Reforming the French welfare state: Solidarity, social exclusion and the three crises of citizenship

West European Politics

Volumn 23, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 47-64

  Béland, Daniel ^a   Hansen, Randall ^b  

^a ÉCOLE DES HAUTES ÉTUDES EN SCIENCES SOCIALES   (France)

^b QUEEN MARY UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CITIZENSHIP; REFORM PROCESS; SOCIAL POLICY; WELFARE PROVISION;

FRANCE;

EID: 0343963126     PISSN: 01402382     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01402380008425351     Document Type: Article

References (115)

1. The 'welfare state' is difficult to define. We use the term generally, to refer to the complex of programmes designed to ameliorate the condition of those who find themselves unable to participate in the labour market, because of sickness, unemployment or age.
2. N. Barr and J. Hills, The State of Welfare: The Welfare State in Britain since 1974 (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1990); D.S. King and J. Waldron, 'Citizenship, Social Provision and the Defence of Welfare Provision,' British Journal of Political Science 18 (1988) pp.415-43.
3. N. Barr and J. Hills, The State of Welfare: The Welfare State in Britain since 1974 (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1990); D.S. King and J. Waldron, 'Citizenship, Social Provision and the Defence of Welfare Provision,' British Journal of Political Science 18 (1988) pp.415-43.
4. Much of this work has drawn on the influential writings of T.H. Marshall, particularly a 1949 Cambridge lecture. See T.H. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class (London: Pluto 1992); M. Bulmer and A.M. Rees, Citizenship Today: The Contemporary Relevance of T.H. Marshall (London: UCL Press 1992); D. Harris, Justifying State Welfare: The New Right vs. The Old Left (Oxford: Basil Blackwell 1987); R. Lister, 'Women, Economic Dependency and Citizenship', Journal of Social Policy 19/4 (1990) pp.445-67, A. Rees, 'The Other T.H. Marshall', Journal of Social Policy 24/3 (1995) pp.341-62 and P. Taylor-Gooby and S. Lakeman, 'Back to the Future: Statutory Sick Pay, Citizenship and Social Class', Journal of Social Policy 17/1 (1988) pp.23-39. For a review of the citizenship literature, see A. Stewart, 'Two Conceptions of Citizenship', British Journal of Sociology 46/1 (1995) pp.63-78.
5. Much of this work has drawn on the influential writings of T.H. Marshall, particularly a 1949 Cambridge lecture. See T.H. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class (London: Pluto 1992); M. Bulmer and A.M. Rees, Citizenship Today: The Contemporary Relevance of T.H. Marshall (London: UCL Press 1992); D. Harris, Justifying State Welfare: The New Right vs. The Old Left (Oxford: Basil Blackwell 1987); R. Lister, 'Women, Economic Dependency and Citizenship', Journal of Social Policy 19/4 (1990) pp.445-67, A. Rees, 'The Other T.H. Marshall', Journal of Social Policy 24/3 (1995) pp.341-62 and P. Taylor-Gooby and S. Lakeman, 'Back to the Future: Statutory Sick Pay, Citizenship and Social Class', Journal of Social Policy 17/1 (1988) pp.23-39. For a review of the citizenship literature, see A. Stewart, 'Two Conceptions of Citizenship', British Journal of Sociology 46/1 (1995) pp.63-78.
6. Much of this work has drawn on the influential writings of T.H. Marshall, particularly a 1949 Cambridge lecture. See T.H. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class (London: Pluto 1992); M. Bulmer and A.M. Rees, Citizenship Today: The Contemporary Relevance of T.H. Marshall (London: UCL Press 1992); D. Harris, Justifying State Welfare: The New Right vs. The Old Left (Oxford: Basil Blackwell 1987); R. Lister, 'Women, Economic Dependency and Citizenship', Journal of Social Policy 19/4 (1990) pp.445-67, A. Rees, 'The Other T.H. Marshall', Journal of Social Policy 24/3 (1995) pp.341-62 and P. Taylor-Gooby and S. Lakeman, 'Back to the Future: Statutory Sick Pay, Citizenship and Social Class', Journal of Social Policy 17/1 (1988) pp.23-39. For a review of the citizenship literature, see A. Stewart, 'Two Conceptions of Citizenship', British Journal of Sociology 46/1 (1995) pp.63-78.
