The Cyprus dispute and the United Nations: peaceful non-settlement between 1954 and 1996

International Journal of Middle East Studies

Volumn 30, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 411-434

  Bölükbaşi, Suha ^a  

^a MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ETHNIC CONFLICT; GEOPOLITICS; TERRITORIAL DISPUTE; UN ROLE;

CYPRUS;

EID: 0344074636     PISSN: 00207438     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0020743800066241     Document Type: Article

References (157)

1. Inis L. Claude, Jr., Swords into Plowshares: The Problems and Progress of International Organization (New York: Random House, 1971), 236-37.
2. Ibid., 238; see also: A. J. R. Groom, "The Process of Negotiation, 1974-1993," in Clement H. Dodd, The Political, Social and Economic Development of Northern Cyprus (Huntingdon: Eothen Press, 1993), 2.
3. Ibid., 238; see also: A. J. R. Groom, "The Process of Negotiation, 1974-1993," in Clement H. Dodd, The Political, Social and Economic Development of Northern Cyprus (Huntingdon: Eothen Press, 1993), 2.
4. For the purpose of avoiding repetitiveness, this article will refer to the Greek Cypriots sometimes as Nicosia, the capital of the Greek Cypriot zone, and to the Turkish Cypriots as Lefkoşa, the capital of the Turkish region.
5. Dimitri S. Bitsios, Cyprus: The Vulnerable Republic (Thessaloniki: Institute for Balkan Studies, 1975), 40.
6. Zenon Stavrinides, The Cyprus Conflict: National Identity and Statehood (Wakefield: Stavrinides, 1976), 67.
7. Stephen Xydis, "Toward 'Toil and Moil' in Cyprus," The Middle East Journal 20 (Winter 1966): 8.
8. Suat Bilge, "Kibris Uyusmazliǧi" (The Cyprus Conflict), Olaylarla Turk Dis Politikasi (Ankara: Ankara University, 1977), 351.
9. The Ottomans ruled the island between 1571 and 1878, when Abdulhamid II transferred the administration of the island to Britain while keeping formal Ottoman sovereignty over it. See Sir George Hill, A History of Cyprus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1952), 510.
10. Kyriakos C. Markides, The Rise and Fall of the Cyprus Republic (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), 124.
11. U.N. Official Records of the General Assembly, Ninth Session: Plenary Meetings, 1954, 514th meeting, 17 December 1954, 539.
12. U.N. Official Records of the General Assembly, Ninth Session: First Committee, 1954, 749th meeting, 14 December 1954, 544.
13. Stephen G. Xydis, Cyprus: Conflict and Conciliation, 1954-1958 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1967), 599.
14. U.N. General Assembly Official Records, 1956/1957, Annexes, Agenda Item 55, 18; U.N. General Assembly Official Records, 1958/1959, Annexes, Agenda Item 68, 14-19.
15. Bilge, "The Cyprus Conflict," 375; Bitsios, Cyprus, 70-71; Nancy Crawshaw, The Cyprus Revolt (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1978), 274-77; Harold Macmillan, Riding the Storm: 1956-1959 (London: Macmillan, 1971), 687.
16. Bilge, "The Cyprus Conflict," 375; Bitsios, Cyprus, 70-71; Nancy Crawshaw, The Cyprus Revolt (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1978), 274-77; Harold Macmillan, Riding the Storm: 1956-1959 (London: Macmillan, 1971), 687.
17. Bilge, "The Cyprus Conflict," 375; Bitsios, Cyprus, 70-71; Nancy Crawshaw, The Cyprus Revolt (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1978), 274-77; Harold Macmillan, Riding the Storm: 1956-1959 (London: Macmillan, 1971), 687.
18. Bilge, "The Cyprus Conflict," 375; Bitsios, Cyprus, 70-71; Nancy Crawshaw, The Cyprus Revolt (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1978), 274-77; Harold Macmillan, Riding the Storm: 1956-1959 (London: Macmillan, 1971), 687.
