukes WE. Treatment of blastomycosis with higher doses of fluconazole. Clin Infect Dis 25: 200-5, 1997.
166. Parks A, Camisa C. Sporotrichoid leishmaniasis: Report of a case in an American graduate student. J Am Acad Dermatol 17: 855-6, 1987.
167. Pearson GJ, Chin TWF, Fong IW. Case report: Treatment of blastomycosis with fluconazole. Am J Med Sci 303: 313-5, 1992.
168. Pearson RD, Sousa AD. Leishmania species: Visceral (kala azar), cutaneous and mucosal. In: Mandell GL, Douglas RG, Bennett JE, Dolin R, eds. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. 4th ed. New York: Churchill-Livingstone, pp 2428-42, 1995.
169. Perez RE, Smith M, McClendon J, Kim J, Eugenio N. Pseudoallescheria boydii brain abscess: Complication of an intravenous catheter. Am J Med 84: 359-62, 1988.
170. Philpott JA, Woodburne AR, Philpott OS, Schaefer WB, Mollohan CS. Swimming pool granuloma Arch Dermatol 88: 158-62, 1963.
171. Premalatha S, Rao NR, Somasundaram V, Razack EMA, Muthuswami TC. Tuberculous gumma in a sporotrichoid pattern. Int J Dermatol 26: 600-1, 1987.
172. Pulatti P, Alberico S, Cotilli S, Salvai M, Goitre M. Sporotrichoid infection: Two cases. G Ital Dermatol Venereal 125: 349-52, 1990.
173. Pupo JA. Estudo clinico da leishmaniose tequmentar Americana (Leishmania braziliensis - Vienna 1911). Rev Hosp Clin Fac Med Sao Paulo 1: 113-9, 1946.
174. Raich RA, Casey F, Hall WH. Pulmonary and cutaneous nocardiosis: The significance of the laboratory isolation of Nocardia. Am Rev Resp Dis 83: 505-9, 1961.
175. Rapaport J. Primary chancriform syndrome caused by Nocardia brasiliensis. Arch Dermatol 93: 62-4, 1966.
176. Rapp RP, McCraney AS, Goodman NL, Shaddick DJ. New macrolide antibiotics: Usefulness in infections caused by mycobacteria other than Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Ann Pharmacother 28: 1255-63, 1994.
177. Reed KD, Moore FM, Geiger GE, Stemper ME. Zoonotic transmission of sporotrichosis: Case report and review. Clin Infect Dis 16: 384-7, 1993.
178. Reed SG, Scott P. T cell and cytokine responses in leishmaniasis. Curr Opin Immunol 5: 524-31, 1993.
179. Runyoun EH. Anonymous mycobacteria in pulmonary disease. Med Clin North Am 42: 273-90, 1959.
180. Sachs MK. Lymphocutaneous Nocardia brasiliensis infection acquired from a cat scratch: Case report and review. Clin Infect Dis 15: 710-1, 1992.
181. Saenz C, Sanders CV, Nguyen BP, Reisin E. Macronodular lesions associated with Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: A condition that resembles a lymphcutaneous syndrome. Arch Intern Med 147: 793, 1987.
182. Saenz RE, Paz H, Berman JD. Efficacy of oral ketoconazole against Leishmania braziliensis panamensis cutaneous leishmaniasis. Am J Med 89: 147-55, 1990.
183. Sanders CV, Hahn R. Analysis of 106 cases of tularaemia. J La State Med Soc 115: 114-8, 1968.
184. Sanders WE Jr. Other mycobacteria species. In: Mandell GL, Douglas RG, Bennett JE, eds. Principles and practice of infectious diseases. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley, p 1413, 1985.
185. Sands M, Brown R. Herpes simplex lymphangitis: Two cases and a review of the literature. Arch Intern Med 148: 2066-7, 1988.
186. Sanford JP, Gilbert DN, Moellering RC, Sande MA. Antimicrobial agents of choice against selected organisms. In: The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy 1997. Vienna, VA: Antimicrobial Therapy Inc., p 49, 1997.
187. Santiago H, Feinerman LK, Lates R. Epithelioid sarcoma: A clinical and pathologic study of nine cases. Hum Pathol 3: 133-47, 1972.
188. Satterwhite TK, Wallace RJ Jr. Primary cutaneous nocardiosis. JAMA 242: 333-6, 1979.
189. Schiff TA, Goldman R, Sanchez M, McNeil MM, Brown JM, Klirsfeld D, Moy J. Primary lymphocutaneous nocardiosis caused by an unusual species of Nocardia: Nocardia transvalensis. J Am Acad Dermatol 28: 336-40, 1993.