7. Much of this work has drawn on the influential writings of T.H. Marshall, particularly a 1949 Cambridge lecture. See T.H. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class (London: Pluto 1992); M. Bulmer and A.M. Rees, Citizenship Today: The Contemporary Relevance of T.H. Marshall (London: UCL Press 1992); D. Harris, Justifying State Welfare: The New Right vs. The Old Left (Oxford: Basil Blackwell 1987); R. Lister, 'Women, Economic Dependency and Citizenship', Journal of Social Policy 19/4 (1990) pp.445-67, A. Rees, 'The Other T.H. Marshall', Journal of Social Policy 24/3 (1995) pp.341-62 and P. Taylor-Gooby and S. Lakeman, 'Back to the Future: Statutory Sick Pay, Citizenship and Social Class', Journal of Social Policy 17/1 (1988) pp.23-39. For a review of the citizenship literature, see A. Stewart, 'Two Conceptions of Citizenship', British Journal of Sociology 46/1 (1995) pp.63-78.
8. Much of this work has drawn on the influential writings of T.H. Marshall, particularly a 1949 Cambridge lecture. See T.H. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class (London: Pluto 1992); M. Bulmer and A.M. Rees, Citizenship Today: The Contemporary Relevance of T.H. Marshall (London: UCL Press 1992); D. Harris, Justifying State Welfare: The New Right vs. The Old Left (Oxford: Basil Blackwell 1987); R. Lister, 'Women, Economic Dependency and Citizenship', Journal of Social Policy 19/4 (1990) pp.445-67, A. Rees, 'The Other T.H. Marshall', Journal of Social Policy 24/3 (1995) pp.341-62 and P. Taylor-Gooby and S. Lakeman, 'Back to the Future: Statutory Sick Pay, Citizenship and Social Class', Journal of Social Policy 17/1 (1988) pp.23-39. For a review of the citizenship literature, see A. Stewart, 'Two Conceptions of Citizenship', British Journal of Sociology 46/1 (1995) pp.63-78.
9. Much of this work has drawn on the influential writings of T.H. Marshall, particularly a 1949 Cambridge lecture. See T.H. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class (London: Pluto 1992); M. Bulmer and A.M. Rees, Citizenship Today: The Contemporary Relevance of T.H. Marshall (London: UCL Press 1992); D. Harris, Justifying State Welfare: The New Right vs. The Old Left (Oxford: Basil Blackwell 1987); R. Lister, 'Women, Economic Dependency and Citizenship', Journal of Social Policy 19/4 (1990) pp.445-67, A. Rees, 'The Other T.H. Marshall', Journal of Social Policy 24/3 (1995) pp.341-62 and P. Taylor-Gooby and S. Lakeman, 'Back to the Future: Statutory Sick Pay, Citizenship and Social Class', Journal of Social Policy 17/1 (1988) pp.23-39. For a review of the citizenship literature, see A. Stewart, 'Two Conceptions of Citizenship', British Journal of Sociology 46/1 (1995) pp.63-78.
10. Much of this work has drawn on the influential writings of T.H. Marshall, particularly a 1949 Cambridge lecture. See T.H. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class (London: Pluto 1992); M. Bulmer and A.M. Rees, Citizenship Today: The Contemporary Relevance of T.H. Marshall (London: UCL Press 1992); D. Harris, Justifying State Welfare: The New Right vs. The Old Left (Oxford: Basil Blackwell 1987); R. Lister, 'Women, Economic Dependency and Citizenship', Journal of Social Policy 19/4 (1990) pp.445-67, A. Rees, 'The Other T.H. Marshall', Journal of Social Policy 24/3 (1995) pp.341-62 and P. Taylor-Gooby and S. Lakeman, 'Back to the Future: Statutory Sick Pay, Citizenship and Social Class', Journal of Social Policy 17/1 (1988) pp.23-39. For a review of the citizenship literature, see A. Stewart, 'Two Conceptions of Citizenship', British Journal of Sociology 46/1 (1995) pp.63-78.
11. Use of the term 'welfare state' in France is inappropriate, as many of its main components (namely the insurance programmes) rests outside the state. We nonetheless retain the term for simplicity. This point was emphasised by Bruno Palier at a European Consortium for Political Research workshop on citizenship and the Welfare State, Bern, 27 Feb.-4 March 1997.
12. J. Hills, The State of Welfare: The Welfare State in Britain since 1974 (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1990); D.S. King and J. Waldron, 'Citizenship, Social Provision and the Defence of Welfare Provision,' in British Journal of Political Science 18 (1988) pp.416-17.