19. Macmillan, Riding the Storm; Crawshaw, Cyprus Revolt, 667.
20. Crawshaw, Cyprus Revolt, 340; Bitsios, Cyprus, 102.
21. Crawshaw, Cyprus Revolt, 340; Bitsios, Cyprus, 102.
22. Macmillan, Riding the Storm, 667-87; Thomas Ehrlich, Cyprus: 1958-1967 (New York, London: Oxford University Press, 1974), 20.
23. Macmillan, Riding the Storm, 667-87; Thomas Ehrlich, Cyprus: 1958-1967 (New York, London: Oxford University Press, 1974), 20.
24. Charles Foley, A Legacy of Strife (London: Penguin, 1964), 27; Markides, The Rise and Fall, 36-37.
25. Charles Foley, A Legacy of Strife (London: Penguin, 1964), 27; Markides, The Rise and Fall, 36-37.
26. See Conference on Cyprus: Documents Signed and Initialled at Lancaster House on February 19, 1959 (London: Her Majesty's Stationary Office, 1959), Cmnd. 680.
27. For the text of the constitution, see Albert P. Blaustein, Gisbert H. Flanz, Constitutions of the Countries of the World: Cyprus (Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.: Oceana Publications, 1972), 21.
28. Ibid., 48-51.
29. Ibid., 82.
30. Ibid., 84.
31. Joseph S. Joseph, "The International Power Broker: A Critical View of the Foreign Policy of Archbishop Makarios," Mediterranean Quarterly 3 (1992): 21.
32. The Observer (London), 2 April 1961, 4; Stanley Kyriakides, Cyprus: Constitutionalism and Crisis Government (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1968), 85-88.
33. The Observer (London), 2 April 1961, 4; Stanley Kyriakides, Cyprus: Constitutionalism and Crisis Government (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1968), 85-88.
34. Stavrinides, The Cyprus Conflict, 46.
35. The Times (London), 23 October 1961, 9.
36. Blaustein, Constitutions, 96.
37. Milliyet, 3 January 1963.
38. Stavrinides, The Cyprus Conflict, 62.
39. Archbishop Makarios, "Proposals to Amend the Cyprus Constitution," International Relations (Athens) 5 (April 1964): 25.
40. See the 21-30 December 1963 issues of The New York Times, The Washington Post, The Times (London); see also James A. Stegenga, The U.N. Force in Cyprus (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1968), 61-66;
41. See the 21-30 December 1963 issues of The New York Times, The Washington Post, The Times (London); see also James A. Stegenga, The U.N. Force in Cyprus (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1968), 61-66;
42. Richard A. Patrick, Political Geography and the Cyprus Conflict (Waterloo, Ont.: University of Waterloo, 1976), 42.
43. Aksam, Istanbul, 27 December 1963.
44. U.N. Doc. S/5488, letter from the U.N. representative of Cyprus to the Security Council.
45. U.N. Security Council, 27 December 1963, telegram dated 26 December 1963 from the president of Cyprus to the secretary-general (S/5490 Supplement), 114.
46. Letter dated 27 December from the representative of Turkey to the secretary-general (S/5491/Supp.), 115.
47. Cable no. 2822 (23 January 1964), in National Security Council History File: Cyprus Crisis (hereafter NSCHF), L. B. Johnson Library, Austin, Tex.; Milliyet, 2 February 1964; Cumhuriyet, 17 January 1964.
48. Cable no. 2822 (23 January 1964), in National Security Council History File: Cyprus Crisis (hereafter NSCHF), L. B. Johnson Library, Austin, Tex.; Milliyet, 2 February 1964; Cumhuriyet, 17 January 1964.
49. Cable no. 2822 (23 January 1964), in National Security Council History File: Cyprus Crisis (hereafter NSCHF), L. B. Johnson Library, Austin, Tex.; Milliyet, 2 February 1964; Cumhuriyet, 17 January 1964.
50. See İnönü's letter to Johnson in the Middle East Journal 20 (Spring 1966): 389.
51. Geophrey R. Berridge, Return to the United Nations: UN Diplomacy in Regional Conflicts (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1991).