190. Schwartz JG, McGough DA, Thorner RE, Fetchic RJ, Tio FO, Rinaldi MG. Primary lymphocutaneous Nocardia brasiliensis infection: Three case reports and a review of the literature. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 10: 113-20, 1988.
191. Schwarz J, Baum GL. Primary cutaneous mycoses. Arch Dermatol 71: 143-9, 1955.
192. Schwarz J, Baum GL. Blastomycosis. Am J Clin Pathol 21: 999-1026, 1951.
193. Seddon M, Parr D, Ellis-Pegler RB. Lymphocutaneous Nocardia brasiliensis infection: A case report and review. NZ Med J 108;384-5, 1995.
194. Sehayik RI, Bassett FH. Herpes simplex infection involving the hand. Clin Orthop 166: 138-40, 1982.
195. Sharkey PK, Rinaldi MG, Dunn JF, Hardin TC, Fetchick RJ, Graybill JR. High-dose itraconazole in the treatment of severe mycoses. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 35: 707-13, 1991.
196. Shelkovitz-Shilo I, Feinstein A. Lymphocutaneous nocardiosis due to Nocardia asteroides in a patient with intestinal lymphoma. Int J Dermatol 31: 178-9, 1992.
197. Shuttleworth D, Philpot CM, Knight AG. Cutaneous cryptococcosis: Treatment with oral fluconazole. Br J Dermatol 120: 683-98, 1989.
198. Sills M, Schwartz S. Conjugal histoplasmosis: A consequence of progressive dissemination in an index case after steroid therapy. Ann Intern Med 79: 221-4, 1973.
199. Smego RA Jr, Gallis HA. The clinical spectrum of Nocardia brasiliensis infection in the United States. Rev Infect Dis 6:164-80, 1984.
200. Smego RA Jr, Moeller MB, Gallis HA. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole therapy for Nocardia infections. Arch Intern Med 143: 711-8, 1983.
201. Smith AG, Rouben MJ. Cutaneous infection due to a rough variant of Mycobacterium marinum. Am J Clin Pathol 64: 263-70, 1975.
202. Snow JS, Satulsky EM, Kean BH. American cutaneous leishmaniasis: Report of 12 cases from the Canal Zone. Arch Dermatol 57: 90-101, 1948.
203. Sorensen RH, Chev SH. Accidental cutaneous coccidioidal infection in an immune person. Calif Med 100: 44-7, 1964.
204. Sousa AD, Parise ME, Pompeu MM, Filho JMC, Vasconcelos IAB, Lima JW, Oliveira EG, Vasconcelos AW, David JR, Maguire JH. Bubonic leishmaniasis: A common manifestation of Leishmania (viannia) braziliensis infection in Ceara, Brazil. Am J Trop Med Hyg 53: 380-5, 1995.
205. Spier S, Medenica M, McMillan S, Virtue C. Sporotrichoid leishmaniasis. Arch Dermatol 113: 1104-5, 1977.
206. Stern H, Elek SD, Millar DM, Anderson HF. Herpetic whitlow: A form of cross-infection in hospitals. Lancet 2: 871-4, 1959.
207. Stevens DA. Coccidioidomycosis. N Engl J Med 332: 1077-82, 1995.
208. Sundar S, Agrawal NK, Sinha PR, Horwith GS, Muray HW. Short-course, low-dose amphotericin B lipid complex therapy for visceral leishmaniasis unresponsive to antimony. Ann Intern Med 127: 133-7, 1997.
209. Suzuki Y, Tayama K, Utsuzi K, Yazawa K, Mikami Y, Fujita M, Shinkai H. Primary lymphcutaneous nocardiosis due to Nocardia ototidiscaviarum: The first case report from Japan. J Dermatol 22: 344-7, 1995.
210. Swenson JM, Wallace RJ Jr, Silcox VA, Thornsberry C. Antimicrobial susceptibility of five subgroups of Mycobacterium fortuitum and Mycobacterium chelonei. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 28:807-11, 1985.
211. Symmers WS. Localized cutaneous histoplasmosis. Br J Med 6: 790-2, 1956.
212. Systemic drugs for fungal infections. In: Abramowicz M, ed. The medical letter handbook of antimicrobial therapy. New Rochelle, NY, pp 93-4, 1996.
213. Tanaka S, Mochizuki T, Watanabe S. Sporotrichoid pyogenic bacterial infection. Dermatologica 178: 228-30, 1989.
214. Tebas P, Sultan F, Wallace RJ Jr, Fraser V. Rapid development of resistance to clarithromycin following monotherapy for disseminated Mycobacterium chelonae infection in a heart transplant patient. Clin Infec Dis 20: 443-4, 1995.