13. J. Hills, The State of Welfare: The Welfare State in Britain since 1974 (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1990); D.S. King and J. Waldron, 'Citizenship, Social Provision and the Defence of Welfare Provision,' in British Journal of Political Science 18 (1988) pp.416-17.
14. P. Rosanvallon 'Une droite sans idées' in Rosanvallon (ed.) Misère de l'économie (Paris: Seuil 1983).
15. To understand the FN, it is necessary to recall the role played by Gaullism in the French right. After the authoritarian right was discredited with the collapse of Vichy, Gaullism achieved a reconciliation of the republican ideal (support for democracy and social solidarity) with traditional nationalism. This partnership meant that the far right was marginalised until its reemergence on the political scene in the 1980s in the form of the Front National. see R. Raymond Les droites en France (Paris: Aubier Montaigne, 1982); J-F. Sirinelli, Histoire des droites en France (3 vols.) (Paris: Gallimard, 1992). For recent work on the Front National, see J-C. Cambadélis and E. Osmond, La France blafarde (Paris: Plon, 1988); and N. Mayer and P. Perrineau, Le Front National à Découvert (París: Presses de Sciences Po 1996).
16. To understand the FN, it is necessary to recall the role played by Gaullism in the French right. After the authoritarian right was discredited with the collapse of Vichy, Gaullism achieved a reconciliation of the republican ideal (support for democracy and social solidarity) with traditional nationalism. This partnership meant that the far right was marginalised until its reemergence on the political scene in the 1980s in the form of the Front National. see R. Raymond Les droites en France (Paris: Aubier Montaigne, 1982); J-F. Sirinelli, Histoire des droites en France (3 vols.) (Paris: Gallimard, 1992). For recent work on the Front National, see J-C. Cambadélis and E. Osmond, La France blafarde (Paris: Plon, 1988); and N. Mayer and P. Perrineau, Le Front National à Découvert (París: Presses de Sciences Po 1996).
17. To understand the FN, it is necessary to recall the role played by Gaullism in the French right. After the authoritarian right was discredited with the collapse of Vichy, Gaullism achieved a reconciliation of the republican ideal (support for democracy and social solidarity) with traditional nationalism. This partnership meant that the far right was marginalised until its reemergence on the political scene in the 1980s in the form of the Front National. see R. Raymond Les droites en France (Paris: Aubier Montaigne, 1982); J-F. Sirinelli, Histoire des droites en France (3 vols.) (Paris: Gallimard, 1992). For recent work on the Front National, see J-C. Cambadélis and E. Osmond, La France blafarde (Paris: Plon, 1988); and N. Mayer and P. Perrineau, Le Front National à Découvert (París: Presses de Sciences Po 1996).
18. To understand the FN, it is necessary to recall the role played by Gaullism in the French right. After the authoritarian right was discredited with the collapse of Vichy, Gaullism achieved a reconciliation of the republican ideal (support for democracy and social solidarity) with traditional nationalism. This partnership meant that the far right was marginalised until its reemergence on the political scene in the 1980s in the form of the Front National. see R. Raymond Les droites en France (Paris: Aubier Montaigne, 1982); J-F. Sirinelli, Histoire des droites en France (3 vols.) (Paris: Gallimard, 1992). For recent work on the Front National, see J-C. Cambadélis and E. Osmond, La France blafarde (Paris: Plon, 1988); and N. Mayer and P. Perrineau, Le Front National à Découvert (París: Presses de Sciences Po 1996).
19. Les régimes de sécurité sociale des professions indépendantes dans la campagne des élections à la présidence de la République de 1995. l'adresse aux candidats; les réponses par Edouard Balladur, Jacques Chirac, Robert Hue, Lionel Jospin, Jean-Marie Le Pen, Dominique Voynet (Document held at L'Institut d'Études Politiques de Paris).
20. Le Monde, 17-18 May 1998.
21. Le Monde, 11 Nov. 1998, p.10. The translation is R. Hansen's.
22. A. Madelin, 'Donnons à la France l'élan de la liberté' (Interview with Alain Madelin) Le Figaro, 24 May 1997, pp.30-32.
23. T.H. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class (London: Pluto 1992).
24. R. Waldinger et al., The French Revolution and the Meaning of Citizenship (NY: Greenwood Press 1993); M. Gentry, 1789-1795: l'apprentissage de la citoyenneté (Paris: Messidor 1996); Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison, Les citoyennetés en Révolution (1789-1794) (Paris: PUF 1992).