52. Izvestia, 28 December 1963, in The Current Digest of the Soviet Press 15, 52 (1963), 27.
53. The New York Times, 1 January 1964.
54. U.N. Security Council, Official Records, 1096th meeting, 19 February 1964, para. 18, 21.
55. U.N. Security Council, Official Records, Res. 186 in doc. S/5575, 4 March 1964.
56. Ibid.
57. U.N. Security Council, Document S/5950, 307.
58. Oliver Richmond, "Peacekeeping and Peacemaking in Cyprus 1974-1994," Cyprus Review 2 (Fall 1994): 7-42; Joseph, "The International Power Broker," 27; James H. Wolfe, "The United Nations and the Cyprus Question," in Cyprus: A Regional Conflict and Its Resolution, ed. Norma Salem (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992), 229.
59. Oliver Richmond, "Peacekeeping and Peacemaking in Cyprus 1974-1994," Cyprus Review 2 (Fall 1994): 7-42; Joseph, "The International Power Broker," 27; James H. Wolfe, "The United Nations and the Cyprus Question," in Cyprus: A Regional Conflict and Its Resolution, ed. Norma Salem (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992), 229.
60. Oliver Richmond, "Peacekeeping and Peacemaking in Cyprus 1974-1994," Cyprus Review 2 (Fall 1994): 7-42; Joseph, "The International Power Broker," 27; James H. Wolfe, "The United Nations and the Cyprus Question," in Cyprus: A Regional Conflict and Its Resolution, ed. Norma Salem (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992), 229.
61. U.N. Security Council, 7 December 1989, Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Cyprus: 1 June-4 December 1989 (S/21010), 3.
62. "President Johnson's Letter to Prime Minister İnönü," 386.
63. Milliyet, 4 September 1964; "Acheson Plan II," NSCHF.
64. Milliyet, 4 September 1964; "Acheson Plan II," NSCHF.
65. U.N. Security Council, "Report of the Secretary General S/5950," Official Records, Supplement for July, August, and September 1964, 300.
66. U.N. Security Council, Document S/5950, 333; see also Patrick, Political Geography, 107.
67. U.N. Document A/5552/ADD.I.
68. U.N. Security Council, Official Records, Res. 186 in Doc. S/5575, 4 March 1964.
69. U.N. Security Council, 26 March 1965, Report of the United Nations Mediator on Cyprus to the Secretary-General (S/6253); see also Brian Mandell, "The Cyprus Conflict: Explaining Resistance to Resolution," in Cyprus: A Regional Conflict, 211.
70. U.N. Security Council, 26 March 1965, Report of the United Nations Mediator on Cyprus to the Secretary-General (S/6253); see also Brian Mandell, "The Cyprus Conflict: Explaining Resistance to Resolution," in Cyprus: A Regional Conflict, 211.
71. U.N. Security Council, 10 June 1966, Report by the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Cyprus: 11 March to 10 June 1996 (S/7350), 49.
72. U.N. Security Council, Document 8248 (1967).
73. Cumhuriyet, 17 November 1967.
74. Thomas W. Adams, Alvin J. Cottrell, Cyprus: Between East and West (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1968), 71.
75. The New York Times, 1 December 1967, 1; Cumhuriyet, 1 December 1967.
76. The New York Times, 1 December 1967, 1; Cumhuriyet, 1 December 1967.
77. Cumhuriyet, 1 December 1967; The New York Times, 5 December 1967, 2.
78. Cumhuriyet, 1 December 1967; The New York Times, 5 December 1967, 2.
79. Cumhuriyet, 5 December 1967.
80. Ibid., 30 December 1967.
81. Polyvios G. Poliviou, Cyprus: Conflict and Negotiation: 1960-1980 (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1980), 59.
82. Ibid., 62.
83. Ibid., 265-315; Michael A. Attalides, Cyprus: Nationalism and International Politics (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1979), 103; Stavrinides, The Cyprus Conflict, 112; Murat Sarica et al., Kibris Sorunu (The Cyprus Problem) (Istanbul: Fakulteler Matbaasi, 1975), 163.
84. Ibid., 265-315; Michael A. Attalides, Cyprus: Nationalism and International Politics (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1979), 103; Stavrinides, The Cyprus Conflict, 112; Murat Sarica et al., Kibris Sorunu (The Cyprus Problem) (Istanbul: Fakulteler Matbaasi, 1975), 163.
