When News Norms Collide, Follow the Lead: New Evidence for Press Independence

Political Communication

Volumn 20, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 381-414

  Althaus, Scott L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA CHAMPAIGN   (United States)

Author keywords

Framing; Indexing hypothesis; Journalistic norms; News coverage; Persian Gulf crisis; Policy discourse; Press independence; Television news

Indexed keywords

EID: 0344062632     PISSN: 10584609     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10584600390244158     Document Type: Article

References (85)

1. Alexseev, M. A., & Bennett, W. L. (1995). For whom the gates open: News reporting and government source patterns in the United States, Great Britain, and Russia. Political Communication, 12, 395-412.
2. Althaus, S. L., Edy, J., Entman, R., Notany, H., Phalen, P., & Schneider, R. (1993). Framing the Libya crisis of 1986: The contest for context. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Kansas City, MO.
3. Althaus, S. L., Edy, J., Entman, R., & Phalen, P. (1996). Revising the indexing hypothesis: Officials, media, and the Libya crisis. Political Communication, 13, 407-421.
4. Althaus, S. L., Edy, J. A., & Phalen, P. F. (2001). Using substitutes for full-text news stories in content analysis: Which text is best? American Journal of Political Science, 45, 707-723.
5. Althaus, S. L., Edy, J. A., & Phalen, P. F. (2002). Using the Vanderbilt television abstracts to track broadcast news content: Possibilities and pitfalls. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 46, 473-492.
6. Baker, J. A. (1995). The politics of diplomacy: Revolution, war and peace, 1989-1992. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.
7. Barber, B. (1984). Strong democracy. Berkeley: University of California Press.
8. Beitz, C. R. (1989). Political equality: An essay in democratic theory. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
9. Bennett, W. L. (1990). Toward a theory of press-state relations in the United States. Journal of Communication, 40(2), 103-125.
10. Bennett, W. L. (1994). The news about foreign policy. In W. L. Bennett & D. L. Paletz (Eds.), Taken by storm: The media, public opinion, and U.S. foreign policy in the Gulf War (pp. 12-40). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
11. Bennett, W. L. (1996). An introduction to journalism norms and representations of politics. Political Communication, 13, 373-384.
12. Bennett, W. L. (2001). News: The politics of illusion (4th ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman.
13. Bennett, W. L., & Klockner, J. D. (1996). The psychology of mass-mediated publics. In A. N. Crigler (Ed.), The psychology of political communication (pp. 89-109). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
14. Bennett, W. L., & Lawrence, R. G. (1995). News icons and the mainstreaming of social change. Journal of Communication, 45(3), 20-39.
15. Bennett, W. L., & Manheim, J. (1993). Taking the public by storm: Information, cueing, and the democratic process in the Gulf conflict. Political Communication, 10, 331-352.
16. Bennett, W. L., & Paletz, D. L. (Eds.). (1994). Taken by storm: The media, public opinion, and U.S. foreign policy in the Gulf War. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
17. Blumler, J., & Gurevitch, M. (1995). The crisis of public communication. New York: Routledge.
18. Capella, J. N., & Jamieson, K. H. (1997). The spiral of cynicism: The press and the public good. New York: Oxford University Press.
19. Carruthers, S. L. (2000). The media at war: Communication and conflict in the twentieth century. New York: St. Martin's Press.
20. Chaiken, S. (1980). Heuristic versus systematic information processing and the use of source versus message cues in persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 752-766.
21. Chaiken, S., Liberman, A., & Eagly, A. H. (1989). Heuristic and systematic information processing within and beyond the persuasion context. In J. Uleman & J. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought (pp. 212-252). New York: Guilford Press.
22. Christiano, T. (1996). The rule of the many: Fundamental issues in democratic theory. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
23. Cohen, B. (1963). The press and foreign policy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
24. Commission on the Freedom of the Press. (1947). A free and responsible press. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