25. R. Waldinger et al., The French Revolution and the Meaning of Citizenship (NY: Greenwood Press 1993); M. Gentry, 1789-1795: l'apprentissage de la citoyenneté (Paris: Messidor 1996); Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison, Les citoyennetés en Révolution (1789-1794) (Paris: PUF 1992).
26. R. Waldinger et al., The French Revolution and the Meaning of Citizenship (NY: Greenwood Press 1993); M. Gentry, 1789-1795: l'apprentissage de la citoyenneté (Paris: Messidor 1996); Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison, Les citoyennetés en Révolution (1789-1794) (Paris: PUF 1992).
27. O. Le Cour Grandmaison (note 13) Chs.2; F. Hincker, 'La citoyenneté révolutionnaire saisie à travers ses exclus' in Nathalie Rabatel (ed.) Le citoyen fou (Paris: PUF 1991).
28. O. Le Cour Grandmaison (note 13) Chs.2; F. Hincker, 'La citoyenneté révolutionnaire saisie à travers ses exclus' in Nathalie Rabatel (ed.) Le citoyen fou (Paris: PUF 1991).
29. P. Riesenberg, Citizenship in the Western Tradition: Plato to Rousseau (Chapel Hill. NC, and London: UNC Press 1992) p.271.
30. Female suffrage was not contemplated at this point and, indeed, was not introduced in France until 1945.
31. J. Donzelot, L'invention du social (Paris: Seuil 1984).
32. E. Durkheim The Division of Labor in Society (Glencoe, IL: Free Press 1947) pp.74-80.
33. J. Hayward, 'The Official Social Philosophy of the French Third Republic: Léon Bourgeois and Solidarism', International Review of Social History 6 (1961) pp.19-48; Sudhir Hazareesingh, Political Traditions in Modern France (Oxford: OUP 1994) pp.88-9.
34. J. Hayward, 'The Official Social Philosophy of the French Third Republic: Léon Bourgeois and Solidarism', International Review of Social History 6 (1961) pp.19-48; Sudhir Hazareesingh, Political Traditions in Modern France (Oxford: OUP 1994) pp.88-9.
35. L. Bourgeois, La Solidarité (Paris: Arman Colin 1912) p.46.
36. It should be noted that Durkheim and Bourgeois were part of a larger movement commanding considerable support in the Third Republic. See Hayward (note 19) pp.19-48.
37. J. Milhau, Solidarité: L'Avenir d'un Héritage (Paris: Editions Sociales 1993).
38. J. Chevallier, 'La résurgence du thème de la solidarité', in J. Chevallier and D. Chocart (eds.) La Solidarité: un Sentiment Républicain? (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France 1992).
39. D.E. Ashford, Policy and Politics in France: Living with Uncertainty (Philadelphia: Temple UP 1982) pp.253-5; G. Bonoli and B. Palier, 'Reclaiming Welfare: The Politics of French Social Protection Reform', in ibid. pp.242-3.
40. D.E. Ashford, Policy and Politics in France: Living with Uncertainty (Philadelphia: Temple UP 1982) pp.253-5; G. Bonoli and B. Palier, 'Reclaiming Welfare: The Politics of French Social Protection Reform', in ibid. pp.242-3.
41. L. Hantrais, 'France: Squaring the Welfare Triangle' in V. George and P. Taylor-Gooby (eds.) European Welfare Policy: Squaring the Welfare Circle (Houndmills: Macmillan 1996) p.61.
42. G. Bonoli and B. Palier, 'From Work to Citizenship? Current Transformations in the French Welfare State', J. Bussemaker (ed.) Citizenship and Welfare State Reform in Europe (London: Routledge 1999) p.45.
43. J.J. Dupeyroux and X. Prétot, Droit de la Sécurité sociale (Paris: Dallox 1995) p.5.
44. D. Ashford, 'Advantages of Complexity: Social Insurance in France', J.S. Ambler (ed.) The French Welfare State: Surviving Social and Ideological Change (NY UP 1991) pp.37-41.
45. Bonoli and Palier (note 26) p.45.
46. Ibid. (note 26) pp.45-6.
47. D. Ashford, 'Advantages of Complexity: Social Insurance in France', Ambler The French Welfare State (note 28) p.25; J.J. Dupeyroux and X. Prétot (note 27).