85. Ibid., 265-315; Michael A. Attalides, Cyprus: Nationalism and International Politics (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1979), 103; Stavrinides, The Cyprus Conflict, 112; Murat Sarica et al., Kibris Sorunu (The Cyprus Problem) (Istanbul: Fakulteler Matbaasi, 1975), 163.
86. Ibid., 265-315; Michael A. Attalides, Cyprus: Nationalism and International Politics (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1979), 103; Stavrinides, The Cyprus Conflict, 112; Murat Sarica et al., Kibris Sorunu (The Cyprus Problem) (Istanbul: Fakulteler Matbaasi, 1975), 163.
87. Stavrinides, The Cyprus Conflict, 112; Attalides, Cyprus, 103.
88. Stavrinides, The Cyprus Conflict, 112; Attalides, Cyprus, 103.
89. Munir N. Ertekun, The Cyprus Dispute (Oxford: The University Press, 1981), 28.
90. Stanley Karnow, "The Indispensable Man: An Interview with Makarios," The New Republic, 14 September 1974.
91. Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Middle East (hereafter FBIS/ME), 16 July 1974, 3.
92. Cyprus Mail, Nicosia, 17 July 1975; see also Laurence Stern, The Wrong Horse: The Politics of Intervention and the Failure of American Diplomacy (New York: Times Books, 1977), 79.
93. Cyprus Mail, Nicosia, 17 July 1975; see also Laurence Stern, The Wrong Horse: The Politics of Intervention and the Failure of American Diplomacy (New York: Times Books, 1977), 79.
94. For details, see Suha Bölükbaşi, The Superpowers and the Third World: Turkish-American Relations and Cyprus (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1988), 167-90.
95. Article 4 of the Geneva Declaration of 30 July 1974, reprinted in Ertekun, The Cyprus Dispute, 249; FBIS/ME, 20 August 1974, 14; FBIS/ME, 6 August 1974, 3.
96. U.N. General Assembly, 24th Session, 1 November 1974, Res. 3212 (A/L. 739/Add.1).
97. For the text, see Andrew Faulds, ed., Excerpta Cypria for Today (London: K. Rustem and Brother, 1988), 165.
98. Glavkos Cleridhis, Cyprus: My Deposition (Nicosia: Ailthia Publishing, 1992), 4: 276-77; Zaim Necatigil, The Cyprus Question and the Turkish Position in International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989).
99. Glavkos Cleridhis, Cyprus: My Deposition (Nicosia: Ailthia Publishing, 1992), 4: 276-77; Zaim Necatigil, The Cyprus Question and the Turkish Position in International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989).
100. Ertekun, The Cyprus Dispute, 25-44.
101. Ibid.
102. Ibid.; see also Patrick, Political Geography, for the Turkish ownership of land.
103. Ibid.; see also Patrick, Political Geography, for the Turkish ownership of land.
104. Ibid.
105. U.N. Document S/13369.
106. See Robert McDonald, "The Problem of Cyprus," Adelphi Papers 234 (Winter 1988/89): 25.
107. Loraleigh Keashly and Ronald J. Fisher, "Towards a Contingency Approach to Third Party Intervention in Regional Conflict: A Cyprus Illustration," International Journal 45 (Spring 1990): 450; Wolfe, "The United Nations," 236.
108. Loraleigh Keashly and Ronald J. Fisher, "Towards a Contingency Approach to Third Party Intervention in Regional Conflict: A Cyprus Illustration," International Journal 45 (Spring 1990): 450; Wolfe, "The United Nations," 236.
109. Berridge, Return to the United Nations, 99.
110. BBC, Summary of World Broadcasts (hereafter BBC/SWB), 14 December 1981, C/2.
111. U.N. Document A/37/253; see also U.N. Year Book 37 (1983), 245.
112. Joseph, "The International Power," 31.
113. For the full text, see BBC/SWB, 16 November 1983, C/4-C/6.
114. U.N. Security Council Resolution No. 541, 18 November 1983, S/PV 2497, app. 4.
115. Cyprus Mail (Nicosia), 20 January 1984.
116. Yearbook of the U.N. 38 1984, 242-43.
117. For the texts of the drafts, see Necatigil, The Cyprus Question, 332-35; BBC/SWB, 22 January 1985.
118. Necatigil, The Cyprus Question, 332-35; BBC/SWB, 22 January 1985.
119. Wolfe, "The United Nations," 238.
120. U.N. Security Council, June 1985, Report by the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Cyprus: 13 December 1984 to 11 June 1985 (S/17227/Add.1), 3.