215. Tesh R, Schneidau JD Jr. Primary cutaneous histoplasmosis. New Engl J Med 275: 597-9, 1966.
216. Timpe A, Runyoun EH. The relationship of "atypical" acid-fast bacteria to human disease: A preliminary report. J Lab Clin Med 44: 202-9, 1954.
217. Torok L, Simon G, Csornal A, Tapai M, Torok I. Scedosporium apiospermum infection imitating lymphocutaneous sporotrichosis in a patient with myeloblastic-monocytic leukaemia. Br J Dermatol 133: 8 ff, 1995.
218. Torre-Cisneros J, Prada JL, Villanueva JL, Valverde F, Sanchez-Guijo P. Successful treatment of antimony-resistant cutaneous leishmaniasis with liposomal amphotericin B. Clin Infect Dis 18: 1024-5, 1994.
219. Tosh FE, Balhuizen J, Yates JL, Brasher CA. Primary cutaneous histoplasmosis: Report of a case. Arch Intern Med 114: 118-9, 1964.
220. Trice ER, Shafer JC. Recurrent Herpes simplex infections of upper extremities with lymphangitis. Arch Dermatol 67: 37-41, 1953.
221. Trimble JR, Doucette J. Primary cutaneous coccidioidomycosis. Arch Dermatol 74: 405-10, 1956.
222. Tsuboi R, Takamori K, Ogawa H, Mikami Y, Aral T. Lymphocutaneous nocardiosis caused by Nocardia asteroides. Arch Dermatol 122: 1183-5, 1986.
223. Tucker RM, Denning DW, Arathoon EG, Rinaldi MG, Stevens DA. Itraconazole therapy for nonmeningeal coccidioidomycosis. J Am Acad Dermatol 23: 593-601, 1990.
224. Tucker RM, Galgaian JN, Denning DW, Hanson LH, Graybill JK, Sharkey K, Eckman MR, Salemi C, Libke R, Klein RA, Stevens DA. Treatment of coccidioidal meningitis with fluconazole. Rev Infect Dis 12(Suppl 3): S380-9, 1990.
225. Van Cleve JV. Coccidioidal granuloma. J Kansas Med Soc 37: 54-5, 1936.
226. Van de Staak WJ. Non-venereal sclerosing lymphangitis of the penis following herpes progenitalis. D J Dermatol 96: 679-80, 1977.
227. Van den Enden E, Van Gompel A, Stevens A, Vandeghinste N, Le Ray D, Gigase P, De Beule K, Van Den Ende J. Treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis with oral itraconazole. Int J Dermatol 33: 285-6, 1994.
228. Wallace RJ Jr. Nontuberculous mycobacteria and water: A love affair with increasing clinical importance. Infect Dis Clin N Am 677-86, 1987.
229. Wallace RJ Jr. Recent clinical advances in knowledge of the nonleprous environmental mycobacteria responsible for cutaneous disease. Arch Dermatol 123: 337-8, 1987.
230. Wallace RJ Jr, Swenson J. Treatment of nonpulmonary infections due to Mycobacterium fortuitum and Mycobacterium chelonei on the basis of in vitro susceptibilities. J Infect Dis 152: 500-14, 1985.
231. Wallace RJ Jr, Bedsole G, Sumter G, Sanders CW, Stelle LC, Brown BA, Smith J, Graham DR. Activities of ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin against rapidly growing mycobacteria with demonstration of acquired resistance following single-drug therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 34: 65-70, 1990.
232. Wallace RJ Jr, Swenson JM, Silcox VA, Good RC, Tschen JA, Stone MS. Spectrum of diseases due to rapidly-growing mycobacteria. Rev Infect Dis 5: 657-79, 1983.
233. Wallace RJ Jr, Brown BA, Onyi GO. Skin, soft tissue and bone infections due to Mycobacterium chelonei: Importance of prior cortico-steroid therapy, frequency of disseminated infections and resistance to oral antimicrobials other than clarithromycin. J Infect Dis 166: 405-12, 1992.
234. Wallace RJ Jr. The clinical presentation, diagnosis, and therapy of cutaneous and pulmonary infections due to rapidly-growing mycobacteria, M. fortuitum and M. chelonae. Clin Chest Med 10: 419-29, 1989.
235. Wallace RJ Jr, Musser JM, Hull SI, Silcox VA, Steele LC, Forrester GD, Labidi A, Selander RK. Diversity and sources of rapidly-growing mycobacteria
236. Wallace RJ Jr, Brown BA, Onyi GO. Susceptibilities of Mycobacterium fortuitum biovar fortuitum and the two subgroups of Mycobacterium chelonae to imipenem, cefmetazole, cefoxitin, and amoxicillin-clavulanic acid. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 35: 773-5, 1991.