48. D. Ashford, 'Advantages of Complexity: Social Insurance in France', Ambler The French Welfare State (note 28) p.25; J.J. Dupeyroux and X. Prétot (note 27).
49. Bonoli and Palier (note 26) p.242.
50. L. Hantrais, 'Comparing Family Policy in Britain, France and Germany', Journal of Social Policy 23/2 (1994) pp. 135-60, 149-51.
51. D. Ashford, 'Advantages of Complexity: Social Insurance in France', in Ambler, The French Welfare State (note 28) p.34; D. Ferrand-Bechman, 'Le Bénévolat comme modèle d'identité', in M. Thierry (ed.) Exclusion et solidarité: Comment repenser le lien social? (Paris: Fondation de l'Arche de la Fraternité 1993) p.243.
52. D. Ashford, 'Advantages of Complexity: Social Insurance in France', in Ambler, The French Welfare State (note 28) p.34; D. Ferrand-Bechman, 'Le Bénévolat comme modèle d'identité', in M. Thierry (ed.) Exclusion et solidarité: Comment repenser le lien social? (Paris: Fondation de l'Arche de la Fraternité 1993) p.243.
53. G. Bonoli and B. Palier, 'Reclaiming Welfare - the Politics of French Social Protection Reform', Journal of South European Politics and Society 1/3 (Winter 1996) p.243 of pp.240-59.
54. While health insurance covers essentially the entire population, it does not cover all expenditure: approximately 25 per cent of medical consumption costs are met through supplementary insurance schemes. In 1992, mutual aid societies financed 6.2 per cent of medical care costs, while private insurers paid 3 per cent. See D. Wilsford, 'Reforming French Health Care Policy', in J.T.S. Keeler and M.A. Schain, Chirac's Challenge: Liberalization, Europeanization and Malaise in France (Houndmills: Macmillan 1996) p.25.
55. R. F. Kuisel, 'French Post-War Economic Growth', in G. Ross, S. Hoffman and S. Malzacher (eds.) The Mitterrand Experiment: Continuity and Change in Modern France (Oxford: Polity Press, 1987).
56. 'Economic Indicators', Economist (London: 19 Dec. 1998-1 Jan. 1999).
57. G. Bonoli, 'Classifying Welfare States: a Two-Dimension Approach', Journal of Social Policy 26/3 (1997) pp.351-72, p.369; J. Reland, The Social Security Headache: The Necessary but Elusive Reform', in M. Cross and S. Perry (eds.) Population and Social Policy in France (London: Pinter 1997) p.172.
58. G. Bonoli, 'Classifying Welfare States: a Two-Dimension Approach', Journal of Social Policy 26/3 (1997) pp.351-72, p.369; J. Reland, The Social Security Headache: The Necessary but Elusive Reform', in M. Cross and S. Perry (eds.) Population and Social Policy in France (London: Pinter 1997) p.172.
59. Statistics on those without insurance are extremely difficult to find. I arrived at the above by adding those receiving the French minimum income (le Revenu Minimum d'Insertion, discussed below), and labour market programmes designed for those without insurance: les contrats emploi-solidarité, les contrats emplois consolidés and les contrast emplois ville (Fullerte: Annuaire des statistiques et sociales (Paris: SSESE 1997) p.310; Fullerte: Les contrats emploi-solidarité (CES 1997). les contrats emplois consolidés (CEC) et les contrats emplois ville (CEV) en 1996 (Paris: Da RES 1997) p.2). These statistics do not take into account those who, in response to the bleak employment situation, drop out of the labour market altogether. They should be construed as conservative estimates.
60. Statistics on those without insurance are extremely difficult to find. I arrived at the above by adding those receiving the French minimum income (le Revenu Minimum d'Insertion, discussed below), and labour market programmes designed for those without insurance: les contrats emploi-solidarité, les contrats emplois consolidés and les contrast emplois ville (Fullerte: Annuaire des statistiques et sociales (Paris: SSESE 1997) p.310; Fullerte: Les contrats emploi-solidarité (CES 1997). les contrats emplois consolidés (CEC) et les contrats emplois ville (CEV) en 1996 (Paris: Da RES 1997) p.2). These statistics do not take into account those who, in response to the bleak employment situation, drop out of the labour market altogether. They should be construed as conservative estimates.