25. Cook, T. E. (1994). Domesticating a crisis: Washington newsbeats and the network news after the Iraq invasion of Kuwait. In W. L. Bennett & D. L. Paletz (Eds.), Taken by storm: The media, public opinion, and U.S. foreign policy in the Gulf War (pp. 105-130). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
26. Cook, T. E. (1996). Afterward: Political values and production values. Political Communication, 13, 469-481.
27. Cook, T. E. (1998). Governing with the news: The news media as a political institution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
28. Donohue, G. A., Ticherior, P. J., & Olien, C. N. (1995). A guard dog perspective on the role of media. Journal of Communication, 45(2), 115-132.
29. Dorman, W. A., & Livingston, S. (1994). News and historical content: The establishing phase of the Persian Gulf policy debate. In W. L. Bennett & D. L. Paletz (Eds.), Taken by storm: The media, public opinion, and U.S. foreign policy in the Gulf War (pp. 63-81). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
30. Eilders, C., & Lüter, A. (2000). Germany at war: Competing framing strategies in German public discourse. European Journal of Communication, 15, 415-428.
31. Entman, R. M. (1991). Framing U.S. coverage of international news: Contrasts in narratives of the KAL and Iran Air incidents. Journal of Communication, 41(4), 6-27.
32. Entman, R. M. (2003). Projections of power: Framing news, public opinion and U.S. foreign policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
33. Entman, R., & Page, B. (1994). The news before the storm: Limits to media autonomy in covering the Iraq war debate. In L. Bennett & D. Paletz (Eds.), Taken by storm: The media, public opinion, and U.S. foreign policy in the Gulf War (pp. 82-101). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
34. Epstein, E. (1973). News from nowhere. New York: Vintage.
35. Fallows, J. (1996). Breaking the news: How the media undermine American democracy. New York: Vintage Books.
36. Fico, F., & Soffin, S. (1995). Fairness and balance of selected newspaper coverage of controversial national, state, and local issues. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 72, 621-633.
37. Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (1991). Social cognition (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
38. Gamson, W. A., & Modigliani, A. (1989). Media discourse and public opinion on nuclear power: A constructionist approach. American Journal of Sociology, 95, 1-37.
39. Gans, H. (1979). Deciding what's news: A study of CBS Evening News, NBC Nightly News, Newsweek, and Time. New York: Pantheon.
40. Graber, D. A. (2002). Mass media and American politics (6th ed.). Washington, DC: CQ Press.
41. Granger, C. W. J. (1969). Investigating causal relations by econometric models and cross-spectral methods. Econometrica, 37, 424-438.
42. Greenberg, B. S., & Gantz, W. (Eds.). (1993). Desert Storm and the mass media. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
43. Gujarati, D. N. (1995). Basic econometrics (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
44. Gurevitch, M., & Blumler, J. G. (1990). Political communication systems and democratic values. In J. Lichtenberg (Ed.), Democracy and the mass media (pp. 269-287). New York: Cambridge University Press.
45. Hallin, D. (1986). The "uncensored war": The media and Vietnam. Berkeley: University of California Press.
46. Hallin, D. (1994). We keep America on top of the world: Television, journalism, and the public sphere. New York: Routledge.
47. Herman, E., & Chomsky, N. (1988). Manufacturing consent: The political economy of the mass media. New York: Pantheon Books.
48. Hertog, J. K. (2000). Elite press coverage of the 1986 U.S.-Libya conflict: A case study of tactical and strategic critique. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 77, 612-627.
49. Iyengar, S. (1991). Is anyone responsible? How television frames political issues. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
50. Kim, S. T. (2000). Making a difference: U.S. press coverage of the Kwangju and Tiananmen prodemocracy movements. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 77, 22-36.
51. Kirton, J. (1993). National mythology and media coverage: Mobilizing consent for Canada's war in the Gulf. Political Communication, 10, 425-441.
52. Lang, G. E., & Lang, K. (1994). The press as prologue: Media coverage of Saddam's Iraq, 1979-1990. In L. Bennett & D. Paletz (Eds.), Taken by storm: The media, public opinion, and U.S. foreign policy in the Gulf War (pp. 43-62). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