121. BBC/SWB, 24 February 1988, C/1; BBC/SWB, 2 March 1988, C/1-2.
122. Athens Home Service, 31 January 1988, in BBC/SWB, 2 February 1988, C/1.
123. "Negotiations on Cyprus Aim at a Settlement by June 1989," UN Chronicle 25(December 1988): 34.
124. "Report of the Secretary-General on His Mission of Good Offices," S/21183, 8 March 1990, 4.
125. Turkish Daily News, 8 March 1990, 2.
126. Milliyet, 13 September 1990, 15.
127. K. Featherstone, "Cyprus and the European Union: What Kind of Membership", Cyprus Review 7 (1995): 69-76; Home Page of Greece's Ministry of Foreign Affairs, "The Cyprus Issue," 1996, 7.
128. K. Featherstone, "Cyprus and the European Union: What Kind of Membership", Cyprus Review 7 (1995): 69-76; Home Page of Greece's Ministry of Foreign Affairs, "The Cyprus Issue," 1996, 7.
129. Home Page, "The Cyprus Issue," 7.
130. Sakir Alemdar, "International Aspects of the Cyprus Problem," The Political Social and Economic Development of Northern Cyprus, ed. Clement H. Dodd (Cambridgeshire: Eothen Press, 1993), 94.
131. Alemdar, "International Aspects," 93; Berridge, "Peacekeeping and Peacemaking," 27.
132. Alemdar, "International Aspects," 93; Berridge, "Peacekeeping and Peacemaking," 27.
133. See Home Page, "The Cyprus Issue," 7.
134. Turkish Probe (Ankara), 12 January 1996, 22.
135. Ibid., 29 March 1996, 4-5.
136. Milliyet, 30 May 1991, 13.
137. "Report of the Secretary-General," S/24472, 21 August 1992.
138. Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation (in Greek), 8 June 1991, in FBIS/WE, 10 June 1991, 40.
139. Anatolia, 7 June 1991, in FBIS/WE, 10 June 1991, 55.
140. See "Report of the Secretary-General," S/23780, 3 April 1992, 5.
141. U.N. Security Council Resolution 750, 10 April 1992, 2.
142. Richmond, "Peacekeeping and Peacemaking," 24.
143. See Secretary-General, "Set of Ideas on an Overall Framework Agreement on Cyprus," 7.
144. Ibid.
145. U.N. Security Council, "Report of the Secretary-General," S/24830, 19 November 1992, 4-5, 12, 14-15.
146. Ibid., 63.
147. See Secretary-General, "Set of Ideas," 7; see also Demetrios A. Theophylactou, "A 'German Solution' for Cyprus's Reunification of United Nations Enforcement of Peace," Mediterranean Quarterly (Summer 1995): 42.
148. See Secretary-General, "Set of Ideas," 7; see also Demetrios A. Theophylactou, "A 'German Solution' for Cyprus's Reunification of United Nations Enforcement of Peace," Mediterranean Quarterly (Summer 1995): 42.
149. See U.N. Security Council, "Report of the Secretary-General," S/26026, 1 July 1993, 11-13.
150. Ibid., 16.
151. Cumhuriyet, 20 May 1993, 1.
152. Ibid., 26 May 1993, 6.
153. Ibid., 1 June 1993, 7; "Report of the Secretary-General," S/1994/262, 4 March 1994.
154. Ibid., 1 June 1993, 7; "Report of the Secretary-General," S/1994/262, 4 March 1994.
155. Filelefteros (Nicosia), 26 July 1993.
156. For the functionalist approach, see David Mitrany, A Working Peace System, 4th ed. (London: National Peace Council, 1946), 14-18, 28, 34-35.
157. Ronald J. Fisher, "Conclusion: Paths Towards a Peaceful Cyprus," in Cyprus: A Regional Conflict, 253.