61. Reland (note 39) p.171.
62. Wilsford in Keeler and Schain, Chirac's Challenge (note 36) p.252.
63. Le Monde, 21 Sept. 1998.
64. Le Monde, 21 Dec. 1998.
65. Reland (note 39) p.171.
66. P. Rosanvallon, La Nouvelle Question sociale: repenser L'Etat-providence (Paris: Seuil 1995) p.92.
67. J. Donzelot (ed.) Face à l'exclusion: Le modèle français (Paris: Editions Esprit 1991) p.19; A. Madec and N. Murard, Citoyenneté et Politiques Sociales (Paris: Flammarion 1995).
68. J. Donzelot (ed.) Face à l'exclusion: Le modèle français (Paris: Editions Esprit 1991) p.19; A. Madec and N. Murard, Citoyenneté et Politiques Sociales (Paris: Flammarion 1995).
69. J. Donzelot, 'L'Avenir du social', L'Esprit 219 (1996) pp.58-81, p.59.
70. O. Mongin, 'Le contrat social menacé?' Esprit 182 (1992) pp.5-11.
71. R. Hansen 'Against Social Solidarity and Citizenship: Justifying Welfare in Britain and France', in Bussemaker, Citizenship (note 26) p.34.
72. J.K. Galbraith, Poverty and Affluence (London: Penguin 1984); P. Townsend, Poverty in the United Kingdom (Harmondsworth: Penguin 1979).
73. J.K. Galbraith, Poverty and Affluence (London: Penguin 1984); P. Townsend, Poverty in the United Kingdom (Harmondsworth: Penguin 1979).
74. R. Lenoir, Les Exclus: un français sur dix (Paris: Seuil 1974).
75. J-B de Foucaud et Denis Piveteau, Une société en quête de sens (Paris: Editions Odile Jacob 1995) p.140. The literature on l'exclusion is immense. For a few representative examples, see P. Bourdieu (ed.) La misère du monde (Paris: Seuil 1993); J. Donzelot (ed.) Face à l'exclusion: Le modèle français (Paris: Editions Esprit 1991); G. Ferreol (ed.) Intégration et exclusion dans la société française contemporaine (Lille: Presses Universitaire de Lille 1993); P. Nasse, Exclus et exclusion (Paris: La Documentation française 1992); and M. Xiberras, Les théories de l'exclusion: pour une construction de l'imaginaire de la déviance (Paris: Méridiens Klincksieck 1993).
76. J-B de Foucaud et Denis Piveteau, Une société en quête de sens (Paris: Editions Odile Jacob 1995) p.140. The literature on l'exclusion is immense. For a few representative examples, see P. Bourdieu (ed.) La misère du monde (Paris: Seuil 1993); J. Donzelot (ed.) Face à l'exclusion: Le modèle français (Paris: Editions Esprit 1991); G. Ferreol (ed.) Intégration et exclusion dans la société française contemporaine (Lille: Presses Universitaire de Lille 1993); P. Nasse, Exclus et exclusion (Paris: La Documentation française 1992); and M. Xiberras, Les théories de l'exclusion: pour une construction de l'imaginaire de la déviance (Paris: Méridiens Klincksieck 1993).
77. J-B de Foucaud et Denis Piveteau, Une société en quête de sens (Paris: Editions Odile Jacob 1995) p.140. The literature on l'exclusion is immense. For a few representative examples, see P. Bourdieu (ed.) La misère du monde (Paris: Seuil 1993); J. Donzelot (ed.) Face à l'exclusion: Le modèle français (Paris: Editions Esprit 1991); G. Ferreol (ed.) Intégration et exclusion dans la société française contemporaine (Lille: Presses Universitaire de Lille 1993); P. Nasse, Exclus et exclusion (Paris: La Documentation française 1992); and M. Xiberras, Les théories de l'exclusion: pour une construction de l'imaginaire de la déviance (Paris: Méridiens Klincksieck 1993).
78. J-B de Foucaud et Denis Piveteau, Une société en quête de sens (Paris: Editions Odile Jacob 1995) p.140. The literature on l'exclusion is immense. For a few representative examples, see P. Bourdieu (ed.) La misère du monde (Paris: Seuil 1993); J. Donzelot (ed.) Face à l'exclusion: Le modèle français (Paris: Editions Esprit 1991); G. Ferreol (ed.) Intégration et exclusion dans la société française contemporaine (Lille: Presses Universitaire de Lille 1993); P. Nasse, Exclus et exclusion (Paris: La Documentation française 1992); and M. Xiberras, Les théories de l'exclusion: pour une construction de l'imaginaire de la déviance (Paris: Méridiens Klincksieck 1993).