53. Lawrence, R. G. (1996). Accidents, icons, and indexing: The dynamics of news coverage of police use of force. Political Communication, 13, 437-454.
54. Lawrence, R. G. (2000). Game-framing the issues: Tracking the strategy frame in public policy news. Political Communication, 17, 93-114.
55. Lawrence, R. G. (2001). Defining events: Problem definition in the media arena. In R. P. Hart & B. H. Sparrow (Eds.), Politics, discourse, and American society (pp. 91-110). Lanham, MD: Routledge.
56. Lippmann, W. (1922). Public opinion. New York: Free Press.
57. Livingston, S., & Eachus, T. (1996). Indexing news after the Cold War: Reporting U.S. ties to Latin American paramilitary organizations. Political Communication, 13, 423-436.
58. Lupia, A. (2002). Deliberation disconnected: What it takes to improve civic competence, Law and Contemporary Problems, 65, 133-150.
59. Manheim, J. B. (1994). Strategic public diplomacy and American foreign policy: The evolution of influence. New York: Oxford University Press.
60. Mansbridge, J. J. (1983). Beyond adversary democracy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
61. Mansbridge, J. J. (1996). Rethinking representation. Unpublished manuscript.
62. Meiklejohn, A. (1960). Political freedom: The constitutional powers of the people. New York: Harper & Brothers.
63. Mermin, J. (1996). Conflict in the sphere of consensus? Critical reporting on the Panama invasion and the Gulf War. Political Communication, 13, 181-194.
64. Mermin, J. (1999). Debating war and peace: Media coverage of U.S. intervention in the post-Vietnam era. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
65. Molotch, H., & Lester, M. (1974). News as purposive behavior: On the strategic use of routine events, accidents, and scandals. American Sociological Review, 39, 101-112.
66. Nacos, B. L. (1990). The press, presidents, and crises. New York: Columbia University Press.
67. Nelson, T. E. (1999). Public rhetoric, policy goals, and political attitudes. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Atlanta, GA.
68. Nelson, T. E., Clawson, R. A., & Oxley, Z. M. (1997). Media framing of a civil liberties conflict and its effect on tolerance. American Political Science Review, 91, 567-583.
69. Page, B. (1978). Choices and echoes in presidential elections. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
70. Pan, Z., & Kosicki, G. M. (1993). Framing analysis: An approach to news discourse. Political Communication, 10, 55-75.
71. Patterson, T. (1980). The mass media election: How Americans choose their president. New York: Praeger.
72. Patterson, T. (1993). Out of order. New York: Knopf.
73. Peer, L., & Chestnut, B. (1995). Deciphering media independence: The Gulf War debate in television and newspaper news. Political Communication, 12, 81-95.
74. Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). Communication and persuasion: Central and peripheral routes to attitude change. New York: Springer-Verlag.
75. Petty, R. E., & Wegener, D. T. (1999). The elaboration likelihood model: Current status and controversies. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual-process theories in social psychology (pp. 41-72). New York: Guilford Press.
76. Schattschneider, E. E. (1960). The semisovereign people; A realist's view of democracy in America. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
77. Siebert, F. S., Peterson, T., & Schramm, W. (1956). Four theories of the press. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
78. Sigal, L. (1973). Reporters and officials: The organization and politics of newsmaking. Lexington, MA: Heath.
79. Sparrow, B. H. (1999). Uncertain guardians: The news media as a political institution. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
80. Taylor, P. M. (1998). War and the media: Propaganda and persuasion in the Gulf War (2nd ed.). New York: Manchester University Press.
81. Tuchman, G. (1972). Objectivity as strategic ritual: An examination of newsmen's notions of objectivity. American Journal of Sociology, 77, 660-679.
82. Tuchman, G. (1978). Making news: A study in the construction of reality. New York: Free Press.
83. Wolfsfeld, G. (1997). Media and political conflict: News from the Middle East. New York: Cambridge University Press.
84. Zaller, J. (1992). The nature and origins of mass opinion. New York: Cambridge University Press.
85. Zaller, J., & Chiu, D. (1996). Government's little helper: U.S. press coverage of foreign policy crises, 1945-1991. Political Communication, 13, 385-405.