237. Wallace RJ Jr, Tanner D, Brennan PJ, Brown BA. Clinical trial of clarithromycin for cutaneous (disseminated) infection due to Mycobacterium chelonae. Ann Intern Med 119: 482-6, 1993.
238. Wallace RJ Jr, Steele LC, Sumter G, Smith JM. Antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of Nocardia asteroides. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 32: 1776-9, 1988.
239. Walsh DS, Balagon MV, Tiongco ES, Cellona RV, Fajardo TT, Walsh GP. Multiple lesions of sporotrichoid leishmaniaisis in a Filipino expatriate. J Am Acad Dermatol 36: 847-9, 1997.
240. Watsky KL. Sporotrichoid nodules in an immunocompromised host. Arch Dermatol 131: 1329-30, 1995.
241. Willems JP, Schmidt SM, Greer KE, McCall CO, Pearson RD. Sporotrichoid cutaneous leishmaniasis in a traveller. South Med J 90: 325-8, 1997.
242. Wilson JW. The importance of the portal of entry in certain microbial infections. The primary cutaneous "chancriform" syndrome. Dis Chest 54(Suppl): 43-7, 1968.
243. Wilson JW. Comparative immunologic aspects of deep fungus disease. Cutis 16: 231-4, 1975.
244. Wilson JW. Cutaneous (chancriform) syndrome in deep mycoses. Arch Dermatol 87: 81-5, 1963.
245. Wilson JW, Cawley EP, Weidman FD, Gilmer WS. Primary cutaneous North American blastomycosis. Arch Dermatol 71: 39-45, 1955.
246. Wilson JW, Smith CE, Plunkett OA. Primary cutaneous coccidioidomycosis: The criteria for diagnosis and a report of a case. Calif Med 79: 223-39, 1953.
247. Winn WA. Primary cutaneous coccidioidomycosis: Reevaluation of its potentiality based on study of three new cases. Arch Dermatol 92: 225-8, 1965.
248. Wishnitzer R, Berrebi A, van der Walde J, Miskin A, Frumkin A. Nocardia brasiliensis lymphocutaneous syndrome in a patient with lymphosarcoma. Dermatologica 169: 215-6, 1984.
249. Wlodaver CG, Tolomeo T, Benear JB. Primary cutaneous nocardiosis mimicking sporotrichosis. Arch Dermatol 124: 659-60, 1988.
250. Wolinsky E. Mycobacterial diseases other than tuberculosis. Clin Infect Dis 15: 1-12, 1992.
251. Wolinsky E, Gomez F, Zimpfer F. Sporotrichoid Mycobacterium marinum infection treated with rifampin + ethambutol. Am Rev Resp Dis 105: 964-7, 1972.
252. Wolinsky E. Nontuberculous mycobacteria and associated diseases. Am Rev Resp Dis 119: 107-15, 1979.
253. Wood C, Nickoloff BJ, Todes-Taylor NR. Pseudotumor resulting from atypical mycobacterial infection: A "histoid" variety of Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare complex infection. Am J Clin Pathol 83: 524-7, 1985.
254. Woods GL, Washington JA. Mycobacteria other than Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Review of microbiologic and clinical aspects. Rev Infect Dis 9: 275-94, 1987.
255. World Health Organization. The leishmaniases: Report of a WHO Expert Committee Technical Report Series, No. 701. Geneva: World Health Organization, pp 9-23, 1984.
256. Wright ET, Newcomer VD, Nelson NH. Primary inoculation coccidioidomycosis. Arch Dermatol 79: 118-20, 1959.
257. Yang LJ, Chan HL, Chen WJ, Kuo TT. Lymphocutaneous nocardiosis caused by Nocardia caviae: The first case report from Asia. J Am Acad Dermatol 29: 639-41, 1993.
258. Ye Z, Shimomura H, Kudo S, Arao T, Sato Y, Ono T. A case of lymphocutaneous nocardiosis with a review of lymphocutaneous nocardiosis reported in Japan. J Dermatol 23: 120-4, 1996.
259. Yen A, Knipe RC, Tyring SK. Primary cutaneous blastomycosis. Report of a case acquired by direct inoculation of a bullous pemphigoid lesion. J Am Acad Dermatol 31: 277-81, 1994.
260. Zahid MA. Klotz AS, Goldstein E, Bartholomew W. Mycobacterium chelonei (M. chelonei subspp. chelonei): Report of a patient with a sporotrichoid presentation who was successfully treated with clarithromycin and ciprofloxacin. Clin Infect Dis 18: 999-1001, 1994.
261. Zecler E, Gilboa Y, Elkina L, Allan G, Sompolinsky D. Lymphocutaneous nocardiosis due to Nocardia brasiliensis. Arch Dermatol 113: 642-3, 1977.