79. J-B de Foucaud et Denis Piveteau, Une société en quête de sens (Paris: Editions Odile Jacob 1995) p.140. The literature on l'exclusion is immense. For a few representative examples, see P. Bourdieu (ed.) La misère du monde (Paris: Seuil 1993); J. Donzelot (ed.) Face à l'exclusion: Le modèle français (Paris: Editions Esprit 1991); G. Ferreol (ed.) Intégration et exclusion dans la société française contemporaine (Lille: Presses Universitaire de Lille 1993); P. Nasse, Exclus et exclusion (Paris: La Documentation française 1992); and M. Xiberras, Les théories de l'exclusion: pour une construction de l'imaginaire de la déviance (Paris: Méridiens Klincksieck 1993).
80. J-B de Foucaud et Denis Piveteau, Une société en quête de sens (Paris: Editions Odile Jacob 1995) p.140. The literature on l'exclusion is immense. For a few representative examples, see P. Bourdieu (ed.) La misère du monde (Paris: Seuil 1993); J. Donzelot (ed.) Face à l'exclusion: Le modèle français (Paris: Editions Esprit 1991); G. Ferreol (ed.) Intégration et exclusion dans la société française contemporaine (Lille: Presses Universitaire de Lille 1993); P. Nasse, Exclus et exclusion (Paris: La Documentation française 1992); and M. Xiberras, Les théories de l'exclusion: pour une construction de l'imaginaire de la déviance (Paris: Méridiens Klincksieck 1993).
81. D. Mothé, 'Les progrès de l'exclusion'. Esprit 169 (1991) pp.73-91.
82. R Castel, Les métamorphoses de la question sociale: une chronique du salariat (Paris: Fayard 1995) p.15.
83. P. Rosanvallon La Nouvelle Question sociale: repenser L'Etat-providence (Paris: Seuil 1995) p.88.
84. S. Paugam, La disqualification sociale (Paris: PUF 1991).
85. Bonoli and Palier (note 26) p.47.
86. Ibid.; P. Rosanvallon La Nouvelle Question sociale: repenser L'Etat-providence (Paris: Seuil 1995).
87. J. Donzelot and J. Roman, 'Le déplacement de la question sociale', in J. Donzelot (ed.) Face à l'exclusion: Le modèle français (Paris: Editions Esprit 1991) p.7.
88. In discussing the British model, we are treating it as an ideal type. In practice, all European welfare systems (including the British) have elements of tax-based and elements of insurance-based systems. The trend we are identifying is a shift away from the pursuit of an insurance-based system as an ideal to one incorporating a substantial role for tax-financed, universal programmes.
89. M. Autès, 'Pauvreté et RMI', Intégration et exclusion dans la société française contemporaine (Lille: Presses Universitaires de Lille 1993). RMI was the last in a series of programmes, all but one of which were established since 1970, designed to provide a minimum income to various groups: the minimum vieillesse, minimum invalidité and allocation aux adultes handicapés (AAH), for the old, invalid and handicapped ; the allocation de parent isolé (API) et allocation d'assurance-veuvage (for single parents and the aged, both established in the late 1970s) : the allocation de solidarité spécifique (ASS) (for the long-term unemployed); and the allocation d'insertion (principally for the young in search of their first job).
90. S. Paugam, 'Le revenu minimum d'insertion en France après six ans d'expérience, un bilan contrasté', Interventions economiques 27 (1996) pp.21-45, p.21.
91. Bonoli and Palier (note 26) p.51-2.
92. D. King, Actively Seeking Work? The Politics of Unemployment and Welfare Policy in the United States and Great Britain (U. of Chicago Press 1995); 'Shuffling the Pack', Economist, 10-16 Jan. 1997, p.28.
93. D. King, Actively Seeking Work? The Politics of Unemployment and Welfare Policy in the United States and Great Britain (U. of Chicago Press 1995); 'Shuffling the Pack', Economist, 10-16 Jan. 1997, p.28.
94. H. Parker, Instead of the Dole: An Enquiry into Integration of the Tax and Benefit Systems (London: Routledge 1989) pp.34-6. For a contrasting interpretation, see P. Rosanvallon, La Nouvelle Question sociale: repenser L'Etat-providence (Paris: Seuil 1995) p.45.
95. H. Parker, Instead of the Dole: An Enquiry into Integration of the Tax and Benefit Systems (London: Routledge 1989) pp.34-6. For a contrasting interpretation, see P. Rosanvallon, La Nouvelle Question sociale: repenser L'Etat-providence (Paris: Seuil 1995) p.45.
96. Le Monde, 6 May 1998.
97. Reland (note 39) p.175.
98. Ibid.
99. Bonoli and Palier (note 35) pp.240-59.
100. M. Dreyfus, 'Epilogue: May in December?' in M. Cross and S. Perry (eds.) Population and Social Policy in France (London: Pinter 1997) p.207.
101. Bonoli and Palier (note 35) p.256.
102. One of the areas in which the generally weak French unions (only 10 per cent of French workers are unionised) exercise influence is in administering the social insurance programmes. The most important unions in this respect are the Force Ouvrière, which controls the Caisses nationales d'assurance maladie (health insurance), and the Confédération Française et Démocratique du Travail, which controls the Caisses nationales d'assurance vieillesse (pensions). See J. Reland (note 39) pp. 175-6.
103. Wilsford (note 36) p.254.
104. Bonoli and Palier (note 26).
105. Le Monde, 3 July 1997.
106. Le Monde, 6 Nov. 1997. These developments are not viewed with equanimity by all French observers; for some, they represent the slow but inevitable undermining of French social security. See B. Friot, Puissance(s) du salariat: emploi et protection sociale à la française (Paris: La Dispute 1998).
107. Le Monde, 6 Nov. 1997. These developments are not viewed with equanimity by all French observers; for some, they represent the slow but inevitable undermining of French social security. See B. Friot, Puissance(s) du salariat: emploi et protection sociale à la française (Paris: La Dispute 1998).
108. Le Monde, 11 Nov. 1998.
109. In France, 'integration' largely concerns the participation of immigrants in the education system and the labour market. The French model of integration, traditionally founded on the immigrant's willingness to subsume cultural particularity under 'universal' republican values (particularly language), has been questioned by non-European immigration. On 'integration' from a republican perspective, see D. Schnapper, La France de l'intégration: sociologie de la nation en 1990 (Paris: Gallimard 1991). On the assimilation of immigrants, see G. Noiriel, Le creuset français: histoire de l'immigration, XIXe-XXe siècle (Paris: Seuil 1992) and P. Weil, La France el ses étrangers: l'aventure d'une politique de l'immigration de 1938 à nos jours (Paris: Gallimard 1995).
110. In France, 'integration' largely concerns the participation of immigrants in the education system and the labour market. The French model of integration, traditionally founded on the immigrant's willingness to subsume cultural particularity under 'universal' republican values (particularly language), has been questioned by non-European immigration. On 'integration' from a republican perspective, see D. Schnapper, La France de l'intégration: sociologie de la nation en 1990 (Paris: Gallimard 1991). On the assimilation of immigrants, see G. Noiriel, Le creuset français: histoire de l'immigration, XIXe-XXe siècle (Paris: Seuil 1992) and P. Weil, La France el ses étrangers: l'aventure d'une politique de l'immigration de 1938 à nos jours (Paris: Gallimard 1995).
111. In France, 'integration' largely concerns the participation of immigrants in the education system and the labour market. The French model of integration, traditionally founded on the immigrant's willingness to subsume cultural particularity under 'universal' republican values (particularly language), has been questioned by non-European immigration. On 'integration' from a republican perspective, see D. Schnapper, La France de l'intégration: sociologie de la nation en 1990 (Paris: Gallimard 1991). On the assimilation of immigrants, see G. Noiriel, Le creuset français: histoire de l'immigration, XIXe-XXe siècle (Paris: Seuil 1992) and P. Weil, La France el ses étrangers: l'aventure d'une politique de l'immigration de 1938 à nos jours (Paris: Gallimard 1995).
112. R. Debray, Que vive la République! (Paris: Odile Jacob 1989).
113. Raison présente, 'Le citoyen, l'Europe et le monde' (special issue) (1992).
114. The Front National loudly proclaims its attachment to the Republic, but its claim that non-white immigrants are incapable of assimilation runs counter to the republican belief that republican values are universally acquirable. For a 'citizenship critique' of the far right, see P. Breton and B. Reunaux, L'appel de Strasbourg: le réveil des démocraties (Strasbourg: La Nuée Bleue 1997).
115. In France, certain writers speak of citoyenneté d'entreprise, of citoyenneté culturelle, and so